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ManagingMenandMachines:U.S.MilitaryOfficersandtheIntellectualOriginsof
ScientificManagementintheEarlyTwentiethCentury
By
Copyright2016DavidW.Holden
SubmittedtothegraduatedegreeprograminHistoryandtheGraduateFacultyofthe
UniversityofKansasinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy
________________________________ChairpersonJefferyMoran
________________________________
Co-ChairTedWilson
________________________________BethBailey
________________________________
JohnKuehn
________________________________PaulAtchley
DateDefended:February8,2016
ii
TheDissertationCommitteeforDavidHoldencertifiesthatthisisthe
approvedversionofthefollowingdissertation:
ManagingMenandMachines:U.S.MilitaryOfficersandtheIntellectualOriginsofScientificManagementintheEarly
TwentiethCentury
____________________________________________
ChairpersonJefferyMoran
Dateapproved:February8,2016
iii
Abstract
ManagingMenandMachines:U.S.MilitaryOfficersandtheIntellectualOriginsofScientificManagementintheEarlyTwentiethCentury.ByDavidHolden
ProfessorTheodoreA.Wilson,Advisor
TheU.S.Armyofficercorpsexperiencedanintellectualrevolutionfollowingtheexperience
ofWWIthatfundamentalalteredtherelationshipbetweenmanandmachinesinwar.Asa
result,officersfailedtodevelopthetechnologygeneandbegantothinkofwarasbeing
inherentlyquantitativelyandtechnologicalbased.Thisdissertationexaminesthe
relationshipbetweentechnologyandtheU.S.ArmyandNavyofficersspecificallybetween
1900-1925.Furthermore,thetreatiseaddressestheroleofFrederickTaylorandtherise
ofscientificmanagementwithintheU.S.ArmyandNavy.
iv
Acknowledgements
Inwritingthisdissertation,Ireceivedinvaluableassistanceandsupportfroma
numberofpeopleandorganizations.Withouttheirhelpandsupport,Iwouldhavenever
succeededinfinishingthistreatise,northecourseofinstructionattheUniversityof
Kansas.Forthesereasons,andmanymore,Ioffermysincereandutmostappreciationto
thefollowing:
First,IwillforeverbegratefultomylovelywifeSherri.Icouldnothavesucceeded
withouthersupport,caringforourfouryoungchildrenKayla(6),Noah(5),Jeremiah(3),
andIsaiah(2)throughoutmyarduousdaysofworkandresearch.Shegraciouslyendured
myisolatedhoursofreadingandtheendlessstreamofbooksthatarrivedonthedoorstep
fromAmazon.Thebookscontinuetoappearmysteriously.
IalsooweagreatdebttoDr.RogerSpiller,adivergentthinkerwhofiredthe
intellectualcuriositythatledmetomakethisjourney.Hechallengedmetobecomemore
thanIthoughtIwasencouragingmenottofearfailure.
Dr.JohnKuehnworkedtirelesslytoformmydisparatethoughtsintoacoherent
narrative.WithoutDr.Kuehn’senergythisdissertationwouldneverhaveseenthelightof
day.Hemanagedtoworkthroughhundredspagesofmyworkwhileworkingfulltimeasa
professoratCGSC.I’mnotentirelyconvincedthatheishuman.Heworksmoreefficiently
thananyothermanIknow.Dr.JonathanHouse’shonestandinsightfulsuggestionsonthe
manyversionshesurveyedalsocontributedsignificantlytothiswork.
v
AttheUniversityofKansas,Dr.TheodoreWilsonguidedmystudies.Heprovided
valuableeditingandcommentaryregardingthecontentofthispaperandnosmallamount
ofwordsmithing.Beyondthisdissertation,Dr.Wilsonwasinstrumentalinworkingwith
theU.S.ArmytoallowasmallcadreofwoundedsoldiersintotheprogramattheUniversity
ofKansas.ThankyouDr.Wilson,inthemostClausewitziansense,fortakingachanceon
us.
vi
TableofContents
PAGEAPPROVALPAGE…………………………………………………….………….……ii
ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………..………….…iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………….…………….…iv
CHAPTER
1.TheTechnologyGene…………………………..………………….………….…1
2.PracticalLeadershipforEmpire.…………………………….…………....40
3.OriginsandContextfortheArmy’sCulturalDNA……………….….57
4.JournalsandProfessionalization.…..……………………………….…….77
5.InroadsofEfficiency….…………………………………..…………….………97
6.FrederickTaylor,ScientificManagement,andtheU.S.Army
Armories………………………………..………………………………………118
7.TheArmybyNurture&theNavybyNature………………………..140
8.Conclusion:Historymatterednot,becauseitchangedso
much………………………………………………………………….……..…..180
1
ChapterI
TheTechnologyGene
TheU.S.Armytodayisthemostpowerfularmytheworldhaseverseen.Forthelast
fourteenyearsthisArmyhasconductedmilitaryoperationsagainstinsurgentsarmedwith
assaultweaponsandprimitiveexplosives.Severaltrilliondollarshavebeenexpendedto
fightthiswar.TheArmylost--theylosttoanidea.Thereasonisthattechnology,in
aggregate,producesaparticularmindset,azeitgeistthathinderstheArmyofficercorps
fromdevelopinganunderstandingofwar.Thisstudyexamineshowthefundamental
propertiesoftheEnlightenmentandRomanticismcontributedtotheformingoftheArmy
officermindsetandhowideasofhistory,time,andheroesevolved,andthenshifted,under
thelightoftechnology.Thematerialexaminedisdiffuse,andyetcompelling.Fewworks
existthatexaminetherelationshipbetweenmanandmachine.Thus,thethesisstartswith
abroadexaminationofideas,values,andbeliefsinordertodemarcatethelinesofinquiry
thatfollow.
ThethinkingoftheArmy’sofficercorpsaboutman’sroleinwarfareandthe
relationshipinwarbetweenmanandtechnologypassedthroughaturningpointduringthe
firstquarterofthetwentiethcentury.Thisturningpointsawthemachinesupplantman.
Thepurposeofthisstudyistoshowthenatureofthisturningpointandexplainhowthe
newideasaboutwar,man,andtechnologygainedtractionahundredyearsagoand
continuetoshapeU.S.militaryofficersthinkingtoday.Thisstudydoesthisbyfocusingon
themethodsofFrederickTaylorandhowheinfluencedtheU.S.military.Frederick
Taylor’sinfluenceinboththeArmyandtheNavywereexaminedindetail.Lettersfromthe
2
FrederickTaylorarchiveofferthebalanceofevidence.TheInfantryJournal
providesadditionalmaterialthroughthecriticalperiodofWWItoevaluatethechanging
viewsofArmyofficerstowardstechnology.Taylor’scorrespondencewithNavalofficers
demonstratesthatthisphenomenonwaspartofawiderculturalshiftwithinthemilitary,if
notwithinthenation.ItbecomesclearthattheexperienceontheWesternFrontinWWI
combinedwithmassiveindustrialgrowthacrosstheUnitedStateshadapronouncedeffect
onthezeitgeistoftheArmyofficercorps.
DuringtheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturyinEurope,theperiodknownasthe
Enlightenmentanditssuccessor,sometimescalledRomanticism,broughtabouttwoofthe
greatestintellectualshiftsinWesternhistory.Anothertitanicintellectualmovement,the
abandonmentofhistoricismforwhathasbeentermed“technicism,”beganwiththeFirst
WorldWar.Humankindoncereveredthepastforthelightitcastonthefuture;now,the
paceoftechnologicalchangeforeveralteredthatperception.Thisintellectualshiftswept
withgrowingmomentumandfervencythroughbureaucraticinstitutions.Thischanging
perspectiveespeciallyinfluencedtheU.S.Armyfromtheyearsjustpriorto1914untilit
reachedmaturityintheSecondWorldWar.Thegrowthoftechnicism,socialsciences,and
thegeneralquantificationandmeasurementofallthings,bothmaterialandotherwise,
encouragedthedisplacingofmanbymachine.Complexhumanproblemsappearedasa
matterofproperorganizationalandtechnologicalapplicationratherthanasconceptual
questions.
Warisfirstandforemostahumanendeavor.Motivationsinwarrunfromirrational
torational,butintheendthatseemstomatterlittle.Ideasarethecatalystsforwarandthe
passionsofthepeopleprovidethefuel.Thinkingaboutthenatureofwar,SunTsu(Sunzi)
3
mused,“…thoseunabletounderstandthedangersinherentinemployingtroopsare
equallyunabletounderstandtheadvantageouswaysofdoingso.”1Similarly,thoseunable
tounderstandthenatureofwarareequallyunabletounderstandtheadvantagesand
disadvantagesofemployingtechnology.ThestrategicapproachSunTzuadvocatedbegan
bylookingatasituationasaneaglepeeringdownfromtheheavens;technicalanalysis
oftenadvancesfromtheoppositedirectionbyslicinglifeintodiscreetsubsections,
categories,andclassifications,aprocessofmicrotomacro.
TheGreektermfortechnology(techne)includedbothartandtrade.2
Conceptualizationsofthetermprogressedslowlyuntiltheearlynineteenthcenturywhen
itenteredthelexiconinitsmorefamiliarmodernconnotations.However,notuntilthe
AmericanCivilWardidtheterm“technologist”comeintocommonparlance.3Onecan
followthesteadyprogressofthisconceptfromitshumblebeginningsasmenwho
practicedatradeandskilltomenwhospecializedintheinventionandoperationof
machines.4Theevolvingterminologycloselyparalleledadvancesinsociety.Technology
continuestoevolveanddefiesasingledefinition;themultiplicityofusesandthenatureof
technologyitselfnecessitateaflexibledefinition.Defineittoonarrowlyanditdoesnot
adequatelyincludeelementswithinitsprerogative,conversely,toobroadadefinition
wouldsubsumenearlyeverything.
LewisMumford,arguablythemostinsightfulobserverofthecomplexrelationship
betweenmanandtechnology,resistedaconcisedefinitionoftechne.Althoughhe
1SunTzu,TheArtofWar,trans.SamuelGriffith(OxfordUniversityPress,1963),73.2MiguelFlachAznar,TechnologyChallenged:UnderstandingOurCreations&ChoosingOurFuture(KnowledgeContext,2005),20.3FrederickC.Mish,ed.,Webster’sNinthNewCollegiateDictionary(Springfield,MA:Merriam-WebsterInc,1984),1211.4Ibid.
4
acknowledgedtheGreekdefinition,hestressedthattheGreeksmadenodivisionbetween
theideaofartandindustrialproduction.Mumfordobservedin“TechnicsandtheNatureof
Man”(1966)thatmodernmanemphasizedtheutilitarianaspectoftechnewhileeschewing
themoresignificantandprevalentfactorofartintheoriginalconceptionandpracticeof
techneinantiquityandpre-history.5
ThomasP.Hughes,authorofAmericanGenesis(2004),definedtechnologyas“the
efforttoorganizetheworldforproblemsolvingsothatgoodsandservicescanbeinvented,
developed,producedandused.”6BrianArthurinTheNatureofTechnology(2009)provided
threedefinitions,“…technologyisameanstofulfillahumanpurpose;…anassemblageof
practicesandcomponents;…[and]theentirecollectionofdevicesandengineering
practicesavailabletoaculture.”7Thefirstdefinition,forexample,couldconstituteacar
thatisatechnologyforthehumanpurposeoftransportation.Thesecond,an“assemblage
ofpractices,”alsoreferstotheinformationnecessarytouseanddevelopsuchtechnology.
Thethirdisthetraditional“mechanical”and“material”definitionoftechnology.
However,MiguelAznarapproachedtheissueinTechnologyChallenged(2005),
muchlikeClausewitz,seekingtodefinetheessenceofthesubjectandthusaddaninclusive
definition.Hewrotethat“technologyextendstheabilitiesofman,”aruggeddefinitionthat
bearsthemanyfacetsoftechnologyfromfiretoinformation.8Similarly,inSocietyand
TechnologicalChange(2006)RudiVoltidefinedtechnologyas“…asystemthatuses
5LewisMumford,“TechnicsandtheNatureofMan,”TechnologyandCulture7,no.3(July1966):309.6ThomasP.Hughes,AmericanGenesis:ACenturyofInventionandTechnologicalEnthusiasm,1870-1970(UniversityofChicagoPress,2004),6.7W.BrianArthur,TheNatureofTechnology:WhatItIsandHowItEvolves(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2009),28.8Aznar,TechnologyChallenged,17.
5
knowledgeandorganizationtoproduceobjectsandtechniquesforattainmentofspecific
goals.”9
FollowingtheCivilWar,thetechnologicalprofessionsdevelopedalongmore
rigorouslinesasthefieldadvanced.Bytheturnofthetwentiethcenturythetechnological
community,atleaststructurally,haddevelopedintoa“Mirror-ImageTwin”ofscience.
However,wherescienceawardedthehighestdegreeofprestige“tothemostabstractand
general…inthetechnologicalcommunityitwenttothedesignerorbuilder…scientistseek
toknow,technologisttodo.”10Thus,ascientistsoughttounderstandwhileatechnologist
aimedforpracticalapplication.
Duringthe19thCentury,mostU.S.Armyofficersfailedtodevelopthe“technology
gene”,definedasanunderstandingofthelimitsoftechnology.Theliteraturethatbears
directlyonthissubjectissparseandoftentangentialinnature.However,theproximate
informationprovidesawealthofinformationthatilluminatesthebroadoutlines,allowing
onetoexaminetheprocessthatledtothisdeficiency.Thisliteratureisdividesintothree
separatethemesconstitutingatriumvirateargumentalongphilosophical,intellectual,and
historicallines.FirstwasthedevelopmentofideaswithinWesternsocietyandtheUS
Army,regardingspecificallyhowtheperceptionofhistoryevolved;secondcamethenature
oftechnologyanditsreciprocalrelationshipwithAmericanculture;lastwasthe
intellectualdevelopmentoftheUSArmyofficercorps.
Failurealmostalwayshassystemicexplanationsandinnaturerarelyistherea
singularcause.ThefailureoftheUSArmy,andspecifically,theofficercorpstodevelopthe
9RudiVolti,SocietyandTechnologicalChange(Macmillan,2005),6.10EdwinLayton,“Mirror-ImageTwins:TheCommunitiesofScienceandTechnologyin19th-CenturyAmerica,”TechnologyandCulture12,no.4(1971):576.
6
technologygenewasnottheconsequenceofanysingleactionorinaction.Itwouldappear
tobeone-thirdnatureandtwo-thirdsnurture:inheritanceimpartedaparticularmindset,
theenvironment,includinggeographycolludedtoprovidestructure,andideasaboutthe
natureofwaranimatedthegene-deficientcolossus.Historically,AmericanArmyofficers
havegenerallydemonstratedonlypassinginterestinmilitaryhistory,andhaveputagreat
dealmorefaithinthematerialtoolsofwar.11
ThisdissertationdrawsonvariousapproachesthatinfusedthecharacteroftheUS
ArmyofficercorpsandthevariouselementsthatamalgamatedintoanAmericanWayof
War.Iftheofficercorpsconstitutedapatient,itwouldbedifficulttoremoveanyofthe
vitalorganswithoutflat-liningthatpatient,norcouldonehopetodemonstrate,by
examiningtheorgansinisolation,whytheembryonictechnologygenedevelopedas
incompletelyasitdid.Likeaphysicianonemustunderstandhoweachaffectstheother-
contextuallyandhistorically.ThetypicalAmerican,likehisEuropeancounterpart,shares
certainphilosophicalmindsetsthatunderpinWesterncivilization.Time,progress,and
historyareideasthatareinterwovenandinterdependent,buttheyrequiretwopoints,
suchasthoseonamapthatallowonetotracethejourney.Inthestorybeingtoldherethe
traveleronthisjourneyistheofficercorps.
NiccolòMachiavelli(1469-1527)marksthestartpointforthisjourney.Secularand
ChristianvaluesdivergedinMachiavelli’smind.HewroteThePrincein1513,and
observedthepoliticalandmoralsphereswhiledemonstratingakeenperceptionofhuman
motivations.Machiavellibrokewithlongstandingtheologicalconceptsofhistory.12Time
11ColinS.Gray,IrregularEnemiesandtheEssenceofStrategy:CantheAmericanWayofWarAdapt?(Lulu.com,2006),32.12NiccolòMachiavelli,ThePrince(UniversityofChicagoPress,1998).
7
nolongerrepresentedacountdowntothereturnofChrist,butinsteadaprogression
towardapositiveifundefinedfuture.Thus,Machiavelliandlike-mindedthinkers
rationalizedpoliticsandgovernance.MoralitywasnolongerboundtotheChristianor
Socratictraditionbutinsteadassumedthemantleofwhatonedaywouldbecalled
Realpolitik.
Machiavellihadnoqualmswiththemotivationsofman,andtookthemforwhat
theywereratherthanforwhattheycouldbecome,orshouldbeintheAristotelianor
theologicalviewofself-actualization.Asformorality,Machiavelliobservedthatvaluesare
constitutedandjustifiedintheends.HismisgivingswerenotwithChristianvalues
themselves,butwiththeonesthathevalued,whichinthisearthlyparadisewerenotthose
ofheaven.Rationalizedgovernance,thegrowthofscience,andpropagationofknowledge,
abettedbytheprintingpress,aggravatedandenlargedthebreachbetweensecularrulers
andthechurch.However,withthisincreasedfreedomofthoughtcametheknowledgethat
therewerebetterways,entirelyun-divine,andyeteffective,ofearthlymodesofgoverning.
MachiavellisetmanonapaththatdivergedfromGodtowardsthatwhichmancould
control;thus,theintellectualpathclearedandallowedfortheprogressiveideasoflater
mentopropagate.OnehundredyearslaterDescartesfollowedinthepathblazedby
Machiavelli.
In1637,RenéDescartes(1596-1650)wroteADiscourseonMethod,buildingupon
therationalstructureerectedontheashesoftheologybyFrancisBacon’s(1561-1626)
scienceandMachiavelli’sutilitarianism.TheknowledgeoftheGreeks,oftheancients,could
onlysupporttheascensionofmansofar,andasachildmust“putawayhischildishways”
8
ashebecomesaman,sonowmankind,asaspecies,mustabandonhissimpleways.13
Descartesdiscoveredinmathematicsanorderandsymmetrythathefoundinvigorating:
Thelongchainsofsimpleandeasyreasoningbymeansofwhichgeometersareaccustomedtoreachtheconclusionsoftheirmostdifficultdemonstrations,hadledmetoimaginethatallthings,totheknowledgeofwhichmaniscompetent,aremutuallyconnectedinthesameway,andthatthereisnothingsofarremovedfromusastobebeyondourreach,orsohiddenthatwecannotdiscoverit,providedonlyweabstainfromacceptingthefalseforthetrue,andalwayspreserveinourthoughtstheordernecessaryforthedeductionofonetruthfromanother.14
Descartesbelievedthatmathematicscoulduncoverandtesttruth,thatthroughthe
useofmathematicsonecoulddiscoverthehiddenlinksthatconnectedeverythinginthe
universe.Thisconstitutedthekeythatrevealedwhereeachpieceofthepuzzlefit.Thus,
celestialelementsweretransposedintomathematicalones.Itwasnolongerthroughfaith
butthroughscienceandmathematics,thelightofDescartes,thatonewasabletodeduce
theinterconnectednessandtruthofthisworld.
Descartesapproachedproblemsfromthespecifictothegeneral(inductive),a
simpleandprofoundreversalofthenorm,whichallowedhimtobreakproblemsintotheir
divisibleparts.IfonebelievedinthegreatchainofbeingwithGodatthetop,thenone
reasonedtheconnectednessoflifefromthatlight,fromthetopdown.Thiswasnotthecase
forDescartes,andhisapproachfurnishedanintellectualperspectivethatrendereda
mechanisticviewoftheworldandopenedupthewayforadeeperunderstandingof
technologicaldevelopment.AntonioDamasioinDescartes’Error:Emotion,Reason,andthe
HumanBrain(2005)arguedthatsuchaperspectiveledDescartestobelievethatemotion
inhibitedreason,althoughcurrentneuroscience,accordingtoDamasio,indicatesthat
13ThomasNelson,HolyBible,NewKingJamesVersion(NKJV)(Nashville,TN:ThomasNelsonInc,2009),chap.1Corinthians13:11.14ReneDescartes,ADiscourseonMethod,ed.ErnestRhys,trans.JohnVeitch(NewYork:J.M.Dent&Sons,1916),16.
9
emotion,despiteflaws,iscrucialtoreasoning.15Nevertheless,Descartesassumedthe
worldfunctionedasagreatmachinethatcouldbeunderstoodifbrokendownintoits
divisibleparts,andifonecouldunderstandtheparts,thenonecouldreassembleand
understandthewhole.16TheseedsfortheEnlightenmentdevelopedinthefertileground
ofaCartesian-influencedintellectualtraditioninEuropeandwithinacenturytheideas
thereinreshapedthe[mindoftheWest].
Theemergenceofmodernscienceinthesixteenthcenturyformedfissuresinthe
intellectualfoundationofEurope,andaccordingtoHansEichnerinTheRiseofModern
ScienceandtheGenesisofRomanticism(1982),therapidandradicaldeparturesfrom
traditionalGreekandtheologicalconceptsusheredinanewunderstandingofthecosmos
andmans’placewithinit.NicholasCopernicusandJohannesKeplerrevolutionized
astronomy,IssacNewtonandGalileotransformedideasonplanetarymotion.The
propagationoftechnologicalmachines,includingtheclockandtelescope,beganto
produce,initiallyslowly,andthenwithincreasingspeedandauthority,thebeliefthat
worldfunctionedbymechanicalandmathematicallydeduciblelaws.Eichnernotedthatin
thisbeliefthatsomethingexceptionalandunprecedentedoccurredin“Westernthought”
between1500and1800.17
TheintellectualhistorianArthurO.LovejoyobservedthattheobjectiveofWestern
manwasa“…longefforttomaketheworldhelivesinappeartohisintellectarational
one.”18U.S.Armyofficersfindsuchanapproachparticularlyattractivesincetheworldthey
15AnthonyDamasio,Descartes’Error:Emotion,Reason,andtheHumanBrain(Penguin,2005),xii.16Descartes,ADiscourseonMethod,16.17HansEichner,“TheRiseofModernScienceandtheGenesisofRomanticism,”PublicationsoftheModernLanguageAssociationofAmerica,1982,8.18ArthurO.Lovejoy,TheGreatChainofBeing:AStudyoftheHistoryofanIdea(HarvardUniversityPress,2009),47.
10
inhabitisoneofchaos.Technologyprovidedofficersthetoolstolimitandminimizethe
unpredictabilityoftheirworld.Nevertheless,somemilitaryofficersintheearlynineteenth
centurythoughtthesolutionsresidedinamoreintrospectiveprocess.
Bildung,awordofGermanorigin,isbesttranslatedas“self-education.”Accordingto
ReinhartKoselleck,ithasatheologicalrootingimplyinga“transformationandrebirth,”a
salvationfromtheoldignorantselftotheenlightenedthroughself-reflection.19This
conceptisfoundationaltotheideaofmilitaryeducation,thecultivationanddevelopment
ofthemind.CharlesWhiteinTheEnlightenedSoldier(1989)foundthatwithinEuropetwo
broadconceptsofwaremerged.GerhardvonScharnhorst(1755-1813),aPrussianofficer,
facilitatedtheinculcationofBildungintomilitaryofficereducationtolaythefoundations
foroneofthemosteffectivemilitaryorganizations(somewouldsaycultures)theworld
haseverseen,thegeneralstaff.20Thisfertilegroundgavebirthtooneofthegreatest
militaryintellects,thatofCarlvonClausewitz.WhitearguedthatScharnhorstdiverged
fromthatwhichwascommoninofficereducationinEuropein1801byfocusinglessonthe
technicalandtechnologicalaspectsofwarfare.“Inthisregard,onlyPrussiaappearedtobe
awareofthebroaderscopeofwarfare.”21NapoleoncastashadowoverFrenchmilitary
thoughtandovertheAmericanofficercorps,andthus,bothdevelopedalongadifferent
pathfromthatofPrussia,placingafargreateremphasisonthecommanderand
engineeringexpertise.
19ReinhartKoselleck,ThePracticeofConceptualHistory:TimingHistory,SpacingConcepts(StanfordUniversityPress,2002),176–177.20CharlesEdwardWhite,TheEnlightenedSoldier:ScharnhorstandtheMilitärischeGesellschaftinBerlin,1801-1805,Kindle(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPublishingGroup,1989).21Ibid.,187.
11
Clausewitz’theoryofwarinOnWarcomprised“threetendencies…deeprootedin
theirsubjectandyetvariableintheirrelationshiptooneanother.”22Passion,reason,and
chancecomprisetheClausewitzian”trinity”ofwar.Thefirsttwoelementsareproductsof
thehumanmindandthelatterstandsindependentofman.Clausewitzbelievedthat
judgment,thedevelopingofintuition,andinsightformedthecornerstones,forwhichthere
isnosubstitute.23
Unlikeotherofficersofhistime,Clausewitzremainedreticent,evenhostile,tothose
thatchampionedtheviewthatwarcouldbebothcontrolledandmathematicallyreduced.
Clausewitzwasnotunawareofscientificdevelopments,andusedscientifictermssuchas
friction,magnetic,centerofgravity,andpolarityandtohelphimconceptuallyexplainhis
ideas.However,hisunderstandingofmanandwarwerebynomeansboundtoscience
theymerelyservedasconvenientwaystoconveytheconcepts.Theconceptofwar,similar
totechnology,requiredanuanceddefinition.Clausewitzsettledonthreeexplanationsto
conveytheconcept.Thefirstwas“warisnothingbutaduelonalargerscale”;second
asserted“waristhusanactofforcetocompelourenemytodoourwill”;thirdwas“war,
however,isnotheactionofalivingforceuponalifelessmass(totalnonresistancewould
benowaratall)butalwaysthecollisionoftwolivingforces.”24Takentogether,these
descriptionsprovideacontextualfoundationforunderstandingthenatureofwar.
Clausewitzlivedataturningpointinhistory.Warandthestudyoforganized
conflictcontributedtoanemergingprofessionalizationofthemilitaryinstitutionsofthe
era.SpreadbyFrencharms,nationalismignitedthroughoutEuropeandpowerfulideasof
22CarlvonClausewitz,OnWar(PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),89.23Ibid.,141,578.24Ibid.,75,77.
12
humanagencymotivatedindividualsandgroupstoachievenewheights.Humanist
philosopherIsaiahBerlinarguedthatsomethingprofoundtookholdoftheGermanicmind
between1760and1830anddiffusedfromthere.25Clausewitz,Prussianbybirth,lived,
fought,andwrotebetween1780and1831.Lovejoynoted,“itisoneoftheinstructive
ironiesofthehistoryofideasthataprincipleintroducedbyonegenerationintheserviceof
atendencyorphilosophicmoodcongenialtoitoftenprovestocontain,unsuspected,the
germofacontrarytendency-tobe,byvirtueofitshiddenimplications,thedestroyerof
thatZeitgeisttowhichitwasmeantominister.”26
TherearefewmorepowerfulexamplesofthisthantheRomanticMovement.This
movementrevoltedagainstthesubjugationoftheEnlightenment–thetyrannyofreason--
andproducedawhollynewconcept,onenolongerbasedentirelyontheobjective,the
ends,theresult,butonethatinsteadconsideredandvaluedintentandmotive.27Awarof
ideasproducedanentirelynewunderstandingoflifeandreality,awayofthinkingthat
untilthatmomentlaydormantwithinthemindofman.Certainlythesemovements
representtwoofthemostprofoundintellectualshiftsinhistory.Notably,however,there
wouldoccurathirdtransformationalparadigm.
Ideasareartifactsofthetimeandplacefromwhichtheyoriginate.Infusedwithlife
(becausetheyarehumancreations,)someevolvewhileothers,liketheculturesthey
represent,recedeintotheabyssoftime.Regardless,ideasarenotstatic;theyabut,
subsume,fuse,contradict,compliment,andproduceotherideas.Notallideasthatmen
choosetolivebyareequal,noraretheyallrelative.Theyrepresenthumanvalues;oneis
25IsaiahBerlin,TheRootsofRomanticism(PrincetonUniversityPress,2001),12.26Lovejoy,TheGreatChainofBeing,289.27Berlin,TheRootsofRomanticism,10–12.
13
definedbythevaluesthatanimateonetoact,thatareratifiednotonlyinthemind,butalso
intheheart;productsofone’stime,visibleandreflectedintheconsummatebeliefsofthe
individual,orcollectivelyinorganizationsandnations,theyarenonethelesslimitedbythe
lightoftheirage.
Onemaymeasuremenandwomenbytheirideas,culturesbytheircreationsand
statesbytheiractions.Collectively,somevaluepeace,otherstrade,andstillothers,
violence.Somerisetoempires,butothers,likeAthens,areconsumedintheprocess.Yet,
twomillenniahavenoteffacedThucydides’observationthathumanbeingsaremotivated
bygreed,honor,andfear.28Theseideas,thoughdistinct,oftenamalgamatetogovernand
defineactions.
Onecanunderstand,asGiambattistaVicoclaims,thatitispossibletolive,through
imagination,intheshadowsofanothercivilization;toknow,albeitimperfectly,whatitwas
tobeSpartan,tovaluewhattheyvalued,toperceivethroughPeloponnesianeyes,tohate
theAthenians.29Therearelimits,ofcourse,andthoughonecouldunderstand,onecould
notlivebytheircreed,forone’smindhasbeenshapedbythisworld.Yet,ifhistoryisnota
progression,ashiftfromimperfectiontoperfection,fromdisordertoorder,itis
nonethelessaccumulative.
Theideasofgrandfathershapedfather,andfatherson,andtheseideasaccumulate,
oneuponanother,toeventuallyproduce,toborrowfromThomasKuhn,aparadigmshift.30
Formillenniaonecouldpluckatravelerfromoneageandanachronisticallyplacehim
28RobertB.Strassler,TheLandmarkThucydides(SimonandSchuster,2008),43.Greedissometimestranslatedat“interest”or“profit.”29GiambattistaVico,NewScience(UnitedKingdom:PenguinBooks,1999),xii,xxii.30ThomasS.Kuhn,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions:50thAnniversaryEdition(UniversityofChicagoPress,2012).
14
hundredsofyearsintothefuturewiththeexpectationthatthetravelercouldfunction.Past
andpresent,thoughseparatedchronologicallybythousandsofyears,resembledeachother
morethannot.However,[theWesternmind]haschangedoverthelast300years,though
notattheneurologicallevel(whichwouldrequireatimescalevastlylongerthanisat
questionhere).Thischangeistheproductofnewideas,waysofthinking,andexisting.
TheEnlightenmentsweptthroughEuropeintheeighteenthcenturytransforming
howpeopleperceivedtheworldastraditionalandtheologicaldogmagavewaytoscientific
explanations.Empiricalevidenceandreasonbecamethecommoncurrency.Man,nolonger
dependentonGodforrevelation,coulddiscovertruthforhimself,throughhisown
observations.Gradually,butwithincreasingspeedandfrequency,onlycorporealthings
counted.Thereissomethingwithinman,inhisdeepestbeing,wherewordscannot
accuratelyorjustlythroughanylexiconpossiblyquantifytheessencethereof.Inthatplace
asparkignited,byandagainsttheEnlightenment,andfuryensuedoverEuropeaswhen
twoweatherfrontsoppositelychargedcollide.Thereafter,thesetwointellectual
movementsdefinedWesternthoughtforthenextthreehundredyears.31
FormillenniathelogicofPlato,Socrates,andChrist(asarticulatedbySt.Augustine)
guidedmen’smindstowardtruth.Thatsomewhere,someplace,somehow-through
enoughperseverance,discipline,andsacrificeonecoulddiscoverthecombinationtolife
thatwouldlaybarethesecretshiddenbythegods.Berlinclarifiedhispointthroughan
analogy.Asoldier,priortotheperiodinquestion,foughtfortruthasitappliedtoloyaltyto
hismonarch,prince,orfeudallord—theonlyrealtrueandauthenticGodwhosewillthe
lordpresumablyexecuted(i.e.thedivinerightofkings).Regardlessofwhoone’senemy
31IsaiahBerlinandHenryHardy,TheSenseofReality:StudiesinIdeasandTheirHistory(Macmillan,1998).
15
mayhavebeen,andwhateveronebelievedin,anenemysoldierdiedapointlessdeath
becausehefoughtforfalsetruthsanddeadgods(orfalseones,thusidentifyingenemiesas
heretics)32.Courage,accordingtoBerlin,remainedauniversallyrespectedattribute,but
howevercourageoustheenemysoldier,onedidnotreasonthathediedforanequallyvalid
truth,orevenforhisprinciples.Rather,oneadmiredhiscourageandpitiedthewasteof
suchtalentinsupportoffalseideas.However,“bythe1820syoufindanoutlookinwhich
thestateofmind,themotive,ismoreimportantthantheconsequence,theintentionis
moreimportantthantheeffect.”33Thus,fightingforone’sbeliefs,one’sprinciples,being
truetooneself,regardlessofwhatthosebeliefsconstituted,becamethemeasurementby
whichonewasdefined.Thisradicalintellectualdeparturerepresentedademarcation,
wherebyanindividualahundredyearspriortobeingtransportedto1820wouldhave
experiencedtremendouscognitivedissonance.
Overthevastexpanseofrecordedhumanhistorystretchingoverthelastfour
thousandyears,changefromonegenerationtothenextremainednearlyundetectable.
Father,son,andlaterprogenyallusedthesamewaterholes,hunted,fishedandlater
farmedinfamiliarlands.Toolsofthetrade,likewise,evolvedlittleovergenerations.Skills
andknowledgewerepassedfromonegenerationtothenextthroughoraltraditionsthis
constitutedthebedrockofhumanknowledge.Theveryideaofprogresswasalmostwholly
unknown.Measurablechange,thatis,changewithinthelifetimeofoneindividual,
appearedonlygraduallyinthefifteenthcentury.OnlywiththeIndustrialRevolutionwas
theperceptionoftime,forthefirsttime,emancipatedfromchainsofhumanendurance.
Labor,travel,andcommunicationwerenolongermeasuredinthecapabilityofsinewand32Berlin,TheRootsofRomanticism,9,10.33Ibid.,10.
16
blood,butofwheels,belts,andengines—andmeasuredwithtimepiecemachinesof
incredibleaccuracyandconsistency.ThesetimepieceseventuallyallowedtheEuropeans
toconquertheoceansaswellastime.34
Psychiatrist-NeurologistIainMcGilchristinMasterandhisEmissary:TheDivided
BrainandtheMakingoftheWesternWorld(2012)contendsthatthe“bihemispheric
structureofthebrain…‘renders’…twofundamentallyopposedrealities,twodifferent
modesofexperience….”35Thisaffectsnotjusthowonethinksabouttheworld,butindeed
howoneexperiencestheworld.McGilchristpointsoutthatthenothingisentirely
producedinonehemisphereortheother,butthatthetwoperceivetheworldinstarkly
differentterms.36Furthermore,McGilchrist’sprimarycontention,whichisimportantforits
relationshiptotechnology,isthattheWesternworldoverthelastfewhundredyearshas
favoredthedisposition(andprocessing)ofthelefthemisphere.37
Thelefthemisphereattendstothepartsratherthanthewholeandisresponsible
forfocusedattentionandanalysisonexaminingdetail.Itpreferstheinanimatetothe
animateandappearstotreatthingsastools,asmeanstoanend.Thegaininganduseof
power,theutilityofallobjects,actingonwhatitknows,andapreferenceforthe
mechanicalarealltraitsassociatedwiththelefthemisphere.38Muchoftheknowledge
gainedinrespecttothehemispherecomesfromresearchofpatientsthathaveexperienced
variouslevelsofleftorrightbraindamage,aswellasfromsophisticatedbrainimaging
technology.34DavaSobel,Longitude:TheTrueStoryofaLoneGeniusWhoSolvedtheGreatestScientificProblemofHisTime(BloomsburyPublishingUSA,2010).35IainMcGilchrist,TheMasterandHisEmissary:TheDividedBrainandtheMakingoftheWesternWorld(YaleUniversityPress,2012),3.36Ibid.,34.37Ibid.,6.38Ibid.,10,39,40,55,208,209.
17
Bycontrast,ifMcGilchristiscorrect,therighthemisphereprefersandistheprimary
mediatorofnewexperiences.Emotion,theabilitytoexperienceempathy,theabilityto
respondwithflexibleattention,difficultorcomplexpredictions,patternrecognitionanda
preferenceforthelivingareallcommonattributesoftherighthemisphere.Furthermore,
theoryofmind(theabilitytounderstandwhatothersmightbethinking)andasenseofthe
pastarebothcenteredintherighthemisphere.“Inhumans,justasinanimalsandbirds,it
turnsoutthateachhemisphereattendstotheworldinadifferentway…theright
hemisphereunderwritesbreadthandflexibilityofattention,wherethelefthemisphere
bringstobearfocusedattention.”39
Technologyisnotjustahumancreationthatextendsourabilitiesofhowwethink
aboutinformation,asAznardefinedit,butfollowingMcGilchrist’slogic,thenitisalsoa
facet,apreference,ofhowsomepeopleintheWestperceivetheworld.Thisperceptionis
aprismthatfavorstheleftovertherighthemisphere.Technologicalubiquityexacerbates
theproblemsofthemilitarymind.AlreadyconditionedbytheWesternmindsetto
deconstructproblemsintodiscreetparts,examiningandresolvingeachindividually,the
soldiertendsnottolookattheoverallsituation.
ColonelCharlesArdantduPicqservedintheFrenchArmyandwaskilledin1870by
aPrussianshell.Asasoldierandatheorist,duPicqexaminedancientandmodernwarfare
todeducewhatcouldbelearnedfromtheformerandappliedtothelatter.Inhiswork
BattleStudies(1880),publishedafterhisdeath,duPicqobservedthataconstantinwardid
exist--humannature.Ancientmanandmodernmanwerebothmotivatedbyfearandpride
accordingtoduPicq.However,themodernbattlefieldrequiredmorepreparation,because
39Ibid.,27.Brainscanningindicatesapreferenceforlivingobjectsintherighthemisphere.
18
ittaxedthesensestolevelsunknowninantiquity.40DuPicqnotedthatotherfactors,such
asorganizationandstructure,areimportantelementsintheformulatocreatecohesion
andmotivationwithintheunit,andthereisasciencetothis,butthosethatplacethe
greateremphasisonnumbersandsciencemisstep.41Inthisrespect,duPicqdidnot
conformtotraditionalFrenchmodesofthoughtonwar,buthiscombatexperience
informedhistheories,andasaresulthearrivedatacloserapproximationtowar’s
realities.
Theincreasedtempoofmodernlifehaschangedone’sperceptionofhistoryand
time,accordingtoKoselleckinThePracticeofConceptualHistory(2002).Heclaimsthat
historyhaseffectivelyceasedtomatterinaworldofrapidandcontinuouschange.
Koselleckexpressestheconceptwithclaritynoting,“traditionsarenolongerpasseddown
butareretrospectivelyestablished;anyfutureisnewlyopenedupwithouttheknowledge
ofhistoricalBildungoftheindividualaswellasofthesociety-beinglostasacontinuous
process.”42Thus,overtime[theWesternmind]hasfoundhistoryoflessandlessvalue,and
placinggreatervalueonthatwhichhasdisplacedhistory--technicism.Thesocialtremors
createdbytechnologyarefrequentlyreferredtoasrevolutionary,butinpractice,omitting
theoccasionaloutliers,thelargestsocialchangesareintellectualandorganizational.The
frequentassumptionamongofficersisthateverynewwidgethasthepotentialto
revolutionizewar.Instead,themostsignificantrevolutionmightbetheaggregative
assumptionoftheseerrors.Inotherwords,ifabeliefisenduring,prevalent,andpowerful
40CharlesJeanJacquesJosephArdantduPicq,BattleStudies:AncientandModernBattle,trans.JohnN.GreelyandRobertC.Cotton(NewYork,NY:Macmillan,1921),94–100.41Ibid.,148.42Koselleck,ThePracticeofConceptualHistory,197.
19
enoughthennoamountoftraining,reeducation,andrehabilitationisgoingtogetoneany
closuretoreality.
TheinherentriskforU.S.Armyofficersisthattheaboveprocessleadstoevaluation
basedonartificialandsunderedsituations.Falseassumptions,fabricatedrealities,and
faultyreasoningcoloredtheprismthroughwhichofficersperceivedtheworld.Thus,they
arrivedinoneshortintellectualleapfromaprocessthatledfromcontroloftheinanimate
totheanimate.Ifonecancontrolandmanagemachinesforefficiencythencertainlysimilar
methodscanbeemployedwithpeople.Socialengineeringemergedasthe“science”to
makepossiblecontrolofhumanrawmaterial.ThisperceptionformedtheArmyprismand
ensuredthateachsituationpresentedasimilarhue,eachpremisehadacorresponding
proclivity,andeachsolutionalikeanswer.
ForanumberofreasonstheU.S.Armyofficercorps[circa1800]wasespecially
susceptibletothislineofreasoning.First,theU.S.Armyofficercorpslackedthelong-
standingtraditionsofestablishedmilitariesinothernations.Nodoubttherearebenefitsto
youthfulness,butthelackofculturalmaturity,remainsaproblemtothepresent.Second,
thegeographicallocationoftheUnitedStatesimputedapracticalitytotheAmerican
characterthatplacedapremiumonaction.Third,theNorthAmericancontinentprovided
theU.S.Army,inmanyways,anartificialenvironment.UnlikeEuropeannations,oreven
thoseinEastAsia,theAtlanticandPacificoceansprovidedwalls,ageographicalbarrier
thatminimizedthreatsandtheneedtothinkdeeplyaboutwar.Incomparison,Germany’s
centralpositionwithinEuropenecessitatedacompletelydifferentmilitaryculture.Here
militarycompetencedefinedsurvival.Ifnothingelse,onecouldnotspurnthemilitaryarts,
onemight‘getit’wrong,butonedidnotsimplyignoreit.Clausewitznotes,“…theoryand
20
experiencemustneverdisdainorexcludeeachother;onthecontrarytheymustsupport
eachother.”43[However,intheinstanceoftheArmy,thedistortion,theexclusion,though
notwillfulneverthelesstranspired.]TheFrenchexperiencedsomethingsimilar,aself-
inflictedwound,buttheirmyopiawasintellectual.TheU.S.apathyregardingmilitary
mattersresultedfromgeographic,intellectualandtechnologicalfactors,andperhapsa
generalpovertyofimagination.
AmorecomplexphenomenonaffectedtheintellectualstructureoftheU.S.Army
officercorpsfollowingWorldWarI.Thetotalityofthisintellectualshiftwasnottheresult
ofanysingleagentbutrathertheconvergenceofamultitudeofproximatecausesand
influences.Beginninginthemid-nineteenthcenturyandculminatingintheseconddecade
ofthetwentiethcenturytechnologyandhistory,communicationandexperienceappeared
tohavefundamentallychangedfromallprevioushumanexperience.Time,similarto
geography,hasaubiquitousqualitythatpowerfullyinfluencesone’sperceptions,butthe
natureofthatquality,likeyeast,implicitlyleavenstheworldwheretheeffectislargely
unseenandyetpronounced.
Time,andman’sunderstandingofit,changedoverthelastseveralthousandyears.
InantiquitytheGreeksimaginedtimeasagodthat“draggedallthingsintoaceaseless
flux.”Later,theideaoftimeinvolvedintotherealmofperfectionorideas,andtherealmof
decay;thatwhichbelongedtothegodsandthatinwhichmanexisted.Theideaoftime
continuedtoprogressandby1690JohnLockesuccinctlydefineditas,“durationisbutasit
werethelengthofonestraightlineextendedininfinitum,notcapableofmultiplicity,
variationorfigure,butisonecommonmeasureofallexistencewhatsoever,whereinall
43Clausewitz,OnWar,61.
21
things,whisttheyexitequallypartake.”44Thus,timeisanywhereandeverywherethe
sameforallindividualsinallcircumstances.Theidearemainedrelativelystableuntila
youngscientisttwohundredyearslateradvancedanewtheory.
In1905,AlbertEinsteinpublished“OntheElectrodynamicsofMovingBodies”
followedbyGeneralRelativityin1915wherebyhepostulatedthattimewasrelative,thus
disprovingtheclassicalNewtoniantheoryoftimeassomethingwithaconstantvelocity
andvector.Andforphysicists,timeisobjectivelyrelative.45However,fortheofficer,
politicianandcitizen,perceptionrendersadifferentreality.Theclassicaltheoryoftime,for
theseagents,remainedasvalidasthedayNewtonfirstdescribedit.
One’sperceptionoftimeandspacealteredwithtechnologicaladvances.Perhaps,
nothingexercisedsopowerfulaninfluenceonthemindasthelocomotiveinthenineteenth
century.Thesteelbeastslookedtobeofanotherworld,andnexttothemechanicalclock,
withitsgrowingpopularity,encompassedthespiritofanage.Itisnoaccidentthat
Einstein’sthoughtexperimentthatresultedinthetheoryofrelativityusedthemost
powerfulandubiquitousexampleofmoderntechnologyinhistime--thetrain.
Time,fundamentally,isthemeasurementofmotion,andthushasnotobjectively
changed,thoughman’sinterpretationandunderstandingoftimehas.46Timeoriginally
measured,atleastintheWest,fromonehumaneventtothenext,oritcounteddowntothe
endoftimewiththereturnofChrist.Notuntilthesecularizationofthestateand
44G.J.Whitrow,“TimeandMeasurement,”inDictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas,ed.PhilipP.Wiener,vol.IV(CharlesScribner’sSons,1973),389,391,404.45AlbertEinstein,Relativity:TheSpecialandtheGeneralTheory(AndrasNagy,2010).46GyorgyBuzsaki,RhythmsoftheBrain(OxfordUniversityPress,2006),8.
22
divergencefromthechurchdidonebegintomeasuretimeandthinkofitasprogress
towardsomethingimprovedratherthanacountdowntotheend.47
HistorianLewisMumfordalludedtoachangethattookplaceintheWesternmind
withtheadvent,spread,andeventuallyubiquityoftheclock.Theclock,forMumford,
representsaseparationandabstractionoflife,andthoughalltimeisbasedonsome
measurementofmotionorplanetaryrotations,itsmeasurementisthefirststeptoward
humanservitude,oftheliving,theanimate,beingsubordinatetothemechanicaland
inanimate.Previously,theseasons,dayandnightorderedmuchofhumanity.48Timecan
nowbeaccuratelyobserved,timecanbesaved,lifecanbeorganized,ordered,bytheclock,
inshort,onebeginsthinkingintime.49
Theubiquityoftechnologyservedasafurtherabstractionfromreality,boththen
andnow,becauseitdisassociatesanddivideslife.Itfavorstheparticular,thespecific,over
thewhole,thegestalt.Technology,initsvariousforms,generallyenhancescontrol;in
manywaysitprovidesathinveneerofauthorityoverreality.However,realitycomprises
chaosmorethanorder;chanceisboundupinthesystemitself.Thus,perceptionand
realitydivergewidelybetweenthatwhichcanandcannotbecontrolled.
Technology,definedasa“toolthatextendsone’sabilities”,50assumedashifting
placeinthehumanexperience.Dataarenotjustzerosandones,orspearsandhammers,
butalso,mostimportantly,andmorecommonly,information.51Assuch,technologydoes
notdefinewhatitistobehuman,butitdoesreflect,ifonlyinpart,whatitistobehuman.
47Koselleck,ThePracticeofConceptualHistory,106,120.48Ibid.,102.49LewisMumford,TechnicsandCivilization(UniversityofChicagoPress,2010),14.50Aznar,TechnologyChallenged,11.51Ibid.,24.
23
Nevertheless,acomplexrelationshipexistsbetweenmanandtechnology,makingit
difficulttoseparatethetwo.Technologyisanexpressionofhumanthought.One’sintellect,
ideasandcreativityaremadeconcretethroughit.Thereisconfusioninhowonethinks
abouttheroleandpurposeoftechnology,becausetechnologynaturallyextendsour
abilities;therefore,itcanandoftendoesassumeasenseofprogress,potential,and
capability.
Theanimateandtheinanimate,manandtechnology,makeupasymbiotic
relationshipwitheachaffectingtheother,buttheyarenotequalnoraretheyalways
amiablepartners.52Peoplethinkabouttechnologydifferently,andsometimesthesame
people,atdifferenttimes,thinkaboutitdifferently.Certainly,theyoungFrenchinfantry
officerof1914viewedtechnologyradicallydifferentlyifheremainedalivein1919.The
Americanmilitarytraditionperceivedtechnologyasbothmeansandend,asatoolto
minimizechance,andtocontrolit—notastheself-inflictedwoundthatouryoungFrench
officerin1919mighthaveperceived.
Armyofficersthuscametobesubsumedinatechnologicalenvironment,aprocess
thatgainedconsiderablemomentuminthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury.Itis,
however,worthnotingthattechnologyonlyextendstheabilitiesalreadyinherentinthe
individualandorganization--perhapsabanalobservation,butafundamentally,and
frequentlyoverlookedfact.Consequently,nearlyeveryproblemappearedtohavea
technologicalsolution.Successandfailurewerepredicatedoncorrecttoolselectionto
achievethedesiredoutcome.Themostobviouscurrentdayexampleofthisisthemilitary
targetingprocesscontainedinU.SArmydoctrineisknownas“d-cubedalpha”—decide,
52McGilchrist,TheMasterandHisEmissary,6.
24
detect,deliver,assess.53Waraddsmorelayerstoanalreadychaoticsystem.Oneisleftwith
aprofoundlyunstablesituation,onewhichisoverlaidwithsystemsofsystemsthatattempt
tobalancecountlessvariablesthroughtechnologicalsolutionstocomplexhuman
challenges.Theimpetusforperceivingtheworldinthislightmaybeasmuchafunctionof
experienceasofphysiology.
TheU.S.ArmyfollowsconceptssuchastheMilitaryDecisionMakingModel(MDMP)
andDesign,bothofwhicharemodelsforcontrollingandmanagingvariables.54Chaos,
frictionandfogofwarareallfactorsthat,giventherightmodel,canbemitigatedor
minimized.McGilchristfoundthat“thelefthemispherebuildssystems,wheretheright
doesnot.”55Thisisnottoarbitrarilyarguethatsystems,models,andprocessesarenot
withoutgreatvalue,butwithgrowingconfidenceandgreaterconvictiontheU.S.Army
officershavelaidtoomuchatthefeetofthisidol.Somemilitarymindsresistedthis
temptation.
Clausewitzhardlysparedawordfortechnology,notbecausehewasunawareofits
existence,orevenimportance.Healsodispensedwithantiquity,notforlackofcuriosity,
butbecausehegraspedthegrowingdistancebetweenantiquityandthepresentatthe
lowerlevelsofwar,animplicitacknowledgementofachangeintheconductofwarover
time.Expandingperspectiveupandouttothestrategiclevel,Clausewitzsidelined
technology,becauseheunderstooditstemporalnatureforthisreasonhisworkisnotfixed
intime,butaimedatthehumanvaluesoutlinedbyThucydidesandMachiavelli.For53DepartmentoftheArmy,FieldManual3-60(FM6-20-10):TheTargetingProcess,2010,http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/dr_pubs/dr_a/pdf/fm3_60.pdf.54DepartmentoftheArmy,FieldManual101-5:StaffOrganizationAdnOperations,1997,http://www.fs.fed.us/fire/doctrine/genesis_and_evolution/source_materials/FM-101-5_staff_organization_and_operations.pdf;DepartmentoftheArmy,ArmyDoctrineReferencePublication5-0,2012,http://armypubs.army.mil/doctrine/dr_pubs/dr_a/pdf/adrp5_0.pdf.55McGilchrist,TheMasterandHisEmissary,228.
25
Clausewitz,asforhispredecessors,warwaspreeminentlyahumanphenomenonandall
otherfacets,characteristics,andelementsofwarplayedsupportingroles.
Fortheofficer,thestudyofhistoryandthehumanities,anunderstandingof
Romanticismforexample,allowthemindtopenetrateandgraspthenuancesand
contextualfactorsthateludestaticandexplicitanalysis.Militaryhistoryisnotmerelythe
collectionoffactsandfigures,armsandarmor,tacticalandoperationalengagements,the
actionsofgreatmenandlesser,orvictoriousempiresandconqueredones.Instead
militaryhistoryisa“pasture”forreflectionandimagination,notastorefulloftools.
Rather,andoffargreaterimportance,itconveysandinforms,notjustatananalyticalbuta
vastlymorepowerfulintuitivesense;anunderstandingofmanandthepropensityof
events.56Suchanunderstandingisindispensableforthemilitaryofficer.Iftheintentof
waris“tocompelourenemytodoourwill”tosuperimposethevictor’sintentonthatof
thevanquished,thenthemindshapedbyanunderstandingofhistoryisessential.
Overrelianceontechnologicalsolutionsdemonstratesashallowunderstandingofmanand
war.
Clausewitzprovidedfurtherclarityinrespecttothemilitarymind:“theinsights
gainedandgarneredbythemindinitswanderingsamongbasicconceptsthattheorycan
provide...itcangivethemindinsightintothegreatmassofphenomenaandoftheir
relationships,thenleaveitfreetoriseintothehigherrealmsofaction.”57Themind,as
Clausewitzdescribedit,isnotboundtoorbytheory,doctrine,orexplicitboundaries.
Ratherheconveysafreedom,a“wandering”andthatbythisapproach,andbynoother
method,doesoneachievethezenithofmilitarythought.56Tzu,TheArtofWar,92–93.57Clausewitz,OnWar,578.
26
Berlinbelievedthat“…wearechildrenofbothworlds..,”bothoftheEnlightenment
andRomanticism,“…butatthesametime–andtotheextenttheromanticethosistrue–
arethepersonswhomoststronglyemphasizedtheunpredictabilityofallhumanactivity.”58
Theofficer’smindsetisonthemechanical,thetechnological,thetools.Hisfocusisalltoo
easilydrawntopossibilitiesforcontrolandthusrisksthelossofanunderstandingof,the
unpredictabilitythatunderlieshumanactivity.
Clausewitznotedthattheoryandrealityshouldneverdisdaineachother,which
leavesonetobelievethathemusthaveexperiencedsuchdivergenceonmultiplelevelsand
onnumerousoccasions.59ThemostcommondefinitionofwarofthemanythatClausewitz
providedis“waristhusanactofforcetocompelourenemytodoourwill.”60‘Ourwill’isa
concept,anidea,astatethatisabsentinthepresent,thoughdesiredinthefuture.Hitler’s
andStalin’sbeliefswerenotcompatiblewiththisconcept,fortheendsofeachrequiredthe
submissionorannihilationoftheother.Warisforemostaconflictofideas.However,the
conflictofideasthatnecessitatewarisnotwar.One’sreasonsforwagingwaroughttobe
separatefromthemeansbywhichonewagesit.
“Thereare,inmyview,twofactorsthat,aboveallothers,haveshapedhuman
historyinthiscentury[20th],”Berlinobserved.“Oneisthedevelopmentofthenatural
sciencesandtechnology…theother,withoutdoubtconsistsinthegreatideologicalstorms
thathavealteredthelivesofvirtuallyallmankind.”61Whatisprogress,ifitexists,andhow
doesonegoaboutmeasuringit?Isitmeasuredinchronology,intechnological
58Berlin,TheRootsofRomanticism,141,147.59Clausewitz,OnWar,61.60Ibid.,75.61IsaiahBerlinandHenryHardy,TheCrookedTimberofHumanity:ChaptersintheHistoryofIdeas(VintageBooks,1992),1.
27
development,inscientificachievement,intheemancipationofmantowardindividual
freedom,intheabatementofhumansuffering,inpeace?Orisitamarchtowardorderthat
beganinearnestwiththeEnlightenment?Afterall,accordingtoBerlin,theonethingthat
theEnlightenmentdenied,initstotality,wastheChristianfaith.Menareborngood,orat
leastmorallyneutral.Withpropermoldingandnurturing,theycanandwillrisetonew
levels,theywillprogress.62ScienceandrationalityconspiredtoslaytheHobbesianbeast.
Greatmindsbelievedthatwiththedeathofmonarchiesandtheriseofrepublicsofvirtue,
warwouldwithtime,effort,andperseverancebeevictedfromhumanmemory.63Suchwas
nottobethecase.
IftheWesternworldistheheirtotwointellectualtraditions,therearefacetsor
spectrawithineach.Ifmaniscapableofactsofbothdepravityandsacrifice,itseemsthat
theEnlightenmentandRomanticism,beinghumancreations,areequallysoimbued.
Technology,however,didnotentertheconsciousnessofmanasadriverofhuman
progressuntiltheIndustrialRevolution.Theawarenessoftechnology,liketheintellectual
shiftinauguratedbyRomanticism,beganasanopaque,intuitivefeeling.Thisfeelingwasat
theedgesofhumankind’sconsciousness,whereonewasmindfulthatsomethingisthere,
thatsomehowthingsarechanging,butunabletoarticulatethespecificnatureofwhatwas
changing.IftheEnlightenmentandRomanticmovementsconsumedmanwithorwithout
hisconsent,sothendidtechnology.Technologyisnotanintellectualmovementinthe
samewaythattheothertwoemphasizewaysofthinkingandbeing,fortheyareboth
purelyintellectualframeworksuponwhichonmayact,yettheimpulseiswhollycognitive.
Theyarespiritual,moralmovementswithallthepowerandresolutionofareligion.62IsaiahBerlin,AgainstTheCurrent:EssaysintheHistoryofIdeas(RandomHouse,2012),20.63AzarGat,WarinHumanCivilization(OxfordUniversityPress,2008),510.
28
Technology,atitsmostfundamentallevel,“extendsone’sabilities.”Thus,itisboth
anetherealproductofthemind,andsomethinglateractualizedinthephysicalrealm.
Thoughithasnoinherentmoralorspiritualqualitiesitisnonethelessanimatedbysuch
impulses.Inmanyways,andperhapsthisisMumford’sactualizedfear,manfoundhimself
subtlysubduedbythepromiseofprogress.Insomemanneroranother,technologywould
reducetheburdenslifeplaceduponhumankind.Throughtime-reducing,muscle-saving,
thought-minimizingtechnology,civilizationwouldprogress;andman,withhisburdens
reduced,couldfocushiseffortsonthebettermentofhisfellowkinregardlessofrace,
religionorcreed.Thisphilosophicalbelieforinclinationhaspenetratedthepsycheofthe
Armyofficer—itisthemedium,theculture,inwhichthearmyexistsandacts.
Punctuatedequilibrium,oftenusedinconjunctionwithexplainingthetheoryof
evolution,mayaptlybeappliedtothetechnologicalworld.Thegradualandsteady
evolutionoftechnologythroughouthistorysuddenlyexplodedintheseventeenthcentury.
Thiswaslikelytheresultoftheprintingpress,whichacceleratedthedisseminationand
accumulationofinformation.Thedangerisnotthatinformationisincreasingtooquickly
ortowardsomekindofsingularity,butthatitappearstobethedomainwithinwhichthe
vastmajorityoforganizations,institutions,bureaucracies,governments,andofprimary
importance,U.S.Armyofficersassumethesolutionsreside.Itcantakemanyforms,often
usingmoretechnologytosolvetheproblemcreatedbymoretechnology,moreprocessto
controlotherprocesses,morerulestoaugmentcurrentrules,andmorelawstorectifyold
laws.Forexample,theintroductionofcomputerstothebattlefieldprovidedmore
informationandincreasedlethality,butitalsoengendered,amongotherfactors,a
targetingsolutionmindset.Aby-productoftechnologyimmersionistheillusionofcontrol
29
andspeciouscontextualunderstanding,onebelievestheyperceiveandknowtoafar
greaterdegreethantheyactuallydo.
Theincreasedtempoofdailyactivity,particularlythemilitarythinker’sdesireto
operatewithintheenemy’sdecision-makingcycle,elevatedtimetoapremium.Officersare
trainedtoexecutemethods,processes,andsystemsthatiffollowedtheoreticallyproduce
anacceptablemilitarysolution.ErichvonManstein,theGermanofficerwhoplannedthe
invasionofFrancein1940andsentthepanzersthroughtheArdennesforest,believedthat
logicalmilitarysolutionswereobvioustobothfriendlyandenemycommandersalike.
Therefore,intellectualsurpriseisonlyachievedwhenonestrikeswhereleastexpected,
andintheGermancasein1940,thatthrusttraversedthe“impenetrableArdennes.”Oneof
thegreatestmilitaryvictoriesinhistorywasproducedbyamindthatexploredthe
impracticable.64
Bellicosity,inwhateverformsittakes,frequentlytrendstowardthemostnatural
humaninstinct--imitation.65Thus,conflictnotonlyescalatestowardsextremes,as
Clausewitznotes,butalsotowardasortofchaoticequilibrium;technologicalasymmetrical
advantagesvanish,allthemoresogiventheinstantaneoustransmissionofinformationin
thedigitalage,allthatremains,theonlyasymmetricadvantageonemayhavethatcannot
becaptured,mimicked,orduplicatedisthecultivatedmindwithitsintellectualagility,
toleranceforrisk,andcontextualunderstanding.Thedevelopmentofthecultivatedmind
isaslow,arduous,aqualitativeprocess.Technicism,technocracy,technologicaldriven
thought--whateverformittakes-,bycontrast,oftenproducesasystematic,linear,and
64Karl-HeinzFrieserandJohnT.Greenwood,TheBlitzkriegLegend:The1940CampaignintheWest(USNavalInstitutePress,2005),69.65McGilchrist,TheMasterandHisEmissary,248.
30
superficialprocessthatfailstopenetratethecomplexitiesthatexistoutsideofthe
controllablevariables.
ThefocusontechnologybyofficersandArmyeducationalinstitutionshasproduced
ashallowandcircumscribedmentality.ThisisespeciallyreflectedbytheU.S.Army’s
institutionalpreferencefortraining.Traininghasmanybenefits,whichhavebeen
exploredandexploitedwithindustriousefficiency;however,itsdangersarelessclearly
understood.Trainingappealstothemodernmilitarybureaucracybecausetechnology-
focusedsystemsorprocessarelogicalandthereforeonecanquicklytrainotherstouse
technologyandthenexploittechnologyitselftodothetraining.Tempoisthussustained
throughtherelationshipoftrainingandtechnologyallofwhichcanbequantifiableand
thereforemeasurableandintheend,monetarilyjustifiable.
Thepervasivenessoftechnologyhasafurtherbyproduct:reducingthedepthand
breadthofanofficer’sthoughtprocess.Onecannowdomorethingsinlesstime(not
necessarilybetterbutfaster),andasthefamiliartruismofStalinholds,quantityhasa
qualityallitsown.Superficialsolutionstocomplexproblems,augmentedbytechnology,
createsasinistercyclethatbedevilshumankind’severyattempttosolveproblemsby
creatingmore.LewisMumforddescribeditbest:“…Scientistscreatedahabitofmind
favorabletodiscretepracticalinventions:atthesametimeitwashighlyunfavorabletoall
thoseformsofartforwhichthesecondaryqualitiesandtheindividualreceptorsand
motivatorsoftheartistwereoffundamentalimportance.”66Mumfordaimedhiswordsat
thephysicalscientistsandtheirhabitsofthoughtthatexcludetheunquantifiable,andhis
66Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,51.
31
warninghasbeenfullyrealizedinthemoderntechnologicalworld.War,afterall,ismore
artthansciencebecausetherearetoomanyvariablesforonepersonorsidetocontrol.
Theintellectualshiftprecipitatedbytechnologydidnottouchsocietyequallyfor
somesectorsexperiencedradicalshiftswhileotherswerelessaffected.Whatdidoccur,
throughgreatercentralizationofthestateapparatusmadepossiblebytechnological
advancements,wasamassivegrowthofindustrytosupportthestatebymeansofthe
militarystrengththroughacyclicalrelationship,eachsupportingandreinforcingtheother.
AccordingtoMumford,thearmyofLouisXIVmade,“thefirstlarge-scaledemandfor
absolutestandardization[of]goods.”67Thearmyandintellectualcadre,theofficercorps,
notonlydemandedthestandardizationofgoods,butfrequentlyalsothestandardizationof
thought.FewWesternofficercorpsacrosstimehavepaidmorethanlipservicetotheidea
ofvaluingdissentofthought.Thisis,inpart,becausemilitarycommandinbattlerequiresa
quicktop-downsystem,incontrast,militaryinnovationrequiresjusttheopposite.
ReturningtoBerlin’sanalogyofhowsoldiershavewrestledwithideasfromthe
Enlightenmentthroughthe19thcentury,soldiersfoundthatstrengthinthefaceofalmost
certainlossconstitutedarequisiteelementforsuccessonthebattlefield.Moralecannotbe
quantified.Itdefiesmeasurement,iteludescapture,andexistsandmotivatestheliving.It
isvisibletothehumaneye,but,asArdantduPicqobserved,notalleyesperceiveit,though
itpenetrateseventhehardesthearts.68
TheWesternofficersofthesixteenththroughtheearlytwentiethcenturywere
definednot,asonemaysuspect,bytheirdifferences,butratherbytheirremarkable
similarity.Officercorpsduringthisperioddevelopedorganicallyfrompeculiarformsof67Ibid.,92.68ArdantduPicq,BattleStudies,118–129.
32
autocracies,republics,aristocracies,andoligarchies.Diversehistorical,social,political,
religiousandeconomicfactorscoloredtheoutlooks,liketheuniforms,oftheseofficers,
and,perhapsnotsurprisingly,theydemonstratedafairlyhomogenousunderstandingof
war.Essentialfeaturessuchasdiscipline,morale,andleadershipideasrevivedfromthe
RomanEmpirebreathednewlifeintomilitaryaffairsintheEuropeansphere.
Romanticismbirthedtheideaofplurality;however,anunderstandingofmotiveand
intent,ofotherwaysofbeing.Piercedmilitaryideasofstandardizationandmechanization
ofmanandonceagainawakenedthepowerofthewill.Napoleonbroughtlifeandvigorto
theconceptof“popularwill”thatheretoforehadbeenunknown.Forthenexttwohundred
yearstheNapoleonicmodeldominated,andinmanywaysitsinfluenceliveson.The
intellectualpenetrationofRomanticismintothemilitaryprofession,however,tookhold
onlyinpart--acceptingtheviolent,unrefined,andpassionate,whilerejectingoutofhand,
pluralityofthought.Fascismcouldfurnishnofinerexampleofthisdistortion.One-wayof
being,thinking,andbelievingpermeatedtheThirdReich.Celebratingtheheroic
individual,thesingularityofthecause,thepowerofthewillensured-–despiteallodds—
ultimatevictory.“Thelightsofpervertedscience”asChurchillwarned,amalgamatedwith
thespiritofRomanticismfromwhenceitwasbornintheheartofGermany,togivebirthto
oneofthemostterriblyviolent,destructiveandpowerfulforcestoeveranimatemenand
womentoaction.
Timeforthosecaughtupinmassmovementsassumesanimmortalquality,andthe
presentceasestomattertotheindividualsoraptured.Thepastprovidesthejustification
tofuelthepassions,andrecklessabandon,cavalierinclinations,andindifferencetodeath
arecommonlysharedattributes.Enormousnumbersofhumanbeingsrevoltedagainstthe
33
technicismandlimitations.Theirresponsewasperhapsdrivenbyadesiretohave
purpose,toachievesomesortofimmortality.Themechanicalandtechnologicalimpulses
ofWesternculturecontinuetoconstrainthehumanwill.Thesefrustrationsfindreleaseon
thebattlefieldswherethespiritandmachineduelforsupremacy.Nowhereisthismore
evidentthanwiththehorrorsofWorldWarI.
TheFirstWorldWarappearedtohavedealtamortalblowtothewillasthepivotal
elementofwarfare.Ëlandiedthirteenmillionsdeaths,takingintotheitsembracemen
thatwouldneverwalkagainandothersnevernormally.ThekillingfieldsofWestern
Europedemonstratedthatthedeterminationtoadvanceagainsttheoddscouldnot
succeedinthefaceofmodernfirepower.TheNapoleonicmodel,whichstumbledat
Waterloo,succumbedtoitswoundsattheSomme.TheheroiclegacyofSpartanfortitude
whilesurroundedandtrappedonanislandattheBattleofSphacteriaagainstthe
Atheniansandthesacrificeofthe300attheBattleofThermopylaewitheredinthemud
YpresandVerdun.Thisunbrokenlineageofcourageandbravery–theapotheosisof
soldiering-endeditstwomillennialreignbycedingitspowertothemachine.
Historymatteredmuchbecauseitchangedsolittle.Humansarebytheirnature
historicalcreatures.Pastexperiencesareusedtoextrapolateapotentialfuture--thereby
allowingonetotakeactiontoensurefuturesurvival.History,whetherpersonalor
collective,canprovidethedatatounderstandtrends.Onewhounderstandscurrent
propensitiesisnotguaranteedsurvivalorsuccess,butdoingsodefinitelyincreasesthe
oddsinone’sfavor.
Therelevanceofmilitaryhistoryseemedtobeinquestionbythelatenineteenth
century.ThepastandpresentdivergedonbattlefieldspriortoandafterWorldWarI,at
34
leastsuperficially,andtheevidenceofmillionsofdeadconvincedmanyofficersthat
somethinghadnowcertainlychanged.Forthefirsttimeinmilitaryhistorytechnologyhad
apparentlyeclipsedthehumanelementasthedecisivefactorinwar.Thus,thepotent
intellectualshiftthatBerlindiscussedproducedasiblingthatinmanywaysyielded
comparableconviction.Forthemilitaryofficer,technologydecisivelydisplacedman.Just
astheEnlightenmentsweptawaytraditionalconceptionsofChristianity,tradition,andthe
qualitative;technologysweptawayhumanmoralprimacywithsterile,dispassionate
materialfactors.
In1949,JosephCampbellinTheHerowithaThousandFacesfoundthatacrossall
culturesandcivilizationsthemostthought-provokingfacetoftheheroicformula,of
mythology,wasnotthedifferences,butthesimilarities.69GeorgeLucascitedCampbell’s
workasoneofthemostimportantinfluencesindevelopingStarWars.Thehero’sjourney
thatCampbellabstractedistheexacttropethatLucasusedtostructuretheStarWarsfilms.
Likewise,StevenSpielberghascitedCampbellasasourceofinspirationforhisworks.
Thesedirectorswentontodevelopstoriesthataresomeofthemosticonicand
commerciallysuccessfulinhistory,buttheydrewfromanancientblueprint.
Campbell’sfindingsechoedthoseofLovejoyandBerlinthatvaluesarefinite,that
theredonotexistaninfinitenumberofvalues,thattheseheroes,heroesoftheEastand
thoseoftheWest,soughtanexperience,apassage,whichreflectedvaluesifnotinthe
detailsmostcertainlyintheiressence.Thus,Thucydidesisnotinerror,butmostcertainly
struckthecruxofthematter.History,inthebroadstrokes,sharesfamiliarhuesbecause
theheroes–whatmenaspireto-thevalues,perhapsnotthesamevalues,butvalues
69JosephCampbell,TheHerowithaThousandFaces(NewWorldLibrary,2008),2,211.
35
nonetheless,asBerlinobserved,thatarediscernible,understandable,andthestagesofthe
journeythatleadtheherotoself-discoveryareremarkablysimilar.
Officers,however,nowperceivedwarthroughanewlens.Goneweretheliving
heroes:petroleum,coldsteel,andcomplexgearsreplacedblood,bone,andspirit.
Industrialproduction,strategicmaterial,scientificandtechnologicalprogressdefinedhow
futurewarswouldbefought--warbymath.Somemilitarytheoristshadreachedthispoint
muchearlier.InfluencedbytheEnlightenment,Antoine-HenriJominihadabstractedand
simplifiedwardowntoagameofnumbers,but,notably,hisfirsttradewasbanking.70Ivan
Bloch,alsoabanker,predictedwithsomeaccuracythecomingcarnageofmodernwar,
althoughhefurtherpostulatedthatnationscouldnot,becauseoffinancialandeconomic
costs,gotowarforanylengthoftime;andshouldtheydosoanywayexhaustionwould
followinshortorder.71Nowwarcouldbemeasured,counted,andpredictedbasedon
rationalcalculations.Thevisionofbankers,industrialists,scientists,andmilitaryofficers
bondedoutofmutualself-interest.
Theidealsoldierwasalwaysmoremachinethanmanandfromhisearliest
momentsundertheflagheexperiencedextraordinaryandarduoustraining.Incessant
drills,marching,andcalisthenicsfilledtheyoungsoldier’slife.Choreographedmovements
matchedtheancientandritualisticmotionsofdance,butnowcuriouslyassumed
mechanicalfunctions;thefirstennobleddeepprimordialhumaninstincts,andthesecond
fusedthemovementofboththeanimateandinanimate.Sothetemplateforthemachineor
mechanisticparadigmwasalwaysthere.Bythenineteenthcenturydiscipline,augmented
bynationalism,infusedthecommonsoldierwithhoped-forironfortitude.Discipline,70AntoineHenribarondeJomini,TheArtofWar(Philadelphia:Lippincott,1862).71JeanBloch,TheFutureofWar(Boston:GinnandCompany,1899).
36
instilledthroughphysicalexertions,aimedtoexpungethought.Thatoneobeyedorders
withoutthinking,thattheresponsewasimmediateandexact,inmanywayscausedthe
soldiertopredateandportendthemachine.72
TheillusionofcontrolpermeatesAmericansociety,andnonemoresothaninthe
U.S.officercorps.Thearrivaltothispointintheevolutionofthisinstitutionrepresentsa
slow,speciousimitationofsuccess--ajourneywithoutdirectionandwithoutphilosophy
resultinginahollowcolossus.TheU.S.Armyofficercorpsdidnot,andhasnot,cometo
gripswiththenatureofwar,ratheritsubstitutestechnologyastheproperrealityto
understandandtomaster.
WilliamSkeltonarguedthatrootsofprofessionalismintheUSArmytookholdin
theSouthpriortotheCivilWar.73SamuelHuntingtonbelievedthattheprocessgainedits
impetusbetweentheCivilWarandtheFirstWorldWar.74Whetherbeforeorafter1865,
theU.S.Armyofficercorpsprofessionalized,buttowhatextentandtowhatdegreeisless
certain.Thephilosophicalrootsoftheofficercorpslackedtheenvironmentnecessaryto
produceaphilosophyofwar.Thisintellectualimmaturitymadetheyoungofficercorps
susceptibletoborrowedorspuriousideas—sometimesboth.Thus,natureandnurture
naturallyamalgamatedinthemindsofthesementoproduceanentirelygenuine,yet
flawed,understandingofthenatureofwarandhowonesolvedtheproblemsitposed.The
growthoftechnology,anditssubtlebutprofoundinteractionwithman’sconceptionof
timecompoundedtheseotherconceptualerrorsandmisunderstandings.
72Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,89–95.73WilliamB.Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms:TheArmyOfficerCorps,1784-1861(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,1992),xiii.74SamuelP.Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState:TheTheoryandPoliticsofCivil-MilitaryRelations(Cambridge,MS:HarvardUniversityPress,1957),237.
37
Intellectualaccelerationisoneofthemostsignificantchangesbetweenthisworld
andthenineteenthcentury.Historynolongermattered,becauseitchangedsorapidly—
propelled,ofcourse,bytechnologicaldevelopments.Technologyfundamentallyalteredthe
relationshipbetweenmanandtime.ReinhartKoselleckinThePracticeofConceptual
Historydefinedhistoricalaccelerationas,“theshorteningofthetimespansnecessaryfor
gainingnewexperiencesthatthetechnical-industrialworldforcesuponus.”75Technology
hasalteredtherelationshipbetweentheelementsofClausewitz’trinity,because“the
shortenedtemporalrhythms”havecausedthetrinitytocollapse.Thetrinityisnownearly
singularwiththevariouselementsinteractingonanalmostinstantaneouslevel.Inessence
technologyhasincreasinglyeliminatedspace.Thetimeittakesideas,weapons,andpeople
totravelhasdecreasedtoapointunseeninhumanhistory.
Conflictgeneratesamagneticorcentripetalpulluponforcesinvolved,notjust
escalation,butalsoatendencytopullintoconflictbodiesinorbittowardthecenter.The
collapseofthetrinityresultedin[theheavenlybodiesbeingpulledinamalgamatingintoa
whole.]Thecombinationoftimepressures,avoidanceofthinking,andeverincreasing
relianceontechnologyhaveresultedinanattempttoturntacticalandoperationalvirtue
intoacoherentstrategicpolicy.TheU.S.Armyoftodayevenhasatermforit—“strategic
compression.”76Officersbelievethatevenmoretechnologyistheanswertoa
technologicallysaturatedworld.AsThucydidesnotes,”…twothingsmostopposedtogood
75ReinhartKoselleck,FuturesPast:OntheSemanticsofHistoricalTime,Kindle(ColumbiaUniversityPress,2013),113.76DaveDilegge,“Thoughtson‘StrategicCompression,’”SmallWarsJournal,February3,2007,http://smallwarsjournal.com/blog/thoughts-on-strategic-compression.
38
counselarehasteandpassion…”bothofwhicharemorelikelyundertheauspicesof
technology.77
In406B.C.anAthenianfleetdefeatedaSpartannavalforceattheBattleof
Arginusae.Followingthevictory,eightAthenianstrategoifacedtwodecisionsthatpulled
forcesinoppositedirections.First,theAthenianfleetcouldcapitalizeonthevictoryand
rushtoMytileneandrelieveanAthenianforceblockadedthere,or,second,itcouldrescue
sailorslostinbattleclingingtoflotsam.Thestrategoidecidedthatallwouldsailfor
Mytileneminusafewshipsdivertedtosalvagethesoulsfloatinginthesea.Chance
intervened,however,andneitherthesailorsnortheSpartanfleetencounteredthe
Athenianfleet.Rather,asuddenstormpreventedbothactions,whiletheSpartansescaped
andtheAtheniansailorsdrowned.
ThegeneralsupontheirreturntoAthensfacedahostilepopulace.Thevictory
forgotten,thepeopledemandedthatthegeneralsassumeresponsibilityfortheirfailureto
savethesailors.Politicalintrigueandpassionsoverwhelmedallreasonandbysomeodd
twistoffate,evenSocrates,whopresidedovertheassemblythatday,anddideverythingin
hispowertopreventit,couldnotrepeltheirrationalandcunningintentofthosepresent.
Theywereexecuted,andnosoonerhadtheblooddriedthantheAtheniansreversedtheir
position,regrettingtheirdecision,andthosemostresponsibleforurgingexecutionnow
faceddeaththemselves.78
Antiquityfurnishedofficerswithfrictionofadifferentkind.Information,in
whateverformittook,remainedlimitedandboundtolocomotionofthatage.Today,the
speedofinformationtransmissionseemsanobviousobservation,buthowitinfluencedthe77Strassler,TheLandmarkThucydides,179.78DonaldKagan,ThePeloponnesianWar(Paradise,PA:PawPrints,2008).
40
ChapterII
PracticalLeadershipforEmpire
Establishedin1775,theU.S.Armydevelopedanintensefocusonpracticalityearly
initsevolution,nourishedbythegeographicalandenvironmentalfeaturesoffrontier
America.OncefreeofBritishcontrol,Armyunitswerelargelydeployedalongthewestern
boundariesoftheU.S.toprovidesecuritytosettlers,oralongtheAtlanticcoastlineto
defendportcities.Armyofficersconcernedthemselveswiththeregimenofday-to-daylife
andpatrolsthroughtheouterterritories.Forthemostpart,theoldworldremaineda
distantthreattoarmyofficersandthestudyofwarreceivedlittleattentionduringthis
period.Thehardshipsoflifeinthesesmallfortsandpostsaffordedlittletimeoran
environmentconducivetointellectualstudy.
TheWarof1812generatedasurgeofnationalisminthesonsofmanywhohad
foughtin1776;aneardisaster,itresultedinarealisticreevaluationofsomeofthe
foundinggeneration’smoreromanticprecepts.79Themilitiaperformedunevenlyatbest
andfailedmiserablyattheworst.Theneedforapermanentandprofessionalarmywas
painfullyobvious,atleasttotheofficercorps,inthewakeof1812.80Furthermore,bythe
early1820’s,theseedsofprofessionalizationbegantosproutinthefieldsofscience,law
andeconomicsintheNorth.IntheSouth,slaveryrapidlytransformedunderthepressures
79WilliamB.Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms:TheArmyOfficerCorps,1784-1861(UniversityPressofKansas,1992),116.80Ibid.,122.
41
oftechnologicalchangeyieldingafarheavierandintheendunbearableyoke-the
industrialinstitutionalizationofslavery.81
ThetrendsofprofessionalizationnaturallyfiltereddownintotheU.S.Armyofficer
corps.ThearistocraticandromanticsensibilitiesoftheSouthernelitefitcomfortablyin
theArmywithitsfocusonhonorandsacrifice.Furthermore,thepresumedever-present
threatofslaverevoltthroughouttheSouthandthemilitantnatureofsouthwesternslavery
servedonlytoreinforcethetendency,perhapsnotunlikeSparta’senslavementofthe
helotsnecessitatingamilitantsociety,atleastintheupperclasses.82
WestPointproducedthevastmajorityofofficersduringthisperiod,andwasthe
intellectualcenterintheUnitedStatesofthearmy.83Although,theWarof1812leftafew
self-taughtgeneralssuchasAndrewJacksonandWinfieldScott.TheprimaryfocusofWest
Pointaimednotattheeducationofofficerswhograspedthenuancesofwar,butratherat
producingengineerstohelpbuildtheroadsandbridgesneededbythefledglingnation.
Therearenotaninfinitenumberoffactorsthataffecttheintellectualdevelopment
ofanindividual.Theproximateinfluences,whethertheybethirty,thirteen,orwhatever
thenumbermaybe,arefinite.Andthoughtheymaydiffer,theynonethelessprovidefor
commonunderstandingforthoseinwithinthatfield.84FortheU.S.Armyofficercorpsthe
dominantfactorcenteredonengineering.
Clausewitzdescribedfrictioninwarasthe,“countlessminorincidents-thekindyou
canneverreallyforesee-combinedtolowerthegenerallevelofperformance,sothatone
81VernonLouisParrington,MainCurrentsinAmericanThought,1800-1860(UniversityofOklahomaPress,1987),63.82Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,211.83MatthewMoten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession(TexasA&MUniversityPress,2000),56.84BerlinandHardy,TheCrookedTimberofHumanity.
42
alwaysfallsfarshortoftheintendedgoal.”85TheU.S.Armyexperiencedasimilarfrictional
phenomenonthroughoutitsearlydevelopment.Whilenoneofthesefactorsaresignificant
takenindividually,theyformedearlyandprovidedthesubstratefromwhichtheorganism
evolvedandtakencollectivelycompounded.
Inhisclassicstudy,TheSoldierandtheState.SamuelHuntingtonarguedthat
technicism,popularism,andprofessionalismaretherootsofAmericanmilitarytraditions.86
RussellF.Weigley,seekingtosynthesizetheintellectualoutlookoftheU.S.Army’s
leadershipoveritsentirehistory,positedthattheAmericanwayofwarwasannihilation
basedonmass-producedtechnology.87Morerecently,BrianLinnnotedthatimprovisation
andpracticalityappearagainandagainashallmarksofAmericanmilitaryactionthattake
onthecharacterofautilitariandoctrine.88Facedwiththisdiscontinuity”,Linncontinued,
“betweenidealandreality,thenation'smilitaryleadershavebeenquitereadytoabandon
theidealandembracethepossible.”89LinnarguedthatthehallmarkofAmericanofficers
wastheylearnedtoimprovise,butcertainlytheremustbemoretoitthanthis.The
principleofthe“HidingHand”byAlbertHirschman,aspinoffofAdamSmith’sinvisible
handofthemarket,applieshere:
Wemaybedealingherewithageneralprincipleofaction.Creativityalwayscomes asasurprisetous;thereforewecannevercountonitandwedarenotbelieveinit untilithashappened.Inotherwords,wewouldnotconsciouslyengageupontasks whosesuccessclearlyrequiresthatcreativitybeforthcoming.Hence,theonlyway inwhichwecanbringourcreativeresourcesfullyintoplayisbymisjudgingthe
85Clausewitz,OnWar,119.86Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,193.87RussellFrankWeigley,TheAmericanWayofWar:AHistoryofUnitedStatesMilitaryStrategyandPolicy(Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,1977),xxii.88BrianLinnandRussellWeigley,“TheAmericanWayofWarRevisited,”TheJournalofMilitaryHistory66,no.2(April2002):430.89Ibid.
43
natureofthetask,bypresentingittoourselvesasmoreroutine,simple, undemandingofgenuinecreativitythanitwillturnouttobe.90
Creativityinthiscontextistheresultofencounteringtheunknownand,whenfaced
withseeminglyinsurmountableobstacles(includingpeople,e.g.armyofficers),searching
forsolutionsbeyondthetraditionallimitsofacceptableresponses.Second,ifthecosts
couldbecountedaccuratelybeforehand,manyendeavorswouldremainmerelygraphite
sketches.AtypicalcareerintheU.S.Armyconfrontstheofficerwithmultiplechallenges
thatrequirepracticalinnovationstosurmount.Overtime,thismakesasuccessfulofficer
veryconfidentofhisorherabilitytomeetanychallenge.Thus,onecouldarguethatthe
unknowncontributesasmuchtofailureasitunwittinglyadvancessuccess.
TheAmericanwayofwar,inthiscase,isthecollectiveculturaldispositiontounder-
estimatethetime,cost,andbloodrequiredtoachievethedesiredendstate;andthus,faced
withaconflictbeyondtheexpectedscope,encouragestheofficertoimprovisetoachieve
victory.ItisdoubtfulthatsuchcoursesofactionareparticulartotheU.S.AGerman,
Russian,orChineseofficermightapproachproblemsdifferently,atleastinitially,butthe
matterofresolutionwouldmostlikelybesimilar.Howoneframesaproblemandembarks
onasolutionprobablyvarieswidely,however,thegeneralstepsofaresolutionaresimilar
–theconscioushumanmindgenerallythinksinalinearfashion-thoughtherangeand
solutionsthemselveswouldvaryasmuchastheoriginalframework.Linn’sconclusionof
improvisation,practicalityandutilityarenotenough-itistoogeneralandcommonofa
solution-apatternthatisarguablyhuman.Onemustinquire,then,regardingwhat
90AlbertO.HirschmanandBrookingsInstitution,ThePrincipleoftheHidingHand(Washington,D.C:BrookingsInstitution,1967),13.
44
intellectualtrendsareparticulartotheexperienceofmilitaryserviceandhowthey
originated—lookingspecificallyasthehistoricalexperienceofU.S.Armyofficers.
WhentheBritishsurrenderedatYorktown,itappearedthataragtagvolunteerforce
ofcivilianshadvictoriouslydefeatedthegreatestempireonearth.TheroleoftheFrench
expeditionaryforce,andespeciallyofitssiegeengineers,wasignored.Thisconstituteda
mytheagerlypropagatedbyAmericanpamphleteersandonethatfoundingfatherswereall
toowillingtoharnessastheyforgedanewnation.ThevastsumsofFrenchmilitaryand
financialaidwerequicklyforgottenandfootnotedtohistory.91
ThememorythatremainedthatconformedtotheAmericanidealgeneratedimages
offathers,mothers,sons,anddaughters—sturdyyeomen--takinguparmsmuchlikethe
GreeksofAthensandtheRomansoftheearlyRepublic,storiesnotunfamiliarinthat
period.TheAmericanRevolutionremindedmanyofthebiblicalDavidandGoliathwhena
youngfarmboytookuparmsagainstagiantschooledintheartofwar.Jeffersonbelieved
thatthecitizen-soldierhadproveditsworthandthatprofessionalarmieswerenotonly
costly,butalsodangerous,andsuperfluousintimesofpeace.92Myths,perhapscommonin
thebirthofmostrevolutions,providedapowerfulandnecessarycatalystthat,left
unchallenged,shapedthedominantnarrative.93
TheAmericanmilitaryprofessionduringtheearlydaysofthenewnationfound
littlesupportfromthegovernmentwillinglyonlytoauthorizeatinystandingforce.In
91MichaelDavidPearlman,WarmakingandAmericanDemocracy:TheStruggleOverMilitaryStrategy,1700tothePresent(UniversityPressofKansas,1999),66;MacGregorKnoxandWilliamsonMurray,TheDynamicsofMilitaryRevolution,1300-2050(CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),63.92ThomasJefferson,TheWorksofThomasJefferson:1799-1803(Cosimo,Inc.,2009),139,381;ThomasJefferson,TheWorksofThomasJefferson:Correspondence1771-1779,theSummaryView,andtheDeclarationofIndependence(Cosimo,Inc.,2010),181.93RichardHofstadter,TheAgeofReform(NewYork:RandomHouse,1955),43–53;JosephCampbellandBillMoyers,ThePowerofMyth,Kindle(RandomHouseLLC,2011),31–32.
45
manywaysthefederalgovernmentactedantitheticallytotheinterestsofthemilitary
professionandthenation.Poorlyled,trained,andfunded,thenascentarmyserved
primarilyasananti-Indianforcespreadacrossscoresofsmallfortsthatstretchedthe
lengthofthecountrybothalongtheseaboardandthewesternperipheryofthenation.
Napoleon’ssuccessonthebattlefieldwitharmiesmannedbycitizen-soldiersover
theprofessionalarmiesofEuropefurtherconfirmedthebeliefofmanyAmerican
politiciansthatthecitizensatarmsmodelwaseverybitthesuperiortotheprofessional
armymodeldominantinEuropefortheprevioustwocenturies.Jefferson,aFrancophilein
manyrespects,usedtheFrenchasanexamplefromwhichtodrawsupportforhisown
conceptionofthepropercivil-militaryframework.Theprominenceofthemilitiasolution
andcolonialexperiencescombinedwithJefferson’sinfluenceresultedinadefactoFrench
approachtomilitarymattersinearlyAmerica.94
WiththeestablishmentofWestPointin1802,theU.S.haditsfirstmilitarycollege.
Thecurriculuminitiallylackedrigor,andinstructionprimarilyconsistedoflecturesanda
readingsfromasinglefifty-pagemanualtranslatedfromFrench.Manyofitsearliest
professorswereeitherFrench-trainedorFrenchthemselves.ProfessorClaudiusCorzet,
borninFranceandeducatedatthePolytechnicSchool,taughtsomeoftheearliestcourses.
Hisfocuswasengineering.95SylvanusThayerin1817expandedthecurriculumwithmore
worksfromFrance’sPolytechnicSchool.96Theinfluenceofcontinentalmilitarythoughtat
WestPointandthroughouttheU.S.Armymerelyfollowedtheformandfunctionofthe
94ThomasJefferson,TheWorksofThomasJefferson:CorrespondenceandPapers1808-1816(Cosimo,Inc.,2010),68–89;Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,11.95UnitedStatesMilitaryAcademy,TheCentennialoftheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,NewYork.1802-1902...(U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1904),275.96Ibid.,275–277.
46
Frenchsystem.Muchlikeayoungpredatorthatmimicsthehuntingpatternsofitsparent,
YoungWestPointerslackedthematuritytounderstandwhyapatternofactionwas
taken;,buttheyfullycomprehendedtheobservableresults.Clearly,thelessonwasto
followintheimmediatefootstepsofsuccess,ignoringsuchissuesasunderstandingwhy
thefootingwassoundorknowingwherethepathleads.
TheU.S.Army,the“lastbastionofFederalism”duringitsfirstdecadesofexistence,
accordingtoWilliamSkelton,developedapeculiarunderstandingofmilitary
professionalism.97Militaryofficersbelievedtheimpetusforsuchasystemdevolvedfrom
thearistocraticmethods,andinoneoftheoddintellectualtwistsofmilitary
professionalismintheU.S.,theArmyplagiarizedformandfunction,withoutthehigher
educationalstandardsthatwereoftenfoundinEuropeansystems.Thus,therawmaterial
remainedqualitativelydifferent.Theendresultwasasystemthatatoncerejected
AmericanstrengthsandadoptedEuropeanmethodsinpart.Guidedbyinternallights,as
Tocquevillesuggested,theArmyblunderedundertheworstofbothsystems.“Thedistrust
oftheexpert,rationalizedintoademocraticaxiomduringtheJacksonianera,wasdeeply
ingrainedinAmericancharacterandpersistedlongafteritsoriginaljustificationhad
passed,”HenrySteeleCommagerconcluded.98Theideathattheprofessionalofficer
constitutedthefinalwordonmilitarymattersneverachievedbroadacceptanceinthe
UnitedStates,especiallyincomparisontoEuropeanandlaterEastAsiancolleagues.
EqualityisnotmerelyaqualitydesiredinthesocialmediumoftheUnitedStates;itisa
97Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,73.98HenrySteeleCommager,TheAmericanMind:AndInterpretationofAmericanThoughtCharacterSincethe1880’s(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1950),12.
47
valuedesiredandpursuedasaquintessentialcharacteristicoftheAmericanpsyche.99As
such,intheU.S.Armyprofessionalismassumedaconditionfarmorecomfortablewith
actionandactsofheroismthanwithintellectualachievements.
PerceivedFrenchsuccessunderNapoleonexertedapowerfulmagneticeffectupon
themindsofmilitarymenthatcrossedbothtemporalandgeographicalbarriers,centuries
andoceans.Napoleon’svauntedsuccesscompelledmentoseekandwagebattleinalike
manner.However,patterningorganizationsonfaultypropositionscanandoftendoesend
indestruction,aswhenBaronAntoinedeJominiledmanydownapathofmimicry
centeredonasupposeduniversalprincipleofwar.DallasD.IrvinefoundthataFrench-
influencedtemplatecenteredonslavishlystudyingNapoleon’smethods,orthoseofhis
interpreterslikeJomini,propagatedanofficersystemwherebystaffs,andstaffofficers,
werelargelyinconsequential.Menofmerit,whocouldshootfromthehipandoperated
largelywithoutadvisorystaffs,foundsufficientemploymentintheNapoleonicarmies.100
“Thisstateofaffairsonceestablished”,observedIrvine,“…tendedtoremainfixed,forit
accordedwiththeengrossingtendenciesofstrongandablecharacters….”TheAmerican
ArmyenthusiasticallyacceptedthisFrenchsystem.
DennisHartMahan,fatherofthefamousnavaltheoristAlfredThayerMahan,
graduatedfromWestPointin1824andfornearlythenextfiftyyearsservedasaprofessor
there.However,beforeMahansettledinatWestPointhedepartedforthebattlefields,
fortifications,andwarcollegesofEurope.Mahanoverthenextfouryearsfamiliarized
99AlexisdeTocqueville,AlexisdeTocqueville:DemocracyinAmerica:ANewTranslationbyArthurGoldhammer(NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,2012),3;MorrisRaphaelCohen,AmericanThought:ACriticalSketch(Piscataway,NJ:TransactionPublishers,1954),37–39;Commager,TheAmericanMind,7–8.100DallasIrvine,“FrenchandPrussianStaffSystemBefore1870,”TheJournaloftheAmericanMilitaryHistory2,no.4(1938):198.
48
himselfwiththeintimatedetailsofFrance’sfortificationandengineeringminds,Vauban.101
Mahan’stimeonlyreinforcedhispredispositiontowardFrenchsolutionsandengineering.
OvertimeMahan’sinfluenceanddominancegrewwithinWestPointuntilhiscourse
becamethe“capstoneoftheentirecurriculum.”Ofmaterialthatcomprisedthecapstone
courseonlyeightpercentwasnotengineeringrelated.102Inonesense,therefore,theU.S.
Armydidhaveaphilosophy--engineering.D.H.Mahanarguedthatfortificationswerenot
onlynecessaryforthesuccessofmilitiaagainstprofessionalsoldiers,butthatitwasthe
nation’sdutytoprovideeverymeanstoimprovetheirsurvivalandsuccess.Hisargument
carriedtheweightofdoctrinesincehecontrolledmilitaryofficereducationforthebetter
partoffiftyyears.103
CadetsatWestPointweregivenaneducationthatinitstotalitywasFrench.They
wererequiredtolearnFrench,mostthebooksinthelibrarywereFrench,theengineering
bookswerenearlyverbatimcopiesofFrenchworks,andmanyprofessorsweretrainedin
France.TheoccasionaltacticsclassusedFrenchmethodsandhypotheticalEuropean
enemies.WestPoint,priortotheCivilWar,embodiedtheU.S.Armyintellectual
professionalframework,andthatframeworkinmostrespects,withfewexceptions,
replicatedeverythingFrenchandfocusedonmilitaryandcivilengineering.
Institutions,whetherbrickorflesh,arereliantuponandshapedbythefoundation
onwhichtheyarebuilt.Theedificeisnoteasilyalteredoncelaid,andchangerequires
sufficientmotivationandpurpose,bothofwhichareusuallylackingshortofasignificant
101Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,57.102Ibid.,58.103DennisHartMahan,ATreatiseonFieldFortification,1852,viii.
49
threat.TheU.S.ArmyformedfromtheFrenchmoldcontinuedtodevelopalongthoselines
wellintothefuture.104
PriortotheinfluenceofThayerandMahanatWestPoint,theU.S.Armyhadturned
toready-madeFrenchdoctrinefortheWarof1812.105TherelianceonFrenchmilitary
thoughtcontinued,almostunabated,untiltheCivilWar.Thecordsofdoctrinaldependence
onFrancewereseveredonlyafterthePrussianscrushedFranceduringtheFranco-
PrussianWar.106ThoughtheFrenchdefeatnecessitatedare-evaluationofdoctrine,anda
shifttoPrussianmethods,theintellectualrootsoftheU.S.Armyprofessionnonetheless
remainedFrenchinthoughtandaction.
TheFrenchobserverofAmericancultureandpolitics,AlexisdeTocqueville,noted
inthe1830s:“Thereisnot,Ithink,asinglecountryinthecivilizedworldwhereless
attentionispaidtophilosophythanintheUnitedStates.”107Reason,accordingto
Tocqueville,wastheprincipaltraitthatdominatedtheAmericanmind.However,the
attachmenttoreasonisnotofothersbutderivedfromone’sownexperience.Thisreliance
uponpersonalrevelationwastheconsequenceofequality,anditisherethatTocqueville
illuminatedanAmericancondition--onethatfuseswithIrvine’sthesis,andinfusedthe
Armyasanemergingmodernprofession.Americansperceivedothers’capacityfor
reasoningtobemuchliketheirown.Thus.onearrivedataplaceafewstepsremovedfrom
thebeliefthatifpowersofobservationarerelativelyequivalentwhatgainistherein
104Academy,TheCentennialoftheUnitedStatesMilitaryAcademyatWestPoint,NewYork.1802-1902...,276;Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,11;HenryWagerHalleck,ElementsofMilitaryArtandScience:Or,CourseofInstructioninStrategy,Fortification,TacticsofBattles,&c.,EmbracingtheDutiesofStaff,Infantry,Cavalry,Artillery,andEngineers(D.Appleton,1862),134.105RichardV.Barbuto,Niagara,1814:AmericaInvadesCanada(UniversityPressofKansas,2000),125.106WalterE.Kretchik,U.S.ArmyDoctrine:FromtheAmericanRevolutiontotheWaronTerror(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2011),69.107Tocqueville,AlexisdeTocqueville,483.
50
readingandstudyingtheworksproducedbyotherindividuals,anactwhollynecessaryin
thedevelopmentofamorebroadmindedapproachtoprofessionalism108Thejunior
officersthatfilledtheranksoftheearlyAmericanarmywerenotclassicallyeducated
aristocrats.Instead,theycamefromthepracticalfieldsofmercantilismandfarming.They
desiredthefruitsoftheirlaborthatcouldbeenjoyedandobserved,thetangible,practical
andimmediate,lessthantheintellectualpuritythatoftenmotivatedtheirtheoretically-
mindedaristocraticcounterpartsinEurope.109TheU.S.Armypreferredofficersofanother
kind-menofaction.
PromotionswithintheU.S.ArmychangedduringtheWarof1812,withseniority
playingsecondfiddletodemonstratedability.Thedeclineofthesenioritysystemduring
themassiveexpansionofstateandfederalforcesduringtheWarof1812,lentitselfto
soldiersofmerit,aswellasthoseendowedwithagenerousdoseofambitionandpolitical
connections,notunliketheFrenchexperience.110Furthermore,thelowesteemofsociety
formilitaryofficersintheU.S.,withoccasionalexceptionsduringtimeofwar,didnot
generallyattractthebestandbrightestintoitsservice.111
Tocquevilledemonstratedanuncannyinsightintothepossibilitiesofequality.He
noted,“Iseetwoverycleartendenciesinequality:oneimpelseachindividualtowardnew
waysofthinking,whiletheotherwouldinducehimtogiveupthinkingvoluntarily.”112One
couldarguethatmoreofthelaterthantheformerhadoccurredwiththeranksoftheU.S.
Armyofficercorpsduringitsformativeevolutioninthe19thcentury.Equalityofthought
108Ibid.,483–485.109Ibid.,484–485.110Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,49–50.111Tocqueville,AlexisdeTocqueville,764.112Ibid.,492.
51
hasthepotentialtobreedthoughtlessness,andthewillingnesstoassumetheintellectual
cloakwithouttherigorsthatenlightenthemindbeneath.
Bycontrast,Clausewitzlaboredtopenetratethepenumbralofwartounderstanda
phenomenonthatpervadedhislife.ClausewitzfoundtutelageatthehandsofHans
GerhardJohannDavidvonScharnhorst;asoldier,teacher,andmentorwhofullygrasped
thepossibilitiesofmilitaryeducation.Inmanyways,therelationshipechoedthatof
SocratesandPlatoandtheeffectsoftheformeronhistorywerenolessthanthoseofthe
latter.Clausewitzprovidedarichandfertileintellectualframeworktostudythenatureof
war;though,therewereothertheorists,notablyJomini,whomofficersmightstudyinthe
developmentoftheirmilitaryprofession.113
ThePrussian,British,French,andAmericanmilitaryprofessionsdeveloped
accordingtothepeculiarsocial,political,andeconomicfactorsoftheirrespective
countries.TheBritishalwaysshowedmoreconcernaboutnavalmattersthanthoseoftheir
army—afterall,theBritisharmyhadchoppedofftheKing’sheadduringtheEnglishCivil
War.TheduelsbetweenFranceandGermanyprimarilyfueledtheprocessongoinginthe
UnitedStatesandelsewhere(suchasImperialRussia).Somecountries,suchastheUnited
States,duringthenineteenthcenturyalteredtheirprofessionaldevelopment,atleast
superficially,inaccordancewiththeverdictfromofthebattlefieldsofEurope.Battlefields
ofthewestandsouthwestasaresultprovedtobelessinfluentialthanthosehalfway
aroundtheworld.
113ChristopherBassfors,ClausewitzinEnglish:TheReceptionofClausewitzinBritainandAmerica1815-1945(OxfordUniversityPress,1994);PeterParet,ClausewitzandtheState:TheMan,HisTheories,andHisTimes(PrincetonUniversityPress,2007);AlanBeyerchen,“Clausewitz,NonlinearityandtheUnpredictabilityofWar,”InternationalSecurity17,no.3(1992):59–90.
52
TheMexican-AmericanWar(1846-1848)resultedinfew,ifany,significant
innovationstotheArmyofficercorps.114Officersinterpretedtheoften-lopsidedvictories
andlackofskillintheirMexicancounterpartsasconfirmationofthesuperiorityof
Americanarmsandmanifestdestiny.115Thus,theresultsofthewarservedasevidenceof
martialacumen.Therealthreat,andthereforelessonstobeobserved,emanatedfrom
acrosstheAtlanticneithertheIndianorMexicanthreatbreachedthatthreshold.
In1855,SecretaryofWarJeffersonDavis,dispatchedthreeofficers(collectively
knownastheDelafieldCommission)toEuropewithexplicitinstructionstostudyand
examineforeignarmies.Thecommissionrepresentedoneofthefirstsignificantsteps
towardthedevelopmentoftheAmericanmilitaryprofession.However,theofficers
dispatched--MajorRichardDelafield,MajorAlfredMordecai,andCaptainGeorge
McClellan--“hadallgraduatedfromWestPointwithacommissionintheCorpsof
Engineers.”116Thethreewerehighlyintelligentandrepresentedthebestofthearmy,but
theywereunabletobreakfreeofthemechanisticthoughtpatternsingrainedintothem
whileattheMilitaryAcademy.117
Thethreeofficerssetdowningreatdetailthetactical,technical,andmechanical
elementstheyobservedofEuropeanarmies,but,ashistorianMatthewMotenhasnoted,
theyutterlyfailedtoanalyzeorevencasuallyexamine“thefunctionsofhigh-levelstaffs.”118
Theyconstructed,astheyweretaughtandonewouldexpect,themodelWestPointproduct
114RussellFrankWeigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy(NewYork:Macmillan,1977),189.115Pearlman,WarmakingandAmericanDemocracy,101,104.116Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,75.117Ibid.,211.118Ibid.,208.
53
craftedwiththemindandthehandofanengineer.Thereportswere“widelydistributed”
ontheeveoftheCivilWar,butitisdifficulttoevaluatetheirimpactontheofficercorps.119
Thenatureofthereports,thoughthoroughandprofessionallywritten,didnot,and
couldnot,tendtomotivatethinkingthatponderedthehigherlevelsofwar.Accordingto
Moten,theU.S.Armyhadthreeintellectualdeficienciesinthemid-19thCentury:“an
overrelianceonFrenchexpertise,exclusiveconcentrationonengineeringastheonly
militaryscienceworthyofstudy,andtherewardingofachievementinendeavorsmore
civilianthanmilitary,morestaffthanline.”120Thereportshadnomeasurableeffecton
thosefailingsbythestartoftheCivilWar,andforthevastmajorityofficers,boththeblue
andgray,Frenchtacticsandprocedurescontinuedtogovern.
FrenchGeneralVictordeChanalshadowedUnionofficersduringtheCivilWar,
observingdrills,operationsplanning,andbattles.Hisobservationsledhimtoconcludethat
“ourmethodshavebeencopiedveryexactly.”121DeChanal’sthoroughaccountexamined
themajorbranchesofthearmyindetailandcontrastedUnionforceswiththoseofthe
FrenchArmy.Moreoften,thedistinctionswerenotofmethod,butofdetail.Hisanalysis
notedUnionartillery,cavalry,infantry,andengineersreplicatedFrenchdrillinalmost
everyaspect.122Furthermore,deChanalextendedhisinspectiontoincludeWestPont
wherehenoted,“theworkoftheengineeringcorps,provetheexcellenceofthescientific
instructionoftheacademy.”123HisfinalthoughtsontheMilitaryAcademyaremost
revealing:“Theacademyis,however,menacedwithareorganization,oneofthecausesof
119Ibid.,203.120Ibid.,205.121VictorDeChanal,TheAmericanArmyinTheWarofSecession(Leavenworth,KS:GeorgeA.Spooner,1894),26.122Ibid.,25,45,48.123Ibid.,132.
54
whichisanunfortunatedesiretoimitateEuropeansystems.”124Theeasewithwhichthe
U.S.militaryprofessionalternatedbetweentheFrenchandGermanmodelduringthe
nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturywassymptomaticoflargeranddeeperissuesand
servedtoconfirmtheintellectualimmaturityoftheU.S.Army.
Theamalgamationofthesediversefactorsdenotedabizarrealchemythat,whilenot
altogetherdeadlytothepatient,sufficedtodistort,inhibitandpermanentlystuntthe
developmentofanyAmericanmilitaryphilosophy.“Menwholiveinagesofequalityare
thereforenotinclinedtolocatetheintellectualauthoritytowhichtheysubmitoutsideand
abovemankind,”accordingtoAlexisdeTocqueville,“[for]usuallytheyseekthesourcesof
truthinthemselvesorintheirfellowmen.”125Theobservedpracticalityandindividuality
thatstirredTocqueville’spenresultedfromthestrongundercurrentsofRomanticismthat
fusedwithChristianitytoanimatetheAmericanspirit.Aforcenolesspowerful,though
perhapsmorediffuse,thanthefanaticismthatfueledaEuropeanarmyacenturylater,both
ofwhichwouldresulttheinsubjugationandconquestofthebetterpartofcontinent.“To
beamanisnottounderstandorreasonbuttoact,”wrotehumanistphilosopherIsaiah
Berlin,“…hishourofinspiration,ofpersonaltruth,whenheknowswhathemustdoto
realizeshisinnervision…toact,toliveinacreativefashion…thatistheheartof
romanticism.”126Toact,tomove,todosomethingembodiedtheAmericancharacter.In
manywaysitwastheirphilosophy;boldness,inthewordsofClausewitz,hasageniusallits
own.127
124Ibid.,133.125Tocqueville,AlexisdeTocqueville,490.126BerlinandHardy,TheSenseofReality,183.127Clausewitz,OnWar,190–192.
55
Theobviousconclusionisthatduringitsfirstcenturyofexistence,energeticaction
substitutedfordeepthoughtintheU.S.Army,andthatapproacharosefromadeeper
charactertraitintheAmericanpsyche-obsessionwithpracticality.H.S.Commagernoted,
“Nophilosophythatgotmuchbeyondcommonsensecommanded[theAmerican’s]
interest,andheruthlesslytransformedeventhemostabstractmetaphysicsintopractical
ethics.”128
Soldiersfarfromthefamiliarprecinctsofcivilizedlifesurvivedonthefrontierof
AmericaninsmalloutpostsdeepinthewildsofunconqueredAmerica.Here,morethan
anywhereelseinAmerica,soldierslivedday-to-dayandpracticalitytookonawholenew
meaning;bookswerefew,andthetimetoreadandcollaboratewithothersevenlessso.129
Thoseluckyenoughtobepostedalongtheeasternseaboardhadotherdutiesand
distractions.TheU.S.Army,unliketheGermansorFrench,didnothavetocontendwith
theever-presentthreatofinvasion,fortheAtlanticprovidedaninsurmountablebarrier.
Withouttheconstantthreatofinvasion,andwiththefocusonexpansioninthewest,any
impetusforofficersintheUnitedStatesArmytodeveloptheirintellectualcapabilities
rankedconsiderablylowerthansuchobsessionsaspolo,gambling,andattendanceat
musicals.
Insum,thepoorperformanceofAmericanmilitiaintheWarof1812cameasa
surprisetomanyobserverswho,aftertheAmericanRevolution,predictedonselected
evidencethatcitizen-soldiersproperlyledremainedamatchforanyregularsoldiers.The
128Commager,TheAmericanMind,8.129WilliamAddlemanGanoe,TheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy(NewYork:D.AppletonandCompany,1924),157;OliverLymanSpaulding,TheUnitedStatesArmyinWarandPeace(G.P.Putnam’sSons,1937),91;RussellF.Weigley,“TheLongDeathoftheIndian-FightingArmy,”GarryD.RyanandTimothyK.Nenninger,eds.,SoldiersandCivilians:TheU.S.ArmyandtheAmericanPeople(NationalArchives&RecordsAdministration,1987),27–29.
56
soberingresultsoftheWarof1812didnotendthemilitia–thoughithasteneditsend-but
itdiddemonstratethenecessityofmaintainingaprofessional,ifsmall,army.Overthe
ensuingdecadesWestPointofficersbegantofilltheranksoftheArmy,thoughtheupper
echelonsoccupiedbycolonelsandgeneralswereoftenpoliticalappointments.
Nevertheless,theArmyofficercorpsmaturedinthemiddlingranks,ledbyintelligentand
capableWestPointgraduates.However,Frenchdoctrinegenerallydominatedinstruction
atWestPointresultinginacorpsthatfunctionedandthought-inbroadoutlines-ina
mannerconsistentwiththeirengineeringinstruction.Americanculturealreadyinfused
withastrongpracticalandutilitarianstreakfoundfurthersupportintheeducational
curriculumofyoungofficers.
57
ChapterIII
OriginsandContextfortheArmy’sCulturalDNA
Thedevelopmentofanarmyisacomplexprocess.Itscreatorsarenotbio
geneticists,whosimplydecidewhatparticularcharacteristicsaredesirableinanarmyand
thenconcoctaserumwiththeappropriateingredients,placethemixtureinacentrifuge,
andtheninjectthesolution.Theanalogyisnotwithoutitsappeal,buttheDNAofanarmy,
ofanofficercorps,mutatesoveranextendedperiodoftimewitheachgenerationbuilding
uponthepreviousone.Social,political,economicandenvironmentalfactorsamongothers
contribute,thoughunequally,tothegeneticmakeupofanarmy.Theprocessisnotonly
oneofchoice,butoffortuneandnotalwaysofthefortuitouskind.Manyfactorsbeyondthe
oneslistedaboveprovidegeneticmaterials.130Nonetheless,therearedominant
intellectual,environmental,culturalandprofessionalinfluences,thatdeserveparticular
attentionfortheroletheyplayinthedevelopmentofofficers.131
Itwouldbetheheightoffollyforanyauthortoclaimacompleteunderstandingof
theintellectualtraditionsofanypeopleortoclaimthatenvironmentalfactorsaffectedall
individualsinthesamemanner.Themultiplicityofinfluences,manyofthemobscured
fromhistorians,makesanysuchendeavorunwise.However,analyticalinsightsaremuch
likeariver,fedfromtherunoffofmountains,springs,andvarioustributariesthatallow
onetoexaminethewateranddeducegeneralconclusions.AnanalysisoftheAmerican
militarytraditionrequiresthestudyofitsintellectualroots,andthus,itisessentialtohave
anunderstandingoftheexperiencesofearlyAmericansbecausethosemanifestationsof130Commager,TheAmericanMind,409.131Ibid.
58
“character”haveexertedpotentandubiquitousinfluenceonthemilitaryprofessiontothe
presentday.132
EarlyimmigrantspredominatelycametoNorthAmericaforabetterlifeandto
escapetherestrictions,inwhateverformtheyexisted,ofoldEurope.Suchdangersand
adventuresattractedaparticularsoul,perhapsthedesperateorthebrave;arguably,
venturingintotheunknownrecruitedmenandwomenofadifferentmettle.133Thesemen
andwomenweregenerallyyoung,lookingforabetterlife,andincolonialAmericatheyhad
reasonableexpectationsofowningsomeland.
InTheAmericanMindHenrySteeleCommagerstates“thatsoheterogeneousan
inheritanceshouldresultinsohomogeneousacharactersuggeststhattheenvironment
wasdecisive.”134Thosewhocametothecolonieswerewillingtostandapartfrom
everythingtheyhadeverknown.Traditionalbondsunraveledwiththesailsthatbore
themacross4,000kilometersoftheAtlantic.TheintellectualrootsinEuropegenerally
failedtopenetratethesoiloftheNewWorldtoanymeaningfuldepth,andthechallengesof
subjugatinganunyieldinglandshapedtheideasandoutlooksofthosewhoenteredthis
environment.TheNewWorldwasdeficientinlabor,hadlandinplentywithvastarable
areas,oncecleared,andafertilefishingshorethatstretchedtheentiretyoftheAtlantic
seaboardandprovidednearlyunlimitedfoodforthehardworkingperson.
ThephysicalcharacteroftheAmericatheimmigrantsencounteredgaveprioritytothe
pioneer,Conestogawagon,andaxe.ThousandsofmilesfromEurope,whatbecameknown
astheindustriousAmericanspiritwasborn,notoutofdesignorintent,butofnecessity.
132DenisWilliamBrogan,TheAmericanCharacter,ByD.W.Brogan,1944.133GeorgeSantayana,CharacterandOpinionintheUnitedStates(Norton&Company,1934),169.134Commager,TheAmericanMind,4.
59
Theharshandunconqueredlandsrequiredthebuildingofroads,canals,bridges,
andharbors.Pioneersclearedlands,plowedandplantedfields,constructedfences,dug
canals,andbuiltcabins.Eachmanusedhisownwittomeetthemassivelogisticaland
physicalrequirementsofthisendeavor.Self-relianceandindividualismthrivedwhen
deprivedoftherestrainingandcontaininghandofgovernance.Menmadetheirpeace
throughforce—nootherrecoursetoahigherauthority,saveGodandguns,existed.Atthe
individuallevel,thesephenomenawereexecutedcountlesstimesgivingrisetocorporate
activityandthereforeamindsetaboveallelsethatprizedpracticality.Thephilosophical
andintellectualimpetuswitheredindirectproportiontothephysicaldemandsofanew
world.135
Theenvironment,initstotality,lackedstandingtraditioninalmostanyformthat
mighthavefunctionedtorestrictandretardtherangeofthought,andthus,themindwas
givenfreerein.Imaginationanddiscoverythrivedinoneofthoserareperiodswhere
ignoranceoftheimpossiblemadeeveryendeavorseempossible,muchlikeneweyes(or
eyeglasses)cansolveaseemingly-intractableproblem.Unmitigatedpossibilitygavebirth
tovibrantandfertileideasofunboundedopportunitythatfoundresonanceinthe
corporealexpanseoftheWest.Themindofmenempoweredbyoptimismanimatedthe
agencyoftheindividualandcollectivelyinspiredasenseofthepossiblethatendured,
almostunimpeded,fortwocenturiesinAmerica.Theconceivablebecamepossiblethrough
theintenseingenuityandpracticalityofthecommonAmerican-aresultof,andmade
necessaryby,theunfetteringofthehumanmindfromthelimitationsofanachronistic
135Cohen,AmericanThought,29,30,39.
60
tradition.“Americanoptimismwas,”accordingtoCommager,“infact,impenetrableand
unconquerable.”136
Thus,whatisgenerallydeemedtheAmericancharacterisflexible,yetstrongand
robustinnature,butalmostwhollyunsuitedforuseintheconstructionofphilosophical
edifice.Americans,regardlessoflocality,whetherlivinginBostonorCharleston,shareda
deepandabidingbeliefintheunrealizedpotentialofthefuture.JustasnoteveryPrussian
wasatJena,noteveryAmericantraveledwest;neverthelesstheyexperiencedvicariously
theexperienceofcrushingdefeatandunboundedoptimism.WilliamSkeltoninAmerican
ProfessionofArmsfounda“spiritofadolescentrebellionthatpervadedtheearlynational
period.”137ThebondsofearlyAmericawerestrong,thesinewofayouthfulnationflexible,
andasaresultimmediateexperienceratherthanthedictatesoftraditiondeterminedwhat
itmeanttobeanAmerican.138WhathappenedinNewYorkwasnotwhathappenedinthe
OhioValleyandthatwhichhappenedintheSouthwestwasnotwhathappenedin
Richmond,butthespiritofanageisnotboundbygeography,thoughitmostcertainlycan
beshapedbyit.139
Colonialsfoundsolaceinsturdyfences,areliablemusket,anddependablefriends.
Herepioneershadlittletimeforprofoundthoughtsandreflection.Butifonefoundlittle
timeforphilosophythatdidnotholdtrueforwhatwetermpsychology;someideasare
formedfromthought,othersfromunconscioushabit.Thenewpsychologyofdemocratic
136Commager,TheAmericanMind,162.137Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,55.138Commager,TheAmericanMind,5;Cohen,AmericanThought,28–29.139RobertM.Citino,TheGermanWayofWar:FromtheThirtyYears’WartotheThirdReich(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,2008),XIVCitinoexplainedthatGermanmethodsofwardevelopedinpartfromgeography;JaredDiamond,Guns,Germs,andSteel(NewYork:Norton,1997).
61
individualismemergedfromday-to-dayactivatesthatsustainedlifeincolonialAmerica.140
ThemindsetofAmericansintheearlynineteenthcentury,bynomeanshomogenous,did
sharequalitiesthatlateramalgamatedunderthethreatofrevivedBritishtyrannyandthe
stampofRedcoatboots.141
ThevastmajorityofearlyAmericansfarmed,fishedortraded,withfarminga
distantfirstfromtheothers.Southernstaplesincludedrice,indigo,andtobacco;whilein
theNorthgrain,cattleandfishingdominated.Thecultivationofriceandtobaccodiffered
fromothersintheirintenselaborrequirements.Theincreaseintobaccofarmingwent
handinhandwithademandformorelabor.Whiteindenturedservants,oftenwithother
opportunities,shirkedtheharshdemandsoftobaccofarming.Thus,arapidincreaseinthe
demandforAfricanslavessoonfollowed.AlthoughAmericanslargelyembracedpractical
tradestheydidharborreservationstowardothers.
ThebeliefthatAmericansocietyis,orhasbeen,staunchlyantimilitarysinceits
inceptionisnotentirelyaccurate.142Anarmy,byitsnature,isacollectiveofindividuals
engagedinacooperativeactivity(albeitviolent,orpotentiallyviolent)intheserviceofthe
state.However,thenatureofaprofessionalarmyisdifferentfromonecomprisedof
warriorsormilitia,foraprofessionalarmyincorporatesfull-timesoldiersandofficers
educatedduringpeacetimeinthewaysofwar.Itwasthatmodelthatwasanathemato
Americanidealsthatvaluedindividualityandfreedomofchoiceandaction.Bycontrast,
JapaneseandChineseculturesvaluedcollectiveandcorporateactivityovertheneedsand
140VernonLouisParrington,MainCurrentsinAmericanThought:TheColonialMind,1620-1800(HarcourtBraceJovanovich,Inc,1927),131.141Ibid.,181.142JackC.Lane.“IdeologyandtheAmericanMilitaryExperience:AReexaminationofEarlyAmericanAttitudesTowardtheMilitary.”InSoldiersandCivilians:TheU.S.ArmyandtheAmericanPeople,ed.GarryD.RyanandTimothyK.Nenninger(NationalArchives&RecordsAdministration,1987),15.
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interestsoftheindividual.Thus,unlikeAmericanculture,servicetothewholeabovethe
individualcamemorenaturallyforsomeAsianculturesandEasternresistanceto
militarizationmeasuredwellbelowthetrendsuniquetoAmerica.
RevolutionaryeraAmericansheldaheroicviewofwarfare,notanuncommon
perspectiveintheWest,datingtoantiquity.143Heroicvirtueswerethoseanindividual
exhibitedonthebattlefieldintheserviceofGodandcountry,anditisnoteworthythatthey
neverthelessmagnifiedtheachievementsoftheindividual.Theysatisfiedadeep-seatedif
notentirelyhumandesiretobehonoredandesteemed.144Thus,withintheAmerican
conceptionofwar,theheroic,theidealized,andtheindividualizedwereclearlydistinct
fromthatofthecomponentsthatcomprisedtheprofessionalarmy.Thestandingarmyin
theeyesofearlyAmericansrepresentedeverythingtheyhatedabouttheBritish,acostly
andcoerciveorganizationthatnecessitatedtaxes.Suchanarmyhadasymbiotic
relationshipwithgovernmentsuchthatalargerandstrongerauthoritariangovernment
generatedalargerandstrongerarmyandcouldthenuse,atwill,forceofarmstoexercise
arbitrarypoweringreaterandgreatermeasureattheexpenseofindividualrights.145
AntipathytowardaprofessionalarmycontinuedfromtheAmericanRevolution
throughthepostWorldWarIeratovaryingdegrees,buttheideathatthestandingarmy
representedaseriousthreattolibertyabatedsignificantlybythepresidencyofAndrew
Jacksonin1829.146Circumstancesandcost,andattimesboth,militatedagainstalarge
standingarmyandforthosereasonsalonetheUnitedStatesArmyremainedatsubsistence
levels.
143JohnKeegan,TheMaskOfCommand:AStudyofGeneralship(RandomHouse,2011).144A.H.Maslow,“ATheoryofHumanMotivation,”PsychologicalReview50,no.4(1943):381.145RyanandNenninger,SoldiersandCivilians,18–21.146Ibid.,22.
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TheMexican-AmericanWarwaslargelyunpopular,butitsshortdurationcombined
withitssuccessfuloutcome,thedefeatofMexicanforces,demonstratedtotheArmythere
waslittleneedforreorganization.147Twentyyearslater,theAmericanCivilWar,despite
differencesinscaleandmagnitude,resultedinaquickreturnfortheArmytoprewarlevels
albeitthemeannumberofsoldiersrosefromaprewarlevelofaround16,000to29,000by
1871downfromahighof1,000,000in1865.148Armyofficerswereslowtodraw
connectionsbetweenthehighcasualtyratessufferedonthebattlefieldandadvancesin
modernweaponry.Thus,tacticscontinuedtrailtechnologicaladvancesinwar.149
UntiltheturnoftheTwentiethCentury,warintheeyesofordinary
Americansdidnotappeartorequireanyspecialtrainingorweaponry.Manandmusket
(laterrifle)sufficedinmostsituations.Numerousnineteenthcenturypoliticians,from
JacksontoGarfield,hadbeensuccessfulwartimecommanderswithoutsignificantmilitary
training.Castinthemythicimageofantiquity,ofrepublicanRomeanddemocraticAthens,
theUnitedStatesinheritedinstitutionsofasimilarqualityandcharacter,andlikeRome
andAthensfoundirresistibletherichestobegainedinhonor,land,andmaterialby
heedingthesirencallofwar.Itisnosmallironyofhistorythatsomeofthemost
“bellicose”nationsinhistoryareoftenthosethatbowmosteasilytothevoiceofthe
people.150Theimmenseresourcesofthewestcompelledmenofeverystaturetoexplore
andstriketheirclaims.The“peacetime”U.S.Armyprovidedsecurityforthatwestward
expansionandwasshapedbytheactionstherein.151
147Weigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,189.148Ibid.,567.149Ibid.,232.150AzarGat,WarinHumanCivilization(OxfordUniversityPress,2008),510.151MarcusCunliffe,SoldiersandCivilians:TheMartialSpiritinAmerica,1775-1865(Aldershot,UK:GreggRevivals,1993),46.
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Geographyiseasilyoverlooked.Becauseofitsubiquity,itcanbeaccepted,much
liketime,asamerefactofexistence.However,geographyhasprofoundlyaffectedthe
historyofhumankind.JaredDiamond’sthesisinGuns,GermsandSteelcentereduponthe
roleofgeographyinthedevelopmentofhumanbeingsandcivilization.152TheGermanWay
ofWarbyRobertCitinoand“TheMartialSpirit-NavyStyle”byJohnKuehnbothfollow
similarlinesofanalysistoDiamond’sthesis.Geographyisnottheonlyelementshapingthe
natureofwarfare,butCitinobelievedthatitwasasignificantifnotadominantcontributor
totheGermanwayofwar.153Likewise,KuehndemonstratedtheinfluenceofA.T.Mahan,
whoarguedtheuniquegeographicallocationoftheU.S.madethenationanaturalsea
power,thusshapingtheevolutionoftheU.S.NavyandtheapproachAmericanstookto
powerprojection.154
A“wayofwar”,whateveritmaybeandregardlessofnationalorcultural
inclinations,ismorethanachoice.Rather,itisanamalgamationofqualitiesthatgivea
particularcharactertotheactionsofapeople.Thosefactorsaredictatedasmuch,ifnot
moreso,byenvironmentthanbychoice.GreatBritaindecidedtobecomeagreatseapower
lessasaclearly-definedchoicethanbythefacttheBritishnationaroseonanisland.Japan
couldneverbecomeagreatlandpowernomatteritsambitionsbecauseofitslimited
populationduetogeographicalconstraints.
FrederickJacksonTurnerproposedoneofthemostwell-knowntheoriesonthe
shapingoftheAmericancharacteranditsinstitutionspredicatedontheunique
152Diamond,Guns,Germs,andSteel.153Citino,TheGermanWayofWar,xiv.154JohnT.Kuehn,“TheMartialSpirit—NavalStyle:TheNavalReformMovementandtheEstablishmentoftheGeneralBoardoftheNavy,1873-1900,”TheNorthernMarinerXXII,no.2(April2012):8–12.
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geographicalpropertiesofNorthAmerica.155TheAmericanfrontierofferedunbounded
opportunity,andunliketheOldWorld,thevast,sparselypopulatedexpanseshada
catharticeffectonthenationasawholethatlimitedviolenceandsocialtensions.156For
thefirstcenturyandahalfof,first,colonialand,then,U.S.control,westwardexpansionwas
thedominantelementofAmericanpoliticsandpolicy.
Turner’sthesiscanbeextendedforthelightitthrowsontheevolutionofthe
AmericanArmyand,byextension,itsofficercorps.Toprotect,advance,andmakeAmerica
acontinentalpowerrequiredanarmybutthesizeandcharacterofthatarmyhadyettobe
determined.Themilitia,despiteJefferson’shopestothecontrary,neverachievedtheends
imaginedforit,andinrealityfailedmiserablyinthewarof1812.157Washingtondespised
themilitia(havingservedwithaVirginiamilitiaunitduringtheSevenYearsWaragainst
theFrench),andperhapshisproximitytothemilitiafurtheredhismisgivingsabout
relianceuponyeomensoldierstoachievemilitarygoals.158Militiaperformancethroughout
theRevolutionremaineduneven,andafterthewarfrontierdemandsaskedtoomuchofthe
militia.ThefledgingArmyoftheRepublicfounditselfstretchedthinlyalongthefrontiers
ofthenation.ThemanningoffortsalongtheAtlanticcoastlineandprotectingpioneerson
theinteriorofthenationkeptsoldiersfullyengagedandthepart-timenatureofmilitia
combinedwiththechallengesofarduousresponsibilitiescalledforapermanentforce.
155FrederickTurner,“WesternState-MakingintheRevolutionaryEra,”TheAmericanHistoricalReview1,no.1(1895),http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834017.;FrederickTurner,“WesternState-MakingintheRevolutionaryEraII,”TheAmericanHistoricalReview1,no.2(1896),http://www.jstor.org/stable/1833651.156Turner,“WesternState-MakingintheRevolutionaryEra,”3.157Jefferson,TheWorksofThomasJefferson,2010,426.158GeorgeWashington,TheWritingsofGeorgeWashingtonVol.IX.1780-1782(G.P.Putnam’sSons,1891),143,154,174,175,454.
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TheArmy,followingtheCivilWar,maintainedastrengthofaround25,000until
1897.Likewise,officerstrengthfoundequilibriumaround2,100activeofficers.159William
GanoeinhisHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmywastoobserve:“Throughoutthenineteenth
century,withtheexceptionoftheCivilWar,theUnitedStateshadalowerratioofmilitary
personneltopopulationthanJapanoranyEuropeanpower.”160Themapsbelow
graphicallyillustratethewidelyspreaddistributionofactivearmysoldiers;primarilyalong
theentirewesternfrontierfromnorthtosouth.FrancisPaulPruchapublishedAGuideto
theMilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates1789-1895in1964.Themapscontainedwithinthat
studydemonstratevisuallythedifficultyofficersencounteredintheirmarchtoward
professionalization.161
Thegeographicaldispersionofthearmyprovedformativebothinformand
character,andby1843,whenseveraldozenfortsringedtheperimeteroftheUnitedStates,
mosthadfewerthanfourhundredsoldiersandahandfulofofficers.Communication
betweentheforts,andfromthefortstotheWarDepartment,remainedrudimentaryand
slow.ThedistancefromFortLeavenworth,Kansas,toWashington,D.C.isslightlyovera
thousandmilesandtravelbyhorsebackatthirtymilesaday,anoptimisticpace,tooka
rideralittleoveramonthtomakeaone-waytrip.Asthenationexpandedwestward,the
constructionoffortsfollowedandonoccasionledtheway.
159Weigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,568.160Ganoe,TheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,220.161FrancisPaulPrucha,AGuidetotheMilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates:1789-1895(Madison:StateHistoricalSoc.ofWisconsin,1964),11–34.
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TexasjoinedtheUnionin1845andCaliforniafollowedin1850.Asaresultthe
armyestablishednewfortsinthesestates.Afterthebriefexplosioninthearmy’ssizefrom
1846-1848inresponsetotheMexican-AmericanWar,theofficercorpsexpandedby
twelvepercentinthedecadefollowingthewar.162Theincreaseinsizerepresentedan
astonishinglymodestresponsebothtothewarandnewterritoryacquired.Garrisons
remainedquitesmall,frequentlylessthantwohundredsoldierswithafewofficers.163
162Weigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,566.163Prucha,AGuidetotheMilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates:1789-1895,11–34.
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OvertheensuingdecadethearmyexpandedintoOregon,Arizona,Utah,andNevada
toprovidesecurityforsettlersandcontrolIndiantribes.TheArmy’sprimary,ifnotsole,
dutyduringthisperiodwaspushingIndiansintoreservationsandopeningvastnew
territoriesforwhitesettlement.Understandably,mostIndiansstoutlyresistedthefloodof
settlersintotheirtraditionalgrazingandhuntinglands.Thedustyisolatedpostsdidnot
affordofficersthetimetoreadandstudy,muchlessthinkabouttheirprofession.Their
daysgenerallyconsistedofbackbreakingwork,chasingbanditsandsurvival.Evensuch
simpletasksasfindingfirewoodprovedtimeconsumingasmostnearbywoodswere
quicklyusedupintheconstructionoffortsandforwarmthinthewinter;thetaskbecame
morearduouswitheverypassingyearwithtreksofmorethantenmilesnotuncommon.
Ifoneexaminedthe“typical”experiencesofofficersintheWestduringthisperiod
andusedMaslow’sHierarchyofNeedsasthetemplate,theobviousobservationisthat
officersspentthemajorityoftheirtimeinthelowerrungsofsecurityandsurvival.The
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upperechelonsofthehierarchyoccupiedbyesteemandself-actualizationproveddifficult
toachieveintheday-to-daydemandsofwesternserviceforallbutthemostseniorU.S.
Armyofficers.164
TheCivilWarrepresentedamajorchangeinthisnarrative.Thepeacetimearmy
massivelyexpandedfromsixteenthousandsoldiersin1860toacombinedtotalofmore
thanonemillionNorthernandSouthernsoldiersby1865.Thearmyneverreturnedtoits
prewarsizedespitedischarging950,000soldiersbacktothecivilianworldfollowedby
gradualdeclinefrom1866-1870ofanother20,000.TheArmy’sreturntonormalcynever
achievedthatconditionwhichcamebefore;thenewformnolongerfitintotheold.The
armynumbered27,000soldiers,plusorminusafew,overthethirtyyearsfromtheCivil
War’sendtotheonsetoftheSpanish-AmericanWar.165NearlyeverymajorAmerican
164Maslow,“ATheoryofHumanMotivation,”4.165Weigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,567.
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conflictappearstoendwithaslighttomoderatelevelincreaseinthearmyovertheante-
bellumlevel.Later,whatEisenhowerlabeledthemilitaryindustrialcomplextraceda
similarpathwithshrinkageafterwarbutneverquitetoprewarlevels.166
Thegradualaccumulationofresidualartifacts,thingsrelatedtowar,whether
industrial,technological,ordoctrinalinnowayimpartedanunderstandingofwartoU.S.
Armyofficers.Astheresidueamalgamatestheseexperiencescanhindertheprofession,
impartingknowledgeofthingsaboutwarthatofficersmayspuriouslyinterpretasan
understandingofwar.Theyaretoolsofwar,buttheyarenotwar.Thismisstepwasfatal
becauseitappearedlogical.
WiththeconclusionoftheCivilWar,officersconcernedthemselveswiththe
reconstructionoftheSouth.Makinguseofexistingforts(andsomefewnewonesthat
dottedtheSouth,detachmentsofsoldiershelpedrebuildroads,railways,andtowns.Army
officerswhoremainedintheservicenownearlyuniversallyhadbattlefieldexperience.
Thatwasasignificantpoint,fortherearemanyadvantagestoactualbattlefieldexperience
foranofficer,anddependingontheprofessionalculturedominantatanytime,itcouldbe
thesinglemostimportantfactorthatshapesperceptionsofwar.However,itcanalso
impartadegreeofarroganceinanyofficer,butespeciallytothosethatlackabroadliberal
education.Itisatruismthatthepossessionofaliberaleducationconveysan
understandingofotherwaysofthinkingandbeing.Lackingbreadthofinsightsimparted
byintellectualstudies,officersmaybelievethattheyunderstandwarmorecompletelyand
166DwightD.Eisenhower,“Eisenhower’sFarewellAddresstotheNation,”January17,1961.
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comprehensivelythanothersbasedsimplyontheirexperience,anattitudethatinhibitsthe
developmentoftheindividual,andcollectively,theprofession.167
By1878thevastmajorityoffortsintheSouthhadclosedshopandtheirpersonnel
hadbeenre-deployedtothewest.ChasingrebelliousIndiantribesandprovidingsouthern
bordersecurityonceagainbecamethefocusoftheArmy.FortsinMontanaandWyoming
expandedtobettercontrolthelargereservationsandoccasionalIndianoutlaws.The
movementoffortswestwardlefttheMidwestnearlydevoidofsoldiers.Despitethis,the
army’swesternpopulationsinthesefortsremainedsmall,generallynumberingfewerthan
threehundredsoldierswithonlythreefortsnumberingmorethanathousand.In1878the
armyincludedamere23,870soldiersand2,153officers.168
167JasonW.Warren,“TheCenturionMindsetandtheArmy’sStrategicLeaderParadigm,”Parameters45,no.3(2015):13.168Weigley,HistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,567.
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Lifeonthefrontierdidnotaffordmanyopportunitiesforprofessionalizationand
theredidnotseemtobeanyparticularlypressingneedtodoso.ColonelStephenC.Mills,
writingabouthisearlierexperiencesinthewest,summedupanaverageday:
Youwerewet,andcold,andhungry;ordry,andhot,andthirsty,accordingtoyourgeographicallocation.YouchasedelusiveIndiansoverroutesofalkali,rockandsage,theyusuallygotawayfromyouandallyougotinreturnwerethejeersofthefellowswhodidn’thappentobeoutthattrip…Youwerealwaysbehindonyourpaperwork,andwhenyougotthechancetomakepapers,itwasusuallydonewiththepaucityofdetailonlyequaledbyMarkTwain’sboyhooddiary.Amonth’shardscoutingwasdismissedbytheentry‘distancemarchedduringmonth,360miles…’Thesewerethegoodolddayswhenonedrilladay,fivedaysaweek,comprisedmilitarytraining.Targetpracticewaspracticallyunknown.Ithinktheallowanceofammunitionwas20roundsayear,andbycustomoftheserviceitwentinhunting.169
Theenvironment,thephysicalgeography,anddailydemandsonofficersof
nineteenthcenturyAmericalargelymilitatedagainsttheformsofprofessionalizationseen
inEuropeannations,althoughtherewere“professionalizes”intheforce.Onerecent169GeorgeCroghanandFrancisPaulPrucha,ArmyLifeontheWesternFrontier:SelectionsfromtheOfficialReportsMadeBetween1826and1845(UniversityofOklahomaPress,2014).
73
historicalstudyhasarguedthe“emergenceofastableprofessionoccurredbetweenthe
warof1812andtheCivilWar.”170However,boththequalityandquantityofthat
professionalizationmustbeinquestion.Certainly,whencomparedtothe
professionalizationoftheofficercorpsinFranceorPrussia,orevenwithinother
professions,theprofessionalizationoftheUnitedStatesArmyfellshortoftheideal.What
isnotinquestionisthatanarmyofdiminutivenumbers,bothinsizeandratiobyany
militaryEuropeanstandard,founditselfscatteredoverageographicalregionvastlylarger
thananysingleEuropeancountry.171TheU.S.Armywaswidelyscatteredonthewestern
frontierinsmallforts,andlikewiseitsideasremainedequallyseparatedbythedistances
andhardshipsimposedbyfrontierservice.
Theexchangeofideas,certainlyanecessaryprerequisitetoanyprofession,were
severelylimitedbythepaucityortotallackofanyroadnetworkconnectingtheseposts.
HistorianWilliamSkeltonhasnotedattheturnofthenineteenthcenturythat“economic
activitiescombinedwithprolongedtenureatsmallpoststoencouragelocalorientationin
theearlyofficercorps-atendencytoidentifywithaparticularcommunityorregionmore
stronglythanwiththearmyasanationalinstitution.”172FrederickJacksonTurnernoteda
similartrendinhiswork,GeographicSectionalisminAmericanHistory,statingthat,“the
UnitedStatesbeingpracticallyaslargeasallofEurope,itmustbethoughtofincontinental,
andnotmerelyinnationalterms.”173Thus,therewereminimalstandards,aboveand
beyondemergence,thatonemustattainbeforesuchidentityconstructionconstitutesthe
170Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,XV.171Prucha,AGuidetotheMilitaryPostsoftheUnitedStates:1789-1895,7–33.172Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,46.173FrederickT.Turner,“GeographicSectionalisminAmericanHistory,”AnnalsoftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers16,no.2(1926):1.
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actualizationofaprofession.Ifamilitiaweretoacquirethetitleofanactivearmyunitand
thenfounditselfinbattle,itwouldstillperformtostandardsasconferredbyitstrainingas
militia,tosaynothingofthenotabletimeinvestmentrequiredtodevelopintellectual
facultiescomparedtothoseofbattledrills.Americanpolicythroughoutthenineteenth
centuryfocusedchieflyonwestwardexpansionandtheArmy’sprimary,ifonlyexplicit,job
wastosupportthatend.TheArmyandCongresscouldconceiveofnothreatthatjustified
anarmybeyondthatofIndiandepredationsorcoastalattack,andboththefundingforthe
militaryandnumberofsoldiersinuniformsupportedthatoutlook.
Furthermore,asubtleandlargelyunnoticedphenomenonofexpansionand
contractionwasthecreationofanorganizationalandintellectual“residue”intheofficer
corps.TheWarof1812,Mexican-AmericanWar,CivilWar,andSpanish-AmericanWarall
requiredalargeinfusionofpersonnelwithinabriefwindowoftime.Likewise,
demobilizationproducedthesameactionbutinreverse.Consequently,thesystem
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adoptedandconformedtothesedemands.Materialandmanpowerdemandscouldbemet
through[prodigiousfeatsofaction].Intellectually,however,theofficercorpssuffered,
unabletoattractthebestandbrightestgiventhelimitedopportunitiesforadvancement.
Especiallyduringtheperiodsofeconomicexpansion,financialandotherrewardsfor
militaryservicecontrastedsharplywiththeopportunitiesavailableincivilianlife.174The
processofrapidmobilizationmadesenseinacountrythatprizedequality,andifallare
intellectuallyequalthenoneisdefinedandrecognizedbytheirdeeds.175Theseindividual
facetsamalgamatedtoproduceaculturethatprizedmanagerialskillsandpractical
accomplishment.
AsthecenturycametoacloseandwiththeIndianslargelysubdued,thesmallforts
disappeared.Fortsdecreasedinnumber,butincreasedinsizewithamoreequitable
distributionacrosstheUnion,thelargestconcentrationremainedinthenorth-central
statesnearthereservations.SamuelHuntingtonarguedthatisolationfrompoliticsiskey
tothedevelopmentofaprofessionalbody.176Inthe19thCenturyAmericancontext
isolationismextendedbeyondjustseparationfrompolitics,toincludeseparationofofficer
fromofficer,andgreatlyhamperedtheprocess.Thedistancesinvolvedsufficedtosuffocate
theexchangeofideasnecessarytofirearmyprofessionalization.Notuntilthe20thcentury
dawneddidtheflamesofprofessionalizationburnwithanydegreeofintensity,anditisno
coincidencethatthearmywasinamoregeographicallyfavorablypositiontocapitalizeon
174Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,118;Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,198–199.175Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,203.176Ibid.,34.
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theprocessbythattime.177TheseexperiencesprovidedthecontextualbasisfortheArmy
thattransitionedintothetwentiethcentury.
177ToddR.Brereton,EducatingtheU.S.Army:ArthurL.WagnerandReform,1875-1905(UofNebraskaPress,2000),21–29;Spaulding,TheUnitedStatesArmyinWarandPeace,394–397;PaulA.C.Koistinen,MobilizingforModernWar:ThePoliticalEconomyofAmericanWarfare,1865-1919(UniversityPressofKansas,1997),88–96.
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ChapterIV
JournalsandProfessionalization
Professionalizationgrewapaceduringthenineteenthcenturyinmostfields,butin
theU.S.Army,aspreviouslyemphasized,ittendedtoreflectthepersonaldevelopmental
inclinationsofindividualofficers.Onemeasurementofthatprogresswasthepublication
ofjournals.Dr.SamuelLathamMitchellpublishedTheMedicalRepository(1797),thefirst
medicaljournalintheUnitedStates.178BenjaminSillimanestablishedTheAmericanJournal
ofSciencein1818.179TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine(1812)istheoldestcontinually
publishedmedicaljournalintheworld.180TheJournaloftheAmericanChemicalSociety,
establishedin1879,isoneofthefirstpublicationsfocusedonchemistryandtheJournalof
theRoyalUnitedServiceInstitution(RUSI),aBritishpublication,firstranin1857and
servedtoinformmilitaryofficers.181
However,Americanmilitaryjournals,especiallythosewhichfocusedontheUnited
StatesArmy,neverenjoyedthesamekindoffinancialsuccess,andthustendedtohave
shorterlivesthatthoseintheengineeringandmedicalfieldsexperienced.182Although
militaryjournalsbrieflyflourishedinthesecondquarterofthenineteenthcentury,many
diedwithinyearsoffirstpublication.183Thesecondhalfofthecenturydidseethe
178RichardJ.KahnandPatriciaG.Kahn,“TheMedicalRepository—TheFirstU.S.MedicalJournal(1797–1824),”NewEnglandJournalofMedicine337,no.26(1997):1926–30.179“AmericanJournalofScience,”AmericanJournalofScience,2014,http://www.ajsonline.org/site/misc/about.xhtml.180“TheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine,”NewEnglandJournalofMedicine,2014,http://www.nejm.org/page/about-nejm/history-and-mission.181“TheRoyalUnitedServicesInstituteThroughHistory,”RUSI,accessedApril21,2014,https://www.rusi.org/history/ref:L4607E6D83729C/.182Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,258.183Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,56.
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foundingoftheArmy-NavyJournalduringtheCivilWarbytwobrothersandthe
establishmentofthenavaljournal,Proceedings,in1874,andtheJournaloftheMilitary
ServiceInstitutionoftheUnitedStatesin1879.184Nevertheless,thesejournalswerenot
specifictothearmy,generallylackedtherigorfoundinotherprofessionalpublications,
andfrequentlyfailedtogeneratescholarlydebate—theprimarypurposefortheir
publication;itisworthemphasizingthatconcernsforrank,tradition,andlackofan
existentialthreatcombinedwithvastdistancesservedastheprimaryimpediments
scholarlydebate.185Proceedings,anavalfocusedpublication,representedthebestexample
ofanoutlierinthisrespect.186
Professionaljournalsdemonstrateanintentbothtoexpandspecializedknowledge
andtoorganizethefield.TheArmydevelopedintellectuallyatamuchslowerratethan
someofitscompetitorsacrosstheoceans.First,thegeographicallocationoftheUnited
Statesprovidedanaturalbarriertoongoingintellectualexchangeamongnations.
CompetingstatesbothinEuropeandintheFarEastgenerallyshareborderswithother
maturingstates.Theproximityofthesestatestoeachotherhistoricallyhavecreated
tensions,andthus,professionalizationofofficersandarmiesgrewtodefendstateinterest.
TheU.S.founditselfinanenviablegeographicalpositionasBismarckispurportedtohave
observed:“theAmericanshavecontrivedtobesurroundedontwosidesbyweak
neighborsandontwosidesbyfish.”Thus,formostofitsexistencetheUnitedStatesdid
notfaceexistentialthreatsatanypointonthecompass.U.S.securitythreats,priortothe
184“Proceedings,”U.S.NavalInstitute,2014,http://www.usni.org/about/history;“ArmyOfficersUniting:AMilitaryServiceInstitution.,”NewYorkTimes,September29,1878;FrankLutherMott,AHistoryofAmericanMagazines,1850-1865(HarvardUniversityPress,1938),547.185Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,56.186Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,243.
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atomicbombemanatedeitherfrominternalunrestorIndians.Asaresult,theUnited
States’strategicatmospherelackedoneofthekeyelementsnecessarytocatalyzeofficer
professionalization,namelyaproximateenemy.
Incontrast,thePrussians,reelingunderthe1806defeatatJena-Auerstedt
professionalizedtheirofficercorpsundertheguidanceofGerhardvonScharnhorst,andby
1816establishedthemilitaryjournal,Military-Weekly.Thismilitaryjournalremainedin
publicationforonehundredandtwenty-fiveyears.187Prussian,andlater,Germanofficers
usedittoexchangeviewpointsanddevelopideasonwar,anditservedinthatcapacity
until1942whenimpendingdefeat,followingStalingrad,sweptawayanydesireto
continue.Conversely,theUnitedStatesArmy--establishedin1775--predatedthe
formationoftheGermanstatebynearlyonehundredyears.However,theU.S.Army’sfirst
professionalpublication,theInfantryJournal,didnotbeginpublicationuntil1904,one
hundredandtwenty-nineyearsaftertheinstitutionformed.Thus,usingprofessional
journalsasamechanismformeasurement,theGerman-speakingmilitaryprofessionalized
warnearlyacenturybeforetheUnitedStatesArmy.TheexplanationisthattheGerman
strategicenvironmentoccupiedapositionpolaroppositetotheAmerican,apositionthat
compelledtheGermanstomakeaclosestudyofwar.
TheInfantryJournalwasthefirsttruejournalreflectingconcernsoftheU.S.Army.
ItqualifiedasrepresentativeofAmericanmilitaryculturesincetheinfantrybranchwasthe
largestandmostimportantbranchofthearmyduringthisperiod.Thejournal,published
quarterly,focusedonthetacticallevelofwar,thoughalsoincludingoccasionalpiecesthat
examinedpolicydrivenconcerns.Oneenlighteningsectiondevotedtoforeignarticles
187White,TheEnlightenedSoldier,158.
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providedinsightintohowotherarmiesfunctionedandcoveredabroadrangeoftopics.
Forexample,in1912MajorImmanuel,aGermanofficer,authored“TheInfantryAttack:A
ComparisonofthePrinciplesoftheAttackoftheGerman,FrenchandRussianInfantry”,an
articlethatexaminedvarioushistoricalexperiencesthatledtodifferencesinbattle.188
However,takenasawholethejournal(notablydifferingfromthePrussianMilitary-
Weeklyinthisregard)servedmoreasanorganofthearmythanasavenuetoexchange
competingideas.MuchlikeFrenchArmypolicyofintheperiodbetweentheworldwars,if
positionsandconceptsthatappearedinpopularjournalsorperiodicalsoftheperioddid
notconformtotheacceptedpolicyofthedaytheauthoroftenfacedrepercussions.For
example,DwightD.EisenhowerreceivedaverbalreprimandfromMajorGeneralCharlesS.
Farnsworthforpublishingideasthatconflictedwithdoctrine.Eisenhowermodifiedhis
positionasaresultoftheimplicitthreatcouchedinFarnsworth’swarning.189
Ananalysisof1100articlesfromtheInfantryJournalbetween1904and1921
revealsseveralnotabletrends(seegraph).Thematically,thejournaldividedintothirteen
differentsections:lowtechnology(example:saddles,ironsights,backpacks),high
technology(example:machineguns,airplanes,telephones),foreignarticlesontechnology,
foreignarticlesconcerningregulations,training,doctrine(example:tactical,operational,
theoretical),general(Example:companycooksandkitchens),management(socialscience
ofman),humanelement(spiritofman),education,policy(example:militia,strategic,
diplomatic),andafteractionreviews(example:historicalanalysis,battleanalysis,
reflections)providedthestructureforexamination.Majorarticles,ratherthanopinionor
188Immanuel,“TheInfantryAttack:AComparisonofthePrinciplesoftheAttackoftheGerman,FrenchandRussianInfantry,”trans.H.J.Damm,InfantryJournal9(1912)Firstnamenotprovided.189DwightD.Eisenhower,AtEase:StoriesITelltoFriends(GardenCity,NewYork:Doubleday,1967),173.
81
editorialpieces,remainedthefocusoftheanalysis.Thecategoriesofafteractionreviews
and“general”havebeenremovedfromthegraphtofacilitategreaterclarityandfocuson
thosetopicsmostgermanetothedissertation.Theauthorcreatedthegraphdepicted
belowtovisualhighlighttopicalchangeswithintheInfantryJournal.
83
Trainingcomprisedtacticalactivitiessuchasmarksmanship,battledrills,andtroop
movementamongotheractivities.However,suchtrainingwasintendedtoachieve
minimalcompetenceatagivenactivityinarelativelyshortperiodoftime.Itdidnotbegin
toapproachthedevelopmentofexpertisebutaimedtoprovidebasicknowledgetonew
recruitsandpracticetoofficerscontrollinglargebodiesofsoldiers.Inthepagesofthe
InfantryJournal,trainingconsistentlyrankedatornearthetopwithaconsiderablespikein
emphasisduring1916-17astheUnitedStatespreparedtoentertheFirstWorldWar.A
significantdropoccurredoncesoldiershitthebattlefield.Onemightassumethe
importanceoftrainingwouldonlyincrease,butoncesoldiersenteredcombat,experience
becametheprimaryinstructor,andthusarticlescorrespondinglyshiftedinemphasis.
TheArmythroughoutitshistorytendedtofocusonthetacticalminutiaeofwar
abovethestrategicdimensionsoforganizedconflict.Thistacticalfocusisunderstandable
giventhisiswherethefightinganddyingtakesplace;furthermore,victoryatthetactical
levelintuitivelyimpliesvictoryinwar,althoughinpracticethatisnotalwaysthecase.
Logicallyonemustproceedfromtheother,butwarisnotrationalandthuslogicdoesnot
penetratefarintothisopaquephenomenon.Nevertheless,theinterestofarmyofficersin
thetacticallevelofwarisreflectedinthequantityofarticlespublishedonthistopicinthe
InfantryJournal.However,atacticalmindsetdoesnotrequiremuchofaneducational
effortsinceitcanlargelybederivedfrompersonalexperiencewithoutadeeper
understandingofthenatureofwaranditsrelationshiptosocial,political,andeconomic
factors.
Atacticalmindset,oneneedstostress,isnotaparticularfocusoftheAmerican
officercorps,anditappearedtoafflicttheotherarmiestovariousdegrees.JonathanM.
84
HouseinTowardCombinedArmsWarfarenotedtwotechnologicalwavesthatmoved
throughWesternarmiesfrom1820-1890.191Thesechangesdirectlyinfluencedbattlefield
tactics,and,thus,generallycontributedtoamyopicviewofwar.
Technologicaldevelopmentsdistractedandconcernedofficersofthelatter
halfofthetwentiethcentury.However,theimportanceoftechnologicalchangeonshaping
thebattlefieldremainedanuncertainrealityintheyearsbeforetheFirstWorldWar.
Technologycouldanddidinfluencebattlesduringtheseventeenththroughnineteenth
century,buttheevidencewasinconclusiveastowhatdegreeitproveddeterminative.The
subjectwasoftenatopicofdebate.Withintheofficercorpshightechnologyranksthirdin
volumeofwritings,butsecondwhenforeignarticlesaboutadvancesintechnologyare
combinedwithdomesticanalysesonthesubject,edgingoutdoctrine.TheRusso-Japanese
Warattunedsomeobserverstothechangingconductofwarandprovidedreaderswith
potentialinsightintotechnologicaltrends.However,thebattlefieldcarnageoftheRusso-
Japaneseconflictoftenfellintoexistinginterpretations,andthus,thebellwethertolledbut
fewperceivedthechangeinpartbecausehistoricallytechnologygenerallyhadanegligible
effectabovethetacticallevel.192Followingthatconflict,foreigntechnologyarticles
generallydeclinedinproportiontodomesticarticles,andbythestartoftheFirstWorld
Warthevastmajorityoftechnologyarticleswereofdomesticorigin.Machineguns
191JonathanM.House,TowardCombinedArmsWarfare:ASurveyof20th-CenturyTactics,Doctrine,andOrganization(FortLeavenworth:CombatStudiesInstitute,1984),7–9.192WilliamH.Johnston,“ALessonFromManchuria:WhatWouldKuropatkinSayofUs?,”InfantryJournalVI,no.6(May1910);MichaelHoward,“MenagainstFire:TheDoctrineoftheOffensivein1914,”PeterParet,GordonA.Craig,andFelixGilbert,eds.,MakersofModernStrategyfromMachiavellitotheNuclearAge(PrincetonUniversityPress,1986),518.
85
populatedmanyoftheearlyarticlesfollowedlaterbynewartillerydevelopments.
Airplanesandtheradio,referredtothenasthe“buzzer”,appearedwithWorldWarI.193
Policyseizedthethirdspot,thoughthismaylargelybetheresultofquantifying
militiaasanartifactofpolicy,butitseemedthemostappropriatefit.Regardless,the
significantquantitiesofarticlesthatdiscusstheroleandcapacityofmilitiaisfurther
evidenceoftheslowintellectualprogressionofthearmyofficercorps.Mostnationshad
longsinceabandonedtheideathatmilitiacouldserveonthemodernbattlefieldwhilein
theUStraining,equipping,anduseofmilitiaoccupiedanodd,ifnotanachronistic
prominenceintheAmericanmind.Arelicofanotheragewithitssourcesinthewellspring
ofJeffersonandotherfounders,themilitia’sconductintheWarof1812shouldhavelong
dispelledsuchillusions.194However,theConstitutionallimitationsonthemilitiaimpeded
developmentofamodern,German-stylereserveforce.195DemobilizationinAmericaand
postwarpolicytowardGermanyconsumedthelatterpagesofpolicypiecesandincreased
notablyin1918and1919.QuestionsonhowandifGermanyshouldbebrokenup
frequentlyappeared.Piecesdiscussedwithhowlargequantitiesofprisonersofwarshould
behandledandthenreleasedafterthewar.196
Doctrineassumedfourthplacebehindpolicyandsomedistancebehindtraining,
althoughgiventhecloserelationshipbetweendoctrineandtrainingonecouldpotentially
amalgamatethetwowithoutdoingtoomuchviolencetotheanalysis.However,by
maintainingthedivisionthearmy’semphasisontraininganddoctrineareamply
193Holden,“InfantryJournalArticleAnalysisfrom1904-1921.”194Ibid.195JonathanM.House,“JohnMcCauleyPalmerandtheReserveComponents,”Parameters12,no.3(1982):11–18.196Holden,“InfantryJournalArticleAnalysisfrom1904-1921.”
86
demonstratedastheyassumedbothfirstandfourthplace.Doctrinalanalysisexploded
followingtheRusso-JapaneseWarasofficersattemptedtofindbattlefieldsolutionstothe
problemsposedbythemachinegunandmodernartillery.Doctrinalanalysissurged
significantlyastheArmypreparedtoenterthewardrawingheavilyfromtheFrenchand
British.However,priortoAmericanentryintothewar,officersfrequentlyexamined
Germandoctrinalmethods.ThiscontinuedtoalesserdegreeoncetheUSenteredthewar
in1917,whenthefocusshiftedtoAmericanexperiences.Officersnolongersoughtto
imitatetheGermans,butrathernowthatitdependedonthem,thefocusofarticlesshifted
tohowandwhattacticalactionsonemighttaketodefeattheGermans.
Surprisingly,doctrinaldiscussiondroppedoffsharplyasthearmyassumedits
allottedplaceinthetrenchesontheWesternFront.InitiallyAmericanofficersdeviated
littlefromthedoctrinewithwhichtheyhadenteredthewarandresisted,ifnotoutright
dismissed,BritishandFrenchexperiences.197Thebattlefieldarbitratesdoctrinaltheory
fromrealityanddelineatesthedistancebetweenthem.Unnecessarysacrificeisoften
proportionaltothedistancebetweenthetwo,sothatpracticalofficersclosethedistance
quickly;intelligentoneshaveashorterjourneyandthecostisconsiderablyless.Some
officercorpsareknowntolargelyjettisondoctrineonceincombatinpreferenceforwhat
works;still,thisgenerallyresultsinonlyminorshiftsratherthanwholesaleabandonment
ofpeacetimedoctrineunlessprobablydefeatsuppliestherequisiteimpetusforchange.
However,becauseofthecloserelationshipbetweentraininganddoctrineitshould
beacknowledgedthatsomearticlescrossedthetopicalthresholdfromdoctrinetotraining;
amoreequitabledistributionprobablywouldhaveresultedifthatcouldbedetermined.
197Kretchik,U.S.ArmyDoctrine,128.
87
GiventhetacticalemphasisofthepublicationandtheentranceoftheUSArmyenmasse
intothewar,itlogicallyfollowsthatofficersfocusedonarticlesfortrainingsoldiersforthe
battlefieldsofEuropepriortothewar.Onceonthebattlefield,officershadlesstimeto
writeandprobablyimprovisedutilizingwhattheyexperienced.
Foreignpiecesrankedfifthonthelist,butprovidedsomeofthemoreintellectually
interestingandthoughtfularticlesinthejournal.Translatedarticleswerefrequently
brokenintosegmentsandreleasedconsecutivelyovermultipleissues.Foreignarticles
acquaintedofficerswithrecentchangesonbattlefieldsaroundtheworldthatthey
otherwisewouldhavelacked.198RussianandJapanesetranslationsremainedrelatively
rarewiththevastmajoritycomingfromFrenchandGermansourceswithorganizational
andtechnologicalfactorscomprisingmostofthematerial.Workspublishedbythe
GermanGeneralStaffrankednearthetop,ifnotthemostcommonsourcefor
translations.199
Thecategoriesofregulations,general,andlowtechnologygrabbedthemiddling
positionsandarenotableonlyfortheirmediocrity.Theydemonstrateneitheragreat
interest,noralackthereof,andthereforearenotexaminedindetail.Thelightburns
brightestatthepoles,wherethatwhichanorganizationvalues,anddoesnot,isrevealed.
Managementmaybedefinedasthecontrolofboththeinanimateandtheanimate
foragivenpurpose.Inthiscontextmanagementisconcernedwiththecontrolofpeople
thatencompassesthesocialsciences,whichattheturnoftheTwentiethCenturywere
rapidlyexpandingfieldsdrivenbyprogressiveideasandanoptimisticviewofhuman
nature.Ifthehumanelementisdistinctwithitsfocusonthespiritofmanthen198Holden,“InfantryJournalArticleAnalysisfrom1904-1921.”199Ibid.
88
managementembodiesamechanisticviewofman.Managementplacedlast,butthat
makesitnotablenotforaperceivedlackofinterest,but,tothecontrary,thattherewould
besomuchemphasisonthisconceptintheemergingcircumstanceofwhathasbeen
termedthe“managerialrevolution”intheUnitedStates.200Thatmanagementbeincluded
atallisofinterest.Oneofthefirst“management”orientedarticlesappearedinthe
September,1910editionoftheInfantryJournal.CaptainF.J.Morrow’sarticleentitled
“CharacterExcellent”,examinedhowtocollect“data”usingformstorecord“efficiency”and
thenusethatdatafora“pay…bonus.”201FrederickTaylor’sinfluencewasunmistakable
hereandtheimportanceof“timeandmotionstudies”wastoincreaseexponentiallyinthe
U.S.Armyovercomingdecades.202
ManagementwasatopicofconsiderableinterestasthearmyenteredtheWorld
WarI.Armyofficerssearchedformethodstomotivateandcontrolmenundertheintense
firesofmachinegunsandrapid-fireartillery.Thehumanelement,especiallyinthecontext
ofbayonetwarfare,wasacommontopic,butgenerallypsychologicalanalysisonthefaceof
battleissparseatthispoint.ClausewitzandlaterColonelArdantduPicqtheorizedabout
emotioninwar,butmostofficersdiscussedtheimportanceofwhatcametobeknownas
“morale,”assessingthespiritofsoldiers,onlyinpassing.Thefieldofpsychologywasinits
infancywithanecdotalevidenceastheprimaryinformingsource.203
GeneralCharlesP.Summerall,ChiefofStaffoftheArmy,spoketotheArmyWarCollegein
February,1927on“TheHumanElementinWar.”Heemphasizedtheimportanceofthis
200MerrittRoeSmith,“Introduction,”MerrittRoeSmith,ed.,MilitaryEnterpriseandTechnologicalChange:PerspectivesontheAmericanExperience(MITPress,1985),10–29.201F.J.Morrow,“CharacterExcellent,”InfantryJournalVI,no.2(September1910).202FrederickWinslowTaylor,ShopManagement(HarperandBrothers,1919).203ArdantduPicq,BattleStudies,84–93.
89
element,especiallytheimportanceofleadershipaboveallotherfactorsinmotivatingmen.
Summerall’sspeechwasintendedtohighlighttheroleofmaninwar,butitselfassumed
thatamechanisticformulacouldbeemployed.Soldiersaresomethingtobemanaged
throughvariousmethodsemployedbytheleader.Thus,hecelebratedthehumanelement
butthentreatedthesubjectasanobjectivegovernedbymechanicalprescriptions.
Summerallobserved,“whiletheconsiderationofthehumanelementispredominantin
war,thereisagreatnecessityofcomprehendingitasanessentialinthemanagementof
meninpeace.”204Summerall’ssuppositionmightbeindicativeoftheperiodasofficers
struggledontheprecipiceoftechnologicalchangetocomprehendthewrenchinglessonsof
WorldWarI.
Sincethedawnofrecordedhistory,massesofindividualhumanbeingsbearing
personalweaponshadreignedsupremeonthebattlefield.However,thelessonsofWorld
WarIindicated,ifonelooksatthesheerscaleofbattlefieldcasualties,thatthisparadigm
nolongerremainedvalid.Summerallequivocatedabouttheissue,stating,“Itistritetosay
thatthehumanelementremains,asithaseverbeen,thedeterminingfactorinbattle.
Machinesandarmsmaybemultipliedandchanged,butthemanwhousesthemwill
determinethefinalissuesofvictoryordefeat.”205Theroleofmachinesandarmshaving
beenacknowledged,heheldtotheview,asemphasizedinthelatterhalfoftheabove
quotation,thatmannotmachinedecidestheoutcomeofwar.However,thekeywordin
theabovepassagebySummerallis“uses”.Victoryisnowachievedbythesoldierwhobest
wieldsmoderntechnology.Mannolongercarriesthebattlealonebutinconjunctionwith
thetool,andeventuallyonlythetoolwouldbecomepivotal.204C.P.Summerall,“TheHumanElementinWar,”TheCoastArtilleryJournal66,no.4(April1927):293.205Ibid.
90
Theso-called“AmericanWayofWarorBattle,”whatevernomenclatureoneprefers,
beginstorevealitselfhere.206QuiteapartfromtheGermanmodelthatAmericanofficers
desiredtoemulate,inmanyfacetsitremainedinderivationclosertotheFrenchsystem.
Nonetheless,auniquelyAmericansynthesisofbattledeveloped,buttheevolutionwasless
organicandmoremechanicalinnature.HistorianJörgMuthinCommandCulturehitthe
markwhenhestated:
IfthemostimportantverbandthemostimportantnounshouldbefoundfortheU.S.ArmyandWehrmacht,accordingtothevastnumberofmanuals,regulations,letters,anddiaries,andautobiographiesIhaveread,theywouldbe“manage”and“doctrine”fortheU.S.Armyandführon(lead)andAngriff(attack)fortheWehrmacht.Suchacomparisonalonepointsoutafundamentallydifferentapproachtowarfareandleadership.207
TheAmericansystemofwardevelopedmechanicallyfromthearmories,industries,
andbureaucraciesofcapitalisminthegeographicalisolationofaNorthAmericancontinent
devoidofotherseriousstatepredators.Conversely,thePrussianwayofwardeveloped
organicallyfromwarwherethemostcommonverbandnoun,asnotedbyMuth,were
“lead”and“attack.”Thesetermsarenaturaloutgrowthsofhumanconflictandcapturethe
essenceofwar.Onedoesnotmanagemeninwar,oneleadsandinspires.AsClausewitz
noted“themostpowerfulspringsofactioninmenlieinhisemotions”andonedoesnot
managetheirwaytopassion.208
AzarGatinWarandCivilizationargued,“humansthusbecamequintessentialfirst-
strikecreatures.”209Unlikeanimals,humanshaveweaksensesanddefenses,buthavean
incredibleintellect.Inthehumanrealm,raidsandambushesareinherentlysuperiorform
206AuntulioEchevarria,“TowardanAmericanWayofWarEchevarria”(StrategicStudiesInstitute,2003),3.207JörgMuth,CommandCulture:OfficerEducationintheU.S.ArmyandtheGermanArmedForces,1901-1940,andtheConsequencesforWorldWarII(Austin:UniversityofNorthTexasPress,2011),195.208Clausewitz,OnWar,112.209Gat,WarinHumanCivilization,2008,129.
91
ofwarfarefromapsychologicalstandpoint.InthewordsofErwinRommelinhisclassic
study,InfantryAttacks,“itisbettertobethehammerthantheanvil.”210“Lead”and“attack”
formedthedominantmindsetoftheWehrmacht--notehowcloselythosevaluescorrelate
withthoseGatobservedinearlywarfare.TheGermansintuitivelynurturedandlater
consciouslydevelopedvaluesthatorganicallydevelopedfromcontinuouswarfareover
centuries.Conversely,theU.S.ArmycameofageduringtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,
withahistoryinfusedwithtechnologicalsolutions,andinthisageonemanagedmachines.
Menwereconsideredmachines(orcogsinagiganticmachine)andsoonemanaged
men.211
TheNavy,achildofthesameage,exhibitedsimilarsymptoms.AdmiralBradleyA.
Fiskein1916describedtherequirementsofamodernnavalforceinTheNavyasaFighting
Machine.212FisketracedthemechanizationofnavalwarfarebacktotheCivilWarclash
betweentheMerrimacandtheMonitorwitheachsubsequentyearseeingmore
“machinery.”213Furthermore,heobserved,“theattitudeofofficers…issomuchmore
favorabletonewappliances…butaveryfewyearsagomanydeviceswerelosttous
becausetheywereconsidered‘notadaptedtonavaluse.’Nowweendeavortoadapt
them.”214AlthoughFiskeappreciatedthefogofwar,theroleofchance,andtheimportance
ofeducationhefrequentlyreturnedtoamechanisticthemehighlightingtheimportanceof
themachineabovethatoftheindividual.215
210DavidFraser,Knight’sCross:ALifeofFieldMarshalErwinRommel(NewYork:HarperCollins,1994),58.211Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,46–51.212BradleyAllenFiske,TheNavyasaFightingMachine(NewYork:C.Scribner’ssons,1916).213Ibid.,197.214Ibid.,198.215Ibid.
92
FiskeconceivedoftheNavyasahybrid,ablend,asynthesisofmanandmachine;
however,asFiskenoted,“…ourmaterialasmaterialmustbebetterthanourpersonalas
personal”,inthisrelationshipthepartnerswerenotcoequals.216Inthisrespect,theNavy’s
inclinationtowardthemachineisperhapsamorenaturaltendencyandappearedearlier
thanthatoftheArmy.Nevertheless,theinclinationofbothservicestraversedaparallel
paththoughperhapsnotatanevenpace.
ProfessionaleducationintheAmericanofficercorps,beyondwhatwenowcallthe
undergraduatelevel,hadneverbeenvigorouslysupportedandusuallymetwithahealthy
doseofdisdain,especiallyamonglong-servingArmyofficers.Thus,itisnoaccidentthat
whenprofessionalmilitaryeducationfirstcametotheUnitedStatesitcameviathepathof
theNavy,nottheArmy.217Officersaffectedtheworldaroundthemthroughaction,not
intellectualpursuits,andthiswasreinforcedonadailybasisonthefrontier.Thegrowthof
technologyincreasedthewidgetsofwar,andthusnecessitatedgreatertechnicismwithin
theofficercorps.Technicalknowledgeisknowledgeoftheinanimate,thetoolsofthetrade
thatareasubsetofwarproper.
ThenumberofarticlesinInfantryJournalthatdiscussedtheofficereducation
systemrankednearthebottom,andthatconclusionissupportedthroughoutallvolumes
examinedfrom1904to1921.218Thisisnotanunsurprisingrevelation,asArmy
institutionshaverarelybeencitedasintellectualincubators.Anaggregateassimilationin
totalityofmaterialonthearmyofficercorpsacrossitsexistenceindicatesthatifone
imaginedacontinuumwithanabsolutelyprofessionalstudentofwarononeendopposed
216Ibid.217Kuehn,“TheMartialSpirit—NavalStyle:TheNavalReformMovementandtheEstablishmentoftheGeneralBoardoftheNavy,1873-1900.”218Holden,“InfantryJournalArticleAnalysisfrom1904-1921.”
93
byanabsolutewarriorattheother,thereisanundeniabletendencyofmilitaryhistorians
toinclinetheneedletowardthewarrior.219Historiansandofficersalikehaveageneral
lackofinterestinprofessionaleducationforofficers,andareviewoftheInfantryJournal
confirmsthisconclusion.
SamuelHuntington,inTheSoldierandtheState,oneofthedefinitiveworkson
officerprofessionalism,arguedthattheuniquesynthesisbetweendemocraticand
aristocraticidealsbothinPrussiaandlaterFranceprovidedthefertilegroundfromwhich
officerprofessionalismdeveloped.Aristocraticbeliefsinhonor,courage,andfidelityco-
mingledwiththedemocraticnotionsofmeritandthefreeexchangeofideas.220This
uniqueamalgamationcreatedtheperfectenvironmentforarmyprofessionalismto
germinate.
Asmentioned,historianWilliamSkeltonarguedtherootsofprofessionalismtook
holdintheSouthpriortotheCivilWar.221Huntingtonbelievedthattheprocessgainedits
impetusbetweentheCivilWarandtheFirstWorldWar.222WhethertheU.S.Armyofficer
corpsprofessionalizedbeforeorafter1865,therootsoftheofficercorpslackedthe
environmentnecessarytoproduceaphilosophyofwar.TheU.S.Armydevelopedinan
environmentdistinctlydifferentfromthatofPrussia.AmericansocietyandCongress
neithervaluednorperceivedtheneedforaprofessionalarmyofficercorps,preferring
insteadadispersedconstabularywhoseofficerswereengineersandnationbuildersrather
thansoldier-intellectuals.However,whilethegeopoliticalpositionoftheUnitedStates
219Muth,CommandCulture,1–13;BrianLinn,“TheAmericanWayofWarRevisited,”TheJournalofMilitaryHistory66,no.2(April2002):501–33;Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,194–204;Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,238.220Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,35.221Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,xiii.222Huntington,TheSoldierandtheState,237.
94
generallysubvertedtheintellectualdevelopmentofthearmyitprovidedanobviousneed
andsoundanchorforofficereducationintheNavy,spurredonbythefirstnavaltheoristin
history.AlthoughthearmylookedtoandmodeleditselfoffitsEuropeankin,itlackedthe
fundamentalandnecessarysupportofthestatestructure.223Americansocietydidnot
demonstrateanti-militarismsomuchasanti-professionalisminfusedwithaheftydoseof
governmentanimosity.Therefore,theeducationalburdenimposedontheofficercorpswas
relativelylightthroughoutthearmy’shistory.
In1855,SecretaryofWarJeffersonDavisdispatchedthreeofficers,includingthen-
CaptainGeorgeB.McClellan,tostudyEuropeanMilitaryInstitutions.224In1875General
WilliamT.ShermansentGeneralEmoryUptontoEuropetoobserveEuropeanandAsian
armies.UptonchosetofocusonEuropeanarmiesanduponhisreturnpublishedThe
ArmiesofEuropeandAsiain1878.225SpenserWilkinson,aBritishmilitaryjournalistand
historianpublishedTheBrainofanArmyin1895asanaccountoftheGermanGeneral
Staff.226OtherreformerstovisitEuropeincludedArthurWagner,JohnSchofield,Tasker
Bliss,WilliamCrozier,andA.T.Mahan.OfficersdrewupontheirEuropeanobservations
andasaresultarmydoctrinemarchedcloselyinstepwiththatofEuropeexceptforminor
culturalinfluences,whicharealwayspresentinarmies,suchastolerationofdissent,
educationalemphasis,andreligiousimplicationsamongothersconcerns.Bytheturnof
thetwentiethcentury,severalU.S.Armyfiascos,especiallyexperiencesintheSpanish
AmericanWar,providedsufficientevidencetosuggestthatchangewasnecessary.
223MichaelA.Bonura,“AFrench-InspiredWayofWar,”ArmyHistory,no.90(Winter2014);Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,249–250,255.224Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,XI.225EmoryUpton,TheArmiesofEurope&Asia(Chicago:Griffin&Co.,1878).226SpenserWilkinson,TheBrainofanArmy(Westminster,England:Constable,1895).
95
Duringthefirstdecadesofthetwentiethcentury,theworldoutsidetheArmy
acceleratedatapacerarelyseenbeforeinhumanhistory.Electricity,thetelephone,
automobileandinthenearfuturetheairplaneallcontributedtosocialupheavalattheturn
ofthecentury.TheProgressivemovementcapturedmuchofthefrustration,excitement
andideasgeneratedinpartbythesenewtechnologies.Foritsportion,thegenerally
conservativeofficercorpsstruggledtocopewithpressuresbroughttobearbysocietyat
large.Thearmyremainedcaughtbetweenmilitaryvirtues,traditions,anditspast
constabularyfunctions,allofwhichwerejuxtaposedtoanuncertainfutureinfusedwith
socialandtechnologicalchangeandgrowingAmericanpowerandengagementinthe
worldofgeopolitics.
Nonetheless,thepagesoftheArmy’sInfantryJournalfrom1904to1921more
directlyreflectedthecomingchangesofthenewcenturyratherthanalookbacktothe
peaceful,pastorallifeofthe[infrequently]armedyeoman.Themundaneandtrivial
articlesthatfilledthepagesoftheInfantryJournalin1904maturedquickly.Technological
progressoverthelastfewdecadesstartedtoconvergeattheturnofthecentury.The
movementofpeopleandideascross-crossedacrosstheWesternworldwithatempoand
senseofconnectednessrarelyexperiencedinhistory.ThearticlesintheInfantryJournal
reflectedthischange.Discussionsonmachinegunsbecamemorecommonasdidthosethat
dealtwithforeignaffairs.By1906,articlesontheRusso-JapaneseWarstartedtopopulate
thepagesofthejournal,asofficersacquiredagreaterinterestineventsoutsidethe
continentalUnitedStates.Asaresult,discussionsabouttheAmericanCivilWarandmilitia
diminishedtoatrickle.Thepagesofthejournaleruptedwithenergy,ifnoturgency,with
thestartoftheWWIin1914.
96
Ideasontraining,doctrine,andpolicyfilledthepagesoftheInfantryJournalduring
thewar.Likewise,interestintechnologyincreased,butlessthanonemightsuppose.That
lessoncameonlyaftertheexperience.Theinfluenceandroleofadvancedtechnology
becameoneofthemostenduringandpowerfulconclusionsofthewar.Victorywas
measuredbycelebratingtanks,artillery,andquantityofmaterial,and,muchlessso,the
humanspirit.Likewise,ideasaboutfuturewarwerenowderivedfromexperiencesonthe
battlefieldsofEurope,liketheSommeandtheMeuse-Argonne.Officersnolonger
reminiscedabouttheirgrandfather’spartatBullRunorGettysburg.Nowtheyspokeof
theirownexperienceofcombat.
97
ChapterV
InroadsofEfficiency
TheUnitedStatesexperiencedrapidandwrenchingchangeduringtheclosing
decadesofthenineteenthcenturyandthefirstdecadeofthenextcentury.Scientific
advancement,technologicaldevelopment,andsocialchangeamalgamatedintoavolatile
tonicthatacceleratedthepaceoflife.Thegovernmentalinstitutionscraftedinanagrarian
ageunderaslowertempowerestrained(andinsomeinstancesbroken)underthe
pressuresofrapid,unrelentingchangeinthisnewmachineage.Thefoundingfathershad
envisionedanagrarianstate,geopoliticallydisinterested,anddefendedbycitizen-soldiers;
theseassumptionsandmorefalteredinaworldmadesmallerbytechnology.Thesonsand
daughtersofCivilWarveteranswitnessedtheintroductionofelectricity,thetelephone,
airplane,and,ultimately,theatomicbomb.Somebureaucraticinstitutionsexpandedand
otherswerecreatedtosupportthegrowingfederalizationofgovernment.Bothpublicand
privateinstitutionsinAmericahadtoevolveinresponsetoachangingworldiftheywere
toremainrelevant.227
Thepressuretoinduceactionandrevampantiquatedsystemsaccumulated
graduallyinthesystem.Eventually,in1883CongressactedandpassedthePendletonAct,
whichrepresentedtheFederalGovernment’sfirstdeliberateattempttoimproveefficiency
offederalemployeesthroughlegislation.ThePendletonActintroducedthemeritsystemof
promotionandprotectedemployeesfromunlawfulterminationbasedonpersonalpolitical
227Hughes,AmericanGenesis,chap.3,4,5,6;BrianMcAllisterLinn,TheEchoofBattle:TheArmy’sWayofWar(HarvardUniversityPress,2009),chap.4;Koistinen,MobilizingforModernWar,chap.4;PaulKennedy,TheRiseandFalloftheGreatPowers(NewYork:KnopfDoubledayPublishingGroup,2010),242–249.
98
affiliation.228Thus,itreducedtheawardofgovernmentjobsthroughpatronage,nepotism
andpoliticalrelationships.ThePendletonActmovedthefederalgovernmenttowarda
moreequitableandefficientcivilianpersonnelsystem.Inmanywaysthisputfederal
institutionsonasimilarfootingfoundwithinthebroaderbusinessworld.Incontrast,
however,reformofmechanismsforselectionandretentionoftheArmyofficercorps
developedatananemicpaceincomparison.Onlydecadeslaterwassufficientforce
broughttobearbythosecommittedtoequityandefficiency.
Aspreviouslynoted,theU.S.Armyofficercorpsincurredsignificantintellectual
debtstotheirEuropeancounterpartsthatcanbetracedbacktothecolonialperiod.The
youngGeorgeWashingtonservedasamilitiaofficerinBritishserviceduringtheFrench
andIndianWars;later,WashingtoncommandedtheContinentalArmy,trainedbythe
PrussianGeneralSteuben,intheRevolutionaryWaragainsthisformerBritishmentors.
IntellectualstreamsofBritish,Prussian,andFrenchmilitarythoughtmingledand
influenced,tovaryingdegrees,generationsofU.S.Armyofficers.229
MajorSylvanusThayerexercisedsignificantinfluenceontheearlydevelopmentof
WestPointtothedegreethathistorianshavegivenhimthebyname“FatherofWest
Point.”230ThayeremphasizedengineeringintheWestPontcurriculumandvisitedFrance
in1815formoreinstructionalmaterial.WestPointwastheonlyinstitutionthattaught
engineeringinAmericauntil1824.231Interestingly,thefocusonengineeringdiverged
fromthehistoricaldominanceoftheinfantryandcavalryofficersamongEuropeannobility
228“ThePendletonAct”(29Cong.Rec.416,1897).229RussellF.Weigley,TowardsanAmericanArmy:MilitaryThoughtfromWashingtontoMarshall(ColumbiaUniversityPress,1962),7.230StephenAmbrose,Duty,Honor,Country:AHistoryofWestPoint(TheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1999),63.231Ibid.,97.
99
andfurtherhighlightedtheimportance,ifnotelevation,ofatechnologicalfieldoverthe
traditionalbranches.WestPoint’slibrarywaspopulatedbyFrenchengineeringworks
mostofwhichwerenottranslated.232Engineersfrequentlyhadshortstintsinthemilitary
andmovedontomorethelucrativeworkinprivateemployment.Nevertheless,by1860
WestPointgraduatesaccountedfor76percentofofficersinthearmy.233
Formuchofthenineteenthcentury,traditionalpatternsofappointmentand
educationheldtrueforthosewhoservedasofficersintheU.S.Army.Littlewasdoneto
remedytheorganization’sleisurelyifnotapatheticapproachtochange.AftertheCivil
War,veteransdominatedseniorpositionsandenvisionedlittlechangeintheconductof
war;senioritycombinedwithbattlefieldexperiencemorethansufficedtosuppressthe
ideasandconcernsoflessexperiencedofficersandthosewhoserankdidnotallowthema
voicecommensuratetotheirarguments.Unconventionalwarfarereceivedlittleattention
inthedoctrinaldevelopmentinthepost-CivilWarperiod,despitethefrequencyarmy
engagementswithIndiansandbanditsinthewestandsouthwest.234
JohnM.Schofield,whoservedthroughouttheCivilWarandlaterascommanding
GeneraloftheArmyfrom1888-1895,observedin1879that,“everyprogressmadeinthe
methodsofwarbringsthemmorewithinthedomainofscience.Theartofwarhasalready
approachedthemarginoftheexactsciences,andtheelementsoftheproblemswhichwar
presentsforsolutionarevastlymorecomplexanddifficultofexactmeasurementthan
thosewithwhichanyotherbranchofsciencehastodeal.”235Schofieldacknowledgednot
232Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,31.233Ibid.,43.234Kretchik,U.S.ArmyDoctrine,81–83.235JohnM.Schofield,“InauguralAddress,”JournaloftheMilitaryServiceInstitutionoftheUnitedStates1,no.1(1879):3.
100
onlyanawarenessofwar’sevolution,butalsoitsgrowingcomplexity.Heusedtheterm
“science,”andthatisfrequentlyusedasaninclusivetermfortechnologyduringthisperiod.
Scienceandtechnology,althoughrelated,arealsodistinct,adivisionnotreadilymadeat
thispoint.
WestPointservedlessasaplacetotrainmilitaryofficersandmoreaninstitution
toproduceengineers,whichrealizedPresidentJefferson’soriginalintent.236However,like
somanythingsinhistorythesecondaryandtertiaryeffectsareoftenfarbeyondone’s
abilitytoforesee.Machiavelliappraisedthematterandarguedthatnotonlyaresuch
effectsdifficulttoforesee,butoften,oratleastinpart,impossibletocontrolinhisopinion,
“…thatfortuneisarbiterofhalfouractions.”237JeffersonbelievedthattheUnitedStates
neededengineersifitweretodevelopandcompetitivelycompeteintransatlantic
commerce,andinthatpropositionhewascorrect.However,thebyproductoflocatingthe
engineeringcomplexin,andas,theintellectualcenterofthearmycastwarintheshadow
ofanarchitect.OtherintellectualbarometersbeyondWestPointcurriculumincluded
frontierexperience,journals,andmilitarymanuals.
Thedrillanddoctrinalmanualsprovideinsightintothemethodsandintellectual
rootsthatprovidedafoundationfortheAmericanapproachtotheconductofwarfare.As
lateas1891,InfantryDrillRegulationsstillemphasizedmethodsoftheCivilWar.238The
officialmanualfocusedheavilyonvarioustacticalformationsfromplatoontodivision,and
othermodificationsweremostlyminoradjustments.239Theregulationsprovided
236ThomasJefferson,TheWritingsofThomasJefferson,Volumes3-4,1907,471.237Machiavelli,ThePrince,98.238PerryD.Jamieson,CrossingtheDeadlyGround:UnitedStatesArmyTactics,1865-1899(Tuscaloosa,AL:UniversityofAlabamaPress,1994).239U.S.Army,InfantryDrillRegulations1891(D.AppletonandCompany,1891).
101
extensiveexamplesofmaneuversforlowertiersofcontrolandbasicguidanceisgivenfor
camps,marches,andbattlefieldactions.Bayonetexercisesoccupyarespectableeight
pagescomparedtosevenforfiringpositions.240However,thoughthetopicofmodern
weaponswasnotunknowntoofficers,itwasstillsomewhatforeignandhadyettomakeits
wayintotheapprovedliterature.TheFranco-PrussianWarhadofferedaglimpseintothe
future,andthoughitinfluencedtheU.S.ArmytosomedegreeEuropeanexperienceand
intimateknowledgeofchangesinwarfareweregenerallyconsideredtobeirrelevantto
America’ssituation.
AmericanofficersreliedonwhathadhappenedintheUnitedStatesoverthe
previouscenturyinthequartercenturyafterGettysburg.Thestrongest,mostpotent,and
influentialformofknowledgeisthatwhichisempirical.Knowledgederivedfromsecond
ordersources--evensuchvisualevidenceasphotographsandfilms--lackthepurevisceral
energyoffirsthandexperience.Itcanbeclaimedthatthistendencyextendstonations,
whichfrequentlyvieweventsthroughanethnocentricorculturallens.Thus,European
observersintheRusso-JapaneseWarcouldchalkupstatisticaloutlierstocultural
shortcomingsoflesserpeoples.IntheFirstWorldWarAmericanofficerslargelyfailedto
incorporatetacticallessonsoftheFrenchandBritishexperiencesbelievingthatAmerican
soldierscouldbesuccessfulwhereothersfailed.Furthermore,intheSecondWorldWar,
lessonsfromtheBattleofBritainwereagainlargelyignoredbyofficersofthearmyair
corpsinregardstounescortedbombers.Thus,thearmyobtainedinformationfrom
militaryattachesandotherobserversofwarfareacrossbothAtlanticandPacificoceans,
buttheknowledgeprovidedremaineddistinctlysecondaryinnature.Whileonecan
240Ibid.,55.
102
legitimatelynotethepowerofexceptionalismforAmericans,thetendencytoemphasize
personalexperienceorthatoftheirownnationovertheexperiencesofothersisnot
entirelyanAmericanaberration.Bynature,mangenerallyvaluespersonalexperienceto
thosemanifestationsofcultureandoutlookthataredeemedtobeforeign.Nationalism,
especiallyhyper-nationalismsuchaspracticedbyNaziGermany,demonstratesthis
particularfacetinspades.241
The1891InfantryDrillRegulationsmanualwasrenamedtheFieldService
Regulations(FSR)in1905,and,whilemaintainingtheprimacyoftheinfantry,thename
changealonesignaledashiftinthecurrentsofthoughtamongarmyofficers.Morethan
merelyacosmeticnamechange,the1905FieldServiceRegulationswasnolongera
compositeoftopicslooselyconnected.Ratheritnowofferedalogicalandordered
approachtothemilitarycraftandreflectedagrowingprofessionalizationoftheofficer
corps.Battlepropernowconsumedafargreaterpercentageofthemanualthanithadin
thepast.Orders,organization,list,andtablespervadedthe1905additionprovidingaclear
structure.Furthermore,andthiswasasignificantchange,themanualnolongersimply
statedwhatonedoesbutitdetailedhowonedidit,andtowhatdegree,andwhatthe
finishedproductshouldapproximate.242
The1891versionbeganwithdefinitionsandmoveddirectlytobasiccommandsto
controlsoldiers.However,the1905FieldServiceRegulations(FSR)progressedfroma
descriptionoftheU.S.Army’sorganizationtogeneralprinciples--anaturaldescentfrom
macrotomicro.Forexampleunderthetitle“Orders”points1-3read:
241AdolfHitler,MeinKampf(BottomoftheHill,2010),chap.11NationandRace.242U.S.Army,InfantryDrillRegulations1891;WarDepartment,FieldServiceRegulationsUnitedStatesArmy1905(GovernmentPrintingOffice,1905).
103
27.Amilitaryorderistheexpressionofthewillofachiefconveyedtosubordinates.28.Theartofgivingproperdirectionsandorderstotroopsisoneofthemostimportantfeaturesintheexerciseofcommand.29.Thehigherthepositionofthecommander,themoregeneralincharacterwillhisordersbe.Atthebeginningofoperations,andfromtimetotimethereafter,theplansandintentionsofthesupremeauthoritywillprobablybecommunicatedintheformoflettersofinstructions.Theseregulatemovementsoveralargeareaandforconsiderableperiodsoftime.243
Armydoctrineexemplifiedasubtleandcautiousshiftinthinkingandremainedthe
purviewoftheinfantryfortheforeseeablefuture.WalterKretchikinU.S.ArmyDoctrine
observed,“the1891and1895manuals,thedirectdescentsinalinetraceabletothe1779
Regulations,hadbeenwrittentoguideaninfantrydominatedforce.Whenchangecame
oncemore,itwasagaintechnologythatdroveit.”244Technologycertainlyservedasa
catalyst.
However,itmustbenotedthattechnologicalperformanceinAmericanexperience
onthebattlefield,bothduringtheCivilWarandagainsttheindigenousnativeAmericans,
hadbeenuneven,andthus,concreteconclusionscouldnotbeeasilydrawn.Thelegacyof
CivilWarindustrialproductionprovedmorestableanditseffectoverthecourseofawar
providedaquantitativeedgebothasdriveronthebattlefieldandoftheeconomyat
home.245
Thegrowinglethalityofthebattlefield,asdemonstratedbothbytheCivilWarand
morerecentconflictsaroundtheglobe,produceddoctrinalconsternationamongarmy
officersattheturnofthecentury.Infantryformationsthathadbeenusedforthelast
severalhundredyears,harkingbacktotheRomanlegionandtheSpanishtercio,offered
243WarDepartment,FieldServiceRegulationsUnitedStatesArmy1905,27.244Kretchik,U.S.ArmyDoctrine,104.245Koistinen,MobilizingforModernWar,88,96;KnoxMacGregorandMurrayWilliamson,TheDynamicsofMilitaryRevolution,1300-2050,1sted.(CambridgeUniversityPress,2001),4.
104
greatercontrolandconcentrationoffire,butinthefaceofaccurateartilleryfireandrapid
firegunsweretantamounttosuicide,accordingtosomejuniorU.S.armyofficers.246The
GermanssolvedpartoftheproblemthroughthephilosophyofAuftragstaktikaformof
decentralizedcontroltoallowsubordinatestoexerciseinitiativetoachievethe
objective.247Rankswereopenedupandjuniorofficers(andevennon-commissioned
officersinsomecases)exercisedgreatercontrolofthetacticalengagement.However,
duringandafterWorldWarIU.S.Armyofficersmaintainedsomedistancefromthis
innovation.
The1895InfantryDrillRegulationsstateonpageonethat“allpersonsinthe
militaryservicearerequiredtoobeystrictlyandtoexecutepromptlythelawfulordersof
theirsuperiors.”248Expectationsareclearlystatedwithabsolutelynoroomleftfor
initiativeorinterpretation.However,by1905,inpartialrecognitionoftechnological
developments,the1905FieldServiceRegulations(FSR)stated,“Anordershouldnot
trespassontheprovidenceofasubordinate.Itshouldcontaineverythingwhichisbeyond
theindependentauthorityofthesubordinate,butnothingmore.”249Furthermore,witha
nodtoGermandoctrine,theFSRcontinued,“…whenanordermayhavetobecarriedout
undercircumstanceswhichtheoriginatoroftheordercannotcompletelyforecast…it
shouldlaystressupontheobjecttobeattainedandleaveopenthemeanstobe
employed.”250Thislatterstatementappearsasifithadbeenliftedverbatim,whichwas
notuncommonduringthisperiod,fromaGermanmanual.
246AntulioJosephEchevarria,AfterClausewitz:GermanMilitaryThinkersbeforetheGreatWar(UniversityPressofKansas,2000),23.247Muth,CommandCulture,173;Echevarria,AfterClausewitz,38.248“InfantryDrillRegulations1895”(GovernmentPrintingOffice,1895),1.249WarDepartment,FieldServiceRegulationsUnitedStatesArmy1905,30.250Ibid.,31.
105
TheU.S.Army’sconductintheSpanish-AmericanWarin1898couldbesuccinctly
describedasfumblingforwardasoneunmitigateddisasterfollowedanother.Many
observers,includingA.T.Mahan,attributeditssuccessfulconclusiontofortuitouschance,
bravesoldiers,andanineptenemy.251InmanyrespectstheSpanishAmericanWarserved
todemonstratethatmodestreformsintheinterimcouldhaveprecludedthesummoningof
vastmaterialandhumanresourcesinacolossalefforttoovercomeshortsightedpolicy.
Perhapssuchknowledgeisonlygrantedthroughthelensofhistory;nonetheless,the
propensityforsuchactivitieshintsatamoresystemicfault.The1905FSRwasoneresult
ofthelessonslearnedfromtheSpanish-AmericanWarandaimedtoremedysomeofthese
faults.
Armyperformanceattheturnofthecenturyleftmuchtobedesired,andthrough
thesteadyaccumulationofnearrundisastersintheSpanish-AmericanWar,pressuresfor
changereachedatippingpoint.Despitethis,andtheactivismofjuniorofficers,change
requiredastrongpersonalityandaptnegotiatorfromoutsidetheorganizationtobring
change.Armyregulationsuntiltheturnofthecenturyfocusedlessonbattleandmoreon
properdrill,bothindividualandunit.Properformations,firecontrol,andbasictroop
leadingproceduresfilledthepagesofearlyarmymanuals.TheAmericanCivilWaris
arguablyoneofthefirstwarstofullycapitalizeonadvanceswroughtbytheIndustrial
Revolution.Yet,theAmericanofficercorpsreturnedtoprojectbuildingandanti-Indian
activitiesfollowingthewar.Bythelate1890s,theAmericanmilitaryfounditselflagging
decadesbehindtheEuropeanmilitaryprofession.
251Ganoe,TheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,371–376;“TheWorkoftheNavalWarBoardof1898:AReporttotheGeneralBoardoftheNavy,”29October1906.AlfredT.Mahan,LettersandPapersofAlfredThayerMahan,ed.RobertSeagerIIandDorisMaguire,vol.III(Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress,1975),627–643.
106
ElihuRootservedasSecretaryofWarinthelatterhalfofPresidentWilliam
McKinley’stermbeginningin1899andlaterforPresidentTheodoreRooseveltuntil1904.
Rootasuccessfulcooperatelawyerbroughtconsiderablepoliticalacumenandcooperate
connectionstothepositionthoughhelackedmilitaryexperiencethatappearedtomatter
littleintheend.Root,bothintelligentandresourceful,graspedtheneedforinstitutional
changeandknewhowtoobtaintherequisiteinformationtomakeinformeddecisions.His
successfultenureinthepositionofSecretaryofWarwasfollowed,afterthedeathofJohn
Hay,asSecretaryofStateunderPresidentRooseveltin1905.Rootembodiedmanyofthe
idealsoftheProgressiveEra.Anablediplomatandreformer;hetookspecificinterestin
reformingtheUSArmy.252RootreorganizedtheupperechelonsoftheArmyby
introducingtheofficeofChiefofStaffand“abolishingtheofficeofCommandingGeneralof
theArmy.”253Furthermore,theMilitiaActof1903providedfundstotheNationalGuardfor
trainingandequipment.TheNationalGuardtookstepstomodernizeitsstructureand
mirrortheactivedutyArmy.
Meanwhile,thefederalgovernmentexpressedanawareness,albeitslowly,of
institutionalossificationbythelate1890’sandsoughttoremedyshortcomings.However,
nometa-theoryonefficiencyyetexistedonwhichtodraw,thusitturnedtoAmerican
businesses.Theprofessionsoftechnologyandbusinessadministrationwereintheir
infancybymodernstandards,andassuch,mostsolutionsrepresentedatinkeringaround
theedgesoveranylarge-scalestructuralchangesinactionorthought.Conceptualthought
onscienceandtechnologyduringthenineteenthremainedunifiedandcontinuedalong
similarlinesuntilaftertheSecondWorldWar.Inotherwords,traditionalviewsperceived252PhilipJessup,ElihuRoot,vol.I(Dodd,MeadandCompany,Inc,1938),215–230.253JamesDonaldHittle,ed.,TheMilitaryStaff,ItsHistoryandDevelopment(GreenwoodPress,1975),203.
107
technologyandscienceasoneinthesame.Thatmorescience“beget”moretechnology,
whichisonlytrueinthemostdistanceterms.254Thoughrelated,theexactrelationship
betweenscienceandtechnologyremainedobscuredbythefactthat“bothdealtwith
matterandenergy.”255Theconceptofefficiencydatedtoantiquity,buttheideaofbest
practicesremainedunexplored.Codifyingthoseprinciplesandthentrainingpeople
specificallytoimplementthemonlyclearlybrokethehorizonastheworldenteredthe
twentiethcentury.
Congresscontinueditseffortstoincreaseefficiencywithinthefederalgovernment
inlightofthegrowingbodyofprofessionalknowledgeonbestpractices.TheReviewofthe
WorkDonebytheJointCommission-ReorganizationoftheAccountingSystemandBusiness
MethodsintheExecutiveDepartmentspublishedin1895examinedvariousgovernmental
bureaucraciesinaneffort“tosecuregreaterefficiencyandeconomy.”256TheU.S.
governmentbeganaconcentratedattempttostreamlineitsstructureanditquickly
becameevidentthatAmericanbusinessespossessedarepositoryofknowledgeand
capability.Additionally,theU.S.ArmyArmorieshadundertakenearlyexperiencesin
efficiencyuponwhichtheFederalGovernmentwasabletodraw.257
Bytheturnofthecentury,asborneoutbytheSpanish-AmericanWar,theobsolete
militarysystemhadreachedapointthatitsantiquatedstructureandprocessesfailedto254ChalmersSherwinandRaymondIsenson,“ProjectHindsight,”AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience156,no.3782(June23,1967)Eightyearstudythatexamineddefensespendinginrelationtotechnologyandsciencetoachievebreakthroughs.Morescienceproducedmorescienceandmoretechnologyproducedmoretechnology.Inshort,defensespendingonsciencedidnottranslateintoincreasedtechnologicalbreakthroughs.Thisnewscamesomewhatasabombshellatthetime.255Layton,“Mirror-ImageTwins,”565.256AlexanderDockeryetal.,“ReviewoftheWorkDonebytheJointCommission-ReorganizationoftheAccountingSystemandBusinessMethodsintheExecutiveDepartments”(53Cong.ReportNo.2000,March3,1893),1.257MerrittRoeSmith,“ArmyOrdnanceandtheAmericanSystemofManufacturing,1815-1861,”MerrittRoeSmithetal.,MilitaryEnterpriseandTechnologicalChange:PerspectivesontheAmericanExperience(MITPress,1985),39.
108
functionadequately.Observers,bothcivilianandmilitary,couldnolongerignoretheneed
formilitaryreform.TheSpanish-AmericanWarprovidedthecatalyst,generallyabsentbut
necessary,toadvancereform.258Root,withthesupportofRoosevelt,startedhisfirst
reformeffortswiththearmy’scommandstructure.Thearmyexperiencedreformfrom
multipledirectionsoftenindependentandunrelatedtoabroaderplanresultingin
redundantworkandalossofefficiency,butoverallthereoccurredprogressinreforming
themechanismsbywhichthenation’sdefenseweretobeachieved.
PresidentTheodoreRoosevelthaddiverseinterests(afascinationwiththenatureof
technology,forexample)andaprogressivebenttowardsreform.Rooseveltappointeda
committee,inlinewithhisdirectivetoRoottoreformtheArmy,butforbroader
applicationtothefederalgovernment,anddirectedGeneralWilliamCrozier,Charles
Walcott,AdmiralFrancisTiffanyBowles,GiffordPinchot,andJamesR.Garfieldin1903,
“…toreportdirectlytomeupontheorganization,presentcondition,andneedsofthe
ExecutiveGovernmentworkwhollyorpartiallyscientificincharacter."259Thebeliefthat
sciencecouldbeappliedtootherfields,toincludethoseofman,andthatarationaland
logicalmethodologyexistedthatoncediscoveredordevelopedcouldthenbeapplied
broadly,pervadedthisera.ItconstitutedoneofthedefiningtenetsoftheProgressiveEra.
Furthermore,theProgressiveErawitnessedtherapidexpansionofprofessionalsocieties
attheturnofthetwentiethcenturydevotedtoincreasingtheknowledgeandapplicationof
theirparticularfields.260
258Ganoe,TheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,397.259TheodoreRoosevelt,“LetterfromTheodoreRoosevelttoCharlesDoolittleWalcott,”March11,1903,http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record.aspx?libID=o184453.260RobertH.Wiebe,TheSearchforOrder,1877-1920(Macmillan,1967).
109
ElihuRootbelievedthatthecurrentsystemwasnotonlyinefficientbutcourting
disaster.261Onecouldargue,andindeeditwouldbeaccuratetostate,thattheProgressive
movementwithintheUSandthegrowingintricaciesofwarbothcontributedtothe
creationofaGeneralStaffsystemintheU.S.Army.TheFrenchduringtheNapoleonic
period,theRussiansinthe1830’sunderthetutelageofJomini,andindeedtheGermans
createdsuchasystemin1813-14wellinadvanceoftheU.S.Army.Root,aidedbythe
worksofSpenserWilkinsonauthor,ofTheBrainoftheArmy,andEmoryUpton,influential
advocateofaprofessionalstandingarmyontheEuropeanmodel,examinedvarious
EuropeanstaffsystemsandfoundthePrussianmodelmostimpressive.262Withthe
supportofthepresident,Rootattemptedtopushforwardlegislationtoimplementatype
ofGeneralStaffCorps,althoughoneparticulartoAmericancircumstances.263Not
surprisingly,however,thereformersencounteredsignificantresistancetotheidea
especiallyfromCivilWarveteransandaswellassomeArmyofficers.264
Rootin1899stated,“theAmericansoldiertodayisapartofagreatmachinewhich
wecallmilitaryorganization;amachinewhich,asbyelectricalconverters,thepolicyof
governmentistransformedintothestrategyofthegeneral,intothetacticsofthefieldand
totheactionofthemanbehindthegun.”265AdmiralBradleyFiskein1916employed
similarlanguagetostate:“anavybeingamachinecomposedofhumanandmaterial
261ElihuRoot,“EstablishmentofaGeneralStaffCorpsintheArmy”(GovernmentPrintingOffice,1902),9–11;Wilkinson,TheBrainofanArmy.262Root,“EstablishmentofaGeneralStaffCorpsintheArmy,”3–4;Koistinen,MobilizingforModernWar,88–90;Spaulding,TheUnitedStatesArmyinWarandPeace,395–397;Hittle,TheMilitaryStaff,ItsHistoryandDevelopment,195–209.263Root,“EstablishmentofaGeneralStaffCorpsintheArmy,”4.264PhilipSemsch,“ElihuRootandtheGeneralStaff,”MilitaryAffairs27,no.1(1963):16–27.265ElihuRoot,TheMilitaryandColonialPolicyoftheUnitedStates:AddressesandReportsbyElihuRoot(HarvardUniversityPress,1916),3.
110
parts…”266Thetransitionfrommantomachineoccurredwithlessangst,andperhapseven
someenthusiasmonthepartofAmericansociety.Americancultureingeneral--its
business,institutionsandeventheyouthfulnessofthenation--contributedtothefavorable
perceptionoftechnology.Armyofficers,especiallyinthemoretechnicalfields,displayed
eagernesstoembraceandcapitalizeonthepotentialofnewtechnologiessuchasthe
telephone.
Thearmyservedastheprogenitorofprogressiveorganizationstocome,insofar
thatitdisciplined,organized,inculcatedindividualsefficiently,providingablueprintfor
organizationalcontrolandcollectivism.WalterLippmann,anotedpoliticalcommentator
andjournalist,observedin1916that,“thewar[WorldWarI]hasgivenlargenumbersof
Americansanewinstinctfororder,purpose,discipline.TheseAmericansaredistressedat
thelocalselfishnessandblindindividualismoftheUnitedStates.Theyfeelthatmodernlife
requiresapeoplescreweduptoahigherpitchofdevotionandforethought…itisfromthis
sentiment…thatMr.Roosevelthasbeendrawingstrength.267”Armedconflicthasbeenthe
greatorganizerthroughouthistoryasgroupsandnationsassembledbothforsecurityand
profit.However,intheAmericancontextthewarservedtomoveahighlyindividualistic
societytowardssomedegreeofcollectivism.
Themostdominantculturalfactorsinasocietydecidedlyshapearmies,and
likewiseofficersgenerallyassumeattributesfromtheenvironmentinwhichtheyexist.268
Cultureisanamalgamationofone’shistory,institutions,technology,geography,and
religion.PowerfulideasandmovementssuchastheEnlightenment,Romanticism,Social
266Fiske,TheNavyasaFightingMachine,193.267DorothyW.Straight,ed.,TheNewRepublicBook :SelectionsfromtheFirstHundredIssues.(RepublicPublishingCompany,1916),126.268Clausewitz,OnWar,100–101,580.
111
Darwinism,andnationalismcanserveaspotentcatalyststotransformattributesalready
inherentinapeople.269Atthetailendofimperialism,pejorativeperceptionsexisted
regardingmostnon-whitenationsandevenintheWestvariousnationsjostledforsuperior
positionwithinapresumedDarwiniancontext.Abeliefpersistedthattacticalsuccess
mightdependuponnationalvirtuesthatonenationhadbutanotherlacked.Attacksfailed
notbecausetheyfacedmachine-gunsorartillerybutbecausetheylackedsufficientElán.
Thequestionofthesuperiorityofmanormachinehadyettobeanswered.Technologyhad
clearlyalteredtheformulaofbattle,buttowhatdegreeremainedunanswered.Andeven
whenansweredbythehundredsofthousandsofBritishandFrenchdeadof1914-17,the
Americanshadtotrythemselves.Itwasnotenoughtomerelyobservefailurefromafar;
onehadtoexperienceitintimately,personally.Thus,onemightshareasimilardoctrine
withanothernation,butfailure,shoulditoccur,reflectednotdoctrinalshortcomingsbut
ratheranationalflaworweakness.270
OneshouldnotethattherewereafewAmericanreformerswhosoughttodevelop
andadvancetheartofwar,whiletakingintoaccounttheculturalparticularitiesof
Americansociety,inthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury.EmoryUpton,acareer
soldierservedintheCivilWarandlatertouredEuropein1876visitingtheleadingmilitary
institutions.UponhisreturnhecompliedhisnotesthatspokehighlyoftheGermansystem,
thoughthemanuscriptwasonlypublishedafterhisdeath,whichservedtoinformedRoot’s
reforms.271ArthurWagner,adiscipleofEmory,waspostedtoFortLeavenworthInfantry
269Strassler,TheLandmarkThucydides;BarryPosen,TheSourcesofMilitaryDoctrine:France,Britain,andGermanyBetweentheWorldWars(CornellUniversityPress,1984);MacGregorandWilliamson,TheDynamicsofMilitaryRevolution,1300-2050.270MichaelHoward,“MenAgainstFire:TheDoctrineoftheOffensivein1914,”Paret,Craig,andGilbert,MakersofModernStrategyfromMachiavellitotheNuclearAge,510.271Weigley,TowardsanAmericanArmy,104.
112
andCalvarySchoolinthelate1890s.Oncethere,Wagnerreformedthecurriculumand
increasedthestandards.Oneauthorreferredtohimasthe,“…SylvanusThayerofthe
GeneralServiceschools.”272Upton,Wagner,andRooteachwrestledwithhowto
amalgamateEuropeanmethodsofwarfaretotheAmericancharacter.
Americaninstitutions,laws,andsocietyingeneraldidnotshare,atleastnottothe
samedegree,themilitarismofPrussiaortheimperialismofBritain.273NordidAsian
civilizationshavetheanswer,inpartbecauseoftheWest’stechnologicaldominance,which
castothercivilizationsinanunfavorablelight.Asianarmiesdidnotoffermuchofvalueto
U.S.Armyobserversandthereforeappearedweakanddisorganized.Furthermore,the
collectivismofAsiancultures,whichcontrastedsharplywiththeindividualismfoundinthe
UnitedStates,hasalwaysbeensomewhatofananathematoAmericansociety.Aswell,
EuropeanpowersexercisedgreaterpowerovertheirpopulacesincomparisontotheU.S.,
whichstressedtheindividualaboveallelse.
Americanofficerswerenottheonlyoneswhowrestledwithtechnological
advancementsandtheirimpactonthebattlefield.SinceAmericanofficersreliedheavilyon
theEuropeanmodel,intellectualcrisesintheoldworldcausedripplesinthenew.The
BritishArmy,forexample,enjoyedadistinctmilitarycultureandalonglegacystretching
backhundredsofyearsthatinfusedaheavydoseoftraditionofthepastintothepresent.
Officersknewtheimportanceofinstillingasenseofprideintheirsoldiersandthatpride
foundcontinuityandsubstancefromthepast.Aunit’spast,itsreflectedglory,honorand
evencollectivesacrificewerecastforwardlikeasettingsunupontheoceanilluminating
thepresentinahueofsplendor.Thissplendormustbeprotected,defended,andif272Ganoe,TheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesArmy,363;Weigley,TowardsanAmericanArmy,145.273Root,TheMilitaryandColonialPolicyoftheUnitedStates,3.
113
necessarysacrificedforthatitmightendure.Thehumanofelementofwarfare,its
centralityindefeatorvictory,representednotonlytwomillenniaofrecordedexperience,
butitalsoembodiedamorerecentbutnolesspotentmemoryofthosethathadfallenin
servicetothatunitandnation.
Someobserversoutsidethemilitarythatattemptedtograpplewiththedangersof
moderntechnologyonthebattlefieldsuchasJean(Ivan)deBloch,aPolishbankerand
industrialist,whopublishedTheWarsoftheFuturein1899.274Blochpositedthatwar
shouldbeavoidedinthefuturebecausetechnologicaladvanceshadincreasedthelethality
ofweaponstoadegreethatwouldberuinous.War,ifitcame,wouldnecessarilyresultin
economicexhaustioninamatterofweeks.BlochwasnotwidelyreadpriortotheFirst
WorldWar,andthoughcorrectinsomeobservations,hisanalysisprovedlargelyirrelevant
toitsparticipants.Thefocuscontinuedtobeontechnologyandthetoolsofwar.More
subtlebutnolesspowerfulweretheintellectualfissuresthatweregainingforce.
Technology,thoughmorespecifically,theawarenessofit,itseffects,itsinfluenceon
everydaylifebegantotakeholdintheU.S.Armyofficercorpsasthetwentiethcentury
rapidlyapproached.
AsurveyofU.S.Congressionaldocumentsrevealsthatbetween1880and1900the
wordtechnologyappearsamere29times;bycontrast,between1901and1921,asecond
consecutivetwenty-yearperiod,“technology”enterscongressionalparlance410times.
Certainly,publishingincreasedoverthoseperiods,andthereareunpublisheddocuments
totakeintoaccount;nonethelessasageneraldatapointitdoessupporttheassertionthata
lineofdemarcationhasbeencrossed.Asimilarsearchoftheterm“scientificmanagement”
274Bloch,TheFutureofWar.
114
yieldsameretwomentionsbetween1800and1900.However,aqueryfor1901-1921
returns67matches.Interestingly,theuseofthistermreacheditsapexduringtheFirst
WorldWarandifthesearchisextendedasapointofreferencethefrequencyoftheterm
dropsoffsharplyinuseaftertheSecondWorldWar.
FrederickTaylor,thefatherofscientificmanagement,remainedrelativelyunknown
outsideengineeringfieldsuntiltheFirstWorldWar.Hissecondwork,ThePrinciplesof
ScientificManagement,publishedin1911,articulatedmethodsandprocesseswhereby
managementinafactorycouldincreaseefficiency.275Taylornotonlyexaminedfactory
floorplanstodevelopthemostlogicalandefficientlayout,butalsousingsimilarmethods
howtoachieveoptimalperformancefromworkers.Thelatteraspectgeneratedagreat
dealofdebate,becauseTaylorperceivedworkersinmuchthesamewayheconceivedof
machines.Awarenessofmoralandpsychologicalelementshardlyfactored,ifatall,intohis
formulas.276
Intheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcenturydiscovery,excitementandpossibility
infusedtheperceptionoftechnologyinAmerica.Thosesentimentswerenotentirelyalien
tothearmyofficersandinfactagreatdealofexcitementsurroundedtheradio,airplane
andrapid-fireweapons.Thesetechnologiesenhancedarmies’andnavies’capabilitiesin
war,butdidnotappeartoradicallyupsettheequilibriumbetweenoffensiveanddefensive
warfare.SecretaryofWarRootleftnodoubtastowhathethoughtwerethedominant
lessonsoftheCivilWarandSpanish-AmericanWarwhenheobserved,“…themachinewas
themachinebywhichwasfought,throughwhichwereclothedandarmed,equipped,
275FrederickWinslowTaylor,ThePrinciplesofScientificManagement(Harper,1913).276JosephSchumpeter,“DigitalTaylor:AModernVersionofScientificManagementThreatenstoDehumanisetheWorkplace,”TheEconomist,September12,2015.
115
transportedandordered,thearmieswhichfought,thegreatestcivilwarofmoderntimes.
Itwasthemachinerythatwereceivedthroughthatgreatgeneration…ithasrequiredthe
experienceofanotherwartoteachtheAmericanpeoplewhereitneedsimprovementand
change.277Roothailedfromabusinessbackgroundhisknowledgeandexpertiseinclined
himtoperceivesolutionsnotasasoldierbutasabusinessman.Forhim,presentarmy
shortcomingsweretheresultofmanagement,organization,andindustrialfailuresthathad
accumulatedinthesystemsincetheCivilWar.
ThecreationofaGeneralStaffrepresentedafurtherdevelopmentinthe
professionalizationoforganizedviolence.Inmanywaysitmirroredthechangingsocialand
politicallandscapefromtribetothenation-state,fromwarriortoprofessionalsoldier.The
embryonicAmericansystemhadinheritedformandalsomemoryfromitsparentGreat
Britain’sstoriedhistory.TheFoundingFathers,wellversedinPolybiusandTacitus,
structuredtheAmericansystemtoresistandactivelyhinderthepossibleriseoftyranny.
Usurpersoftenemergedfromtheexecutivebranchesofgovernmentandtheirtoolof
controlandoppressionwasoftenanarmy.Thus,thearmy,liketheexecutivebranch,
founditselfrestrainedbydesign.Bydelayingandretardingprofessionalization,politicians,
deliberatelyorunconsciously,minimizedthethreatofamilitarycouptotheAmerican
people.278
ThesafeguardsagainstmilitarismbuiltintotheAmericansystemrenderedboth
protectionbutalsoinefficienciesthatextendedtotheArmy’sofficercorps.Significant
conflictsbetweenthePresidentandtheCommandingGeneral,aswasthecasebetween
LincolnandGeneralGeorgeMcClellan,becameobviousintimesofwar.Moreover,bythe277Root,TheMilitaryandColonialPolicyoftheUnitedStates,4.278Semsch,“ElihuRootandtheGeneralStaff.”
116
adventofthetwentiethcenturytheseConstitutionalsafetyswitcheshadobstructed
necessaryintellectualdevelopmenttoadangerousdegree.Severalmilitaryoperations
nearlyflounderedonpoorservicecommunicationandoverallineffectualcommand.The
SpanishAmericanWar,andspecificallytheinvasionofCubasucceededonlybecauseof
equalorgreaterineptitudebytheSpanish.TheeconomicinequalitythatexistedinCuba
furthertiltedthescalesinfavoroftheAmericans.However,theentiremilitaryenterprise
wasplaguedwithpoorsupply,transportation,andmobilizationbythearmy.Comparably
poorcooperationbetweentheArmyandNavydidlittletoenhancethechancesofvictory.
Nevertheless,enterprisingyoungofficersandtheaggregatemassthrownagainstthe
objectiveoverwhelmedtheSpanish,whodemonstratedlittleenthusiasmforthewar.279
NoneoftheotherEuropeanGeneralStaffsdevelopedthelevelofprofessionalismor
wereasintentionalasthePrussians,nonetheless,thegreatEuropeanpowersofthe
nineteenthcenturyallfounditbeneficialandnecessarytothinkandactalongthoselines—
educatingandpracticingmethodicalplanningledbyageneralstaff.280However,theUS
Armylaggedbehind,despitestrategicpolicysquabblesatthehighestlevelandseveral
operationalnear-debacles.NotuntiltheRootreformsdidtheU.S.ArmycreateaGeneral
StaffCorps,andeventhenCongressandmostcitizensmakeknownnogreatinternaldesire
ormotivationforsuchaninstitution.281
Thearmyappearedcognizantoftheincreasingtechnologicalaspectsofwarbutit
didnot,asofyet,perceivethosechangesasradicallychangingbattlefieldconduct.Rootdid
279Spaulding,TheUnitedStatesArmyinWarandPeace,378–381;Pearlman,WarmakingandAmericanDemocracy,172–175;JosephC.BernardoandEugeneH.Bacon,AmericanMilitaryPolicy(Penn.,MilitaryservicepublishingCompany,1955),274–285.280Hittle,TheMilitaryStaff,ItsHistoryandDevelopment.281Root,“EstablishmentofaGeneralStaffCorpsintheArmy,”3.
117
notwearauniformandhehadalmostnomilitaryexperience.Inspiteofthese
shortcomings,Rootexperiencedfarmoresuccessthanmostinitiallythoughtpossible.He
institutedreformstomodernizethearmyofficerstructureandelevatetheprofessionalism
ofthecorps.On14February1903thePresidentRooseveltsignedthebillandtheAmerican
ArmyGeneralStaffCorpscameintobeing.282Rootrationalizedthecommandstructure,but
theArmy’stechnologicalgenehadalreadydevelopedandthroughaprocessthat
representedlessachoicethanhappenstance.
282Semsch,“ElihuRootandtheGeneralStaff,”27.
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ChapterVI
FrederickTaylor,ScientificManagement,andtheU.S.ArmyArmories
Onenotableanomalyingeneralpatternoffederalsubsidiesforprivateeconomic
activitieswastheestablishmentofarmoriestoproducevarioustypesofweaponsforthe
UnitedStatesArmyandNavy.Thefivegovernmentarsenalsatthetimewere:RockIsland,
Frankford,Springfield,Watervliet,andWatertown.283TheArmy’sroleinthedevelopment
oftheAmericansystemofmanufacturingprovidedfertilegroundfortheideasofFrederick
Taylor.Anengineerbytrade,TaylorpublishedThePrinciplesofScientificManagementin
1911,agroundbreakingworkthatdetailedgeneralapplicationofhisideastomaximize
industrialefficiency.Scientificmanagementwasatfirstreferredtoas“Taylorism”orthe
Taylorsystem,butlater,todistancetheconceptfromthecontroversialfigure,
professionalsmodifiedthenameto“scientificmanagement.”Scientificmanagement
utilizedscienceandengineeringtodeducethemostefficientmethodsofagivenactivity.
TaylorfoundthearmoriesoverseenbytheWarDepartmentaveritableEdentoexperiment
withhismethodsofefficiencyinacontrolledenvironment.
TheHarper’sFerryArmory,establishedin1799andlocatedinWestVirginia,was
thenation’ssecondgovernment-operatedarsenal.284Militarymanagementoverthe
followingdecadesimplementedincrementalefficiencychangesatthearmory,andasearly
as1841,supervisorsinstalledaclocktoregulateworkinghours.285TheUSArmyOrdnance
Bureaumaintainedresponsibilityforthearmories,andtheearlymanufacturingpractices
283WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,December14,1906,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.284MerrittRoeSmith,HarpersFerryArmoryandtheNewTechnology:TheChallengeofChange(CornellUniversityPress,1980),41.285Ibid.,271.
119
putinplaceinthefirsthalfofthenineteenthcenturyproliferatedfirsttosimilararms
industriesandtheneventuallytootherfieldsentirely.286
Thegovernment’sinitialmovetowardefficiencypredatedFrederickTaylor’sideas
andtookconcreteformwiththecreationoftheForestServicein1905.287Asearchthrough
amassiveelectronicdatabasecatalogingCongressionaldebatesrevealedthattheterm
“scientificmanagement”wasrarelymentionedbefore1894.288Tayloropenedan
independentengineeringfirmin1893;thereafter,otherbureaucraticchangesfollowed
withintheFederalGovernmentbothinfrequencyandmagnitudeandwereinfluencedin
partbytheadoptionofFrederickTaylor’sideasoverthenextseveraldecades.However,
Taylor’sgreatestsuccessresultedinhissystembeingadopted,inwholeorinpart,at
variousfederalarmories.
CaptainWilliamCrozier,initiallyacoastartilleryofficer,playedanimportantrole
indisseminatingTaylor’sideasintheWarDepartmentandtheArmy.Crozierhad
demonstratedhisengineeringaptitude,honedatWestPoint,whenhedevelopedagun
carriagein1893.KnownastheBuffington–Croziercarriage,itwasdesignedforusein
fortsalongthecoast.289Thecarriageallowedthecannontobeloweredtoaffordcoverand
concealmentwithinthefortfromenemywarships.Crozier’sinterestintechnological
manufacture,withwhichtheOrdnancebranchwasintenselyinvolvedduringthisperiod,
286MerrittRoeSmith,“ArmyOrdnanceandthe”AmericanSystem“ofManufacturing,1815-1861,”Smithetal.,MilitaryEnterpriseandTechnologicalChange,77.287FrancisFukuyama,“AmericainDecay,”ForeignAffairs93,no.5(October2014):5–26.288UnitedStatesCongress,“CongressionalRecord:Vols.1-156Pt.12(1873-2010)(43rdCongress,SpecialSessionto111thCongress,2ndSession),”August2014,Heinonline,http://www.heinonline.org.www2.lib.ku.edu:2048/HOL/Index?collection=congrec&set_as_cursor=clear.289“BigArmyContracttoBeLet;TenDisappearingGunCarriagesWanted,”NewYorkTimes,November24,1894,http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C13FF355515738DDDAD0A94D9415B8485F0D3.
120
continuedthroughouthiscareer.TheOrdnancebranchwasresponsibleforengineering,
manufactureandproductionofArmyweaponryandthereforeappearedperfectlysuitedto
capitalizeonchangeswithinthesefields.
Crozierhadadistinguishedcareerthatatvarioustimesputhiminthepresenceof
notableAmericanpioneers.CrozieraccompaniedCaptainAlfredThayerMahantothefirst
HagueConventionin1899asrepresentativesoftheUnitedStates.290Anamicableand
mutualrespectdevelopedbetweenthetwomenandbothplayedprominentrolesinthe
developmentoftheAmericanmilitary.291MahanhadpublishedTheInfluenceofSeaPower
UponHistory,1660–1783in1890,whichinthefollowingyearsprofoundlyinfluenced
majorpowersaroundtheworld.292InJapan,Britain,Germany,andoddlytoalesserextent
theUnitedStates,itinauguratedmassivefleetexpansionsthatcontributedtoanavalarms
race.293FollowingtheHagueConventionandtheirreturnstateside,CaptainCrozier
deployedtoChinaaroundthetimeoftheoutbreakoftheso-calledBoxerRebellion.There
isnosmallironyforMahan’spartatthepeaceconvention,followedbyhisinadvertent,
thoughsignificant,roleinprecipitatingthenavalarmsracethatprecededtheFirstWorld
War.
CroziermadeanameforhimselfonthestaffofMajorGeneralAdnaR.Chaffeeinthe
reliefexpeditiontoPekinginAugustof1900.Crozierprovidedasummaryofhis
290AndrewWhite,TheFirstHagueConference(NewYork:TheCenturyCompany,1905),3;AlfredT.Mahan,LettersandPapersofAlfredThayerMahan,ed.RobertSeagerIIandDorisMaguire,vol.II(Annapolis,Maryland:NavalInstitutePress,1975),641.291Mahan,LettersandPapersofAlfredThayerMahan,1975,III:38,106.292AlfredThayerMahan,TheInfluenceofSeaPowerUponHistory,1660-1783(Boston:Little,Brown,andCompany,1890).293SeeLisleRose,PoweratSea:TheAgeofNavalism,VolumeI(Columbia,MO:UniversityofMissouriPress,2007),PrologueandChapters1and2,passim.
121
experiencepublishedin1901throughTheNorthAmericanReview.294Chaffee,also
submittedapersonalaccountandrecommendedCrozierforpromotiontomajor.295It
seemedafairrecommendation,whichSecretaryofWarElihuRoottooktoheart,although
strictsenioritypreventedthesecretaryfrompromotingsomeonetoanygradebelow
generalofficer.Atthetime,Armyofficerstrengthnumberedbetween2146officersonthe
low-endin1894and2486onthehigh-endin1900;withsuchlownumbers,namesand
reputationswerewellknown.296RootpromotedandadvancedCaptainCrozierfourranks
toBrigadierGeneralandtransferredhimfromtheCoastArtilleryBranchtobecomeChief
ofOrdnanceoftheUnitedStatesArmyin1901.Crozier’sinterestinengineeringsoonled
himtosearchfornewmethodsandprocessestoincreaseoutput.
In1903,Crozierserved,byrequest,onacommitteeforPresidentTheodore
Roosevelt.Rooseveltdemonstratedanunderstandingofexpandingindustrializationand
changingcharacterofAmericansocietyandpaceofthenewcentury,andhedesiredmore
informationonhowtoincreaseefficiency.Accordingly,Rooseveltwrote,“inviewofthe
authoritysoconferredonme,Iappointthefollowingcommitteetoreportdirectlytome
upontheorganization,presentcondition,andneedsoftheExecutiveGovernmentwork
whollyorpartlyscientificincharacter,anduponthestepswhichshouldbetaken,ifany,to
294WilliamCrozier,“SomeObservationsonthePekinReliefExpedition,”TheNorthAmericanReview172,no.531(February1901):225–40.295UnitedStatesWarDept,AnnualReportsoftheWarDepartmentfortheFiscalYearEndedJune30,1903(Washington,D.C.:U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1903).296FrancisHeitman,“HistoricalRegisterandDictionaryoftheUnitedStatesArmy”(Washington:GovernmentPrintingOffice,March1903).
122
preventtheduplicationofsuchwork,toco-ordinateitsvariousbranches,toincrease
efficiencyandeconomy,andtopromoteitsusefulnesstothenationatlarge.”297
InDecember1906,now-GeneralCrozierprovidedatouroftheSandyHookProving
GroundstomembersoftheSocietyforMechanicalEngineering.298CrozierinvitedThe
AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers(ASME)toSandyHookProvingGroundto
demonstratenewapproachestotheproductionofmilitaryordnance.Hedescribedthe
tourasfollows:
ThemembersoftheSocietyweretheguestsoftheWarDepartment…SecretaryofWar,WilliamH.Taft,designatedashispersonalrepresentativestoreceivetheSocietyatSandyHook,BrigadierGeneralWilliamCrozier,ChiefofOrdnance…About800membersoftheSocietyandtheirguestsmadethetrip…ItwasundoubtedlyoneofthemostenjoyableaswellasinstructiveexcursionsevermadebytheSociety,andeveryonewhotookpartunderstandsinwhatlargemeasureweareunderobligationtotheWarDepartmentforthisspecialcourtesyshowntheSociety.299
Oneofthesociety’smembersinattendancewasFrederickWinslowTaylor,then
servingastheorganization’spresident.Taylor’spresencewascoincidental,atleastforhis
part,butevidencesuggeststhatCrozierknewofTaylorandhismethods.Taylorism,asa
term,hadnotyetbecomewidelyknown.OutsidethemanufacturingfieldTaylor’sname
probablymeantlittle,buthismethodsandideashadbeguntodiffusewithinAmerican
industry.
Crozier’sexperienceandassignmentslikelyprovidedhimwithsomeknowledgeof
theprincipalleadersandnamesofindustry.Theleadingengineeringjournaloftheperiod,
297TheodoreRoosevelt,“LetterfromTheodoreRoosevelttoWilliamCrozier,”March11,1903,http://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record.aspx?libID=o184439,TheodoreRooseveltPapers.298WilliamCroziertoTaylor,December14,1906.299ASMETransactions,vol.28(NewYork:AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,1907),7.
123
theAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers(1904),publishedarticlesontheworkofboth
TaylorandCrozier.300Furthermore,therewereonlytwomajorsteelmanufacturing
companiesintheUnitedStatesatthetimeandTaylorhadworkedatboth.Frederick
TaylorworkedforMidvaleSteelCompanyfrom1878until1890wherehelearnedthe
detailsandmethodsofmanagingamachineshop.Later,in1898,hewasemployedbythe
BethlehemSteelCompany.301WhileatBethlehemherefinedandappliedhissystemto
improveefficiency.Taylorexaminedthe,“Tasksforeachemployee…makingaverycareful
analysis...usingthestopwatchtodiscoverthe‘unittimes’requiredforthevariouswork
elements.”302Taylor’sexperiencesandprocesscapturedinthearticle,“ArtofCutting
Metals”(1906)receivedsignificantexposureandmadehissynonymouswithefficiency.303
Subsequently,abeneficialrelationshipdevelopedbetweenthesetwoacquaintances
thatpromisedtobringsignificantsavingsandefficiencytoArmyarsenals.304Following
Taylor’svisittotheprovinggroundshesentalettertoCrozierthankinghimforthe
“honor”ofvisitingandthe“expense”oforganizingtheevent.305Fromtheearliestmoment
bothmenhadrealizedthebenefitsofaunion.Taylorobserved,“Ithasbeenaliberal
educationtous,andItrustmayalsobeofvaluetothedepartment.Ineednottellyouhow
greatlyinterestedIhavebeenintheOrdnanceDepartmentformanyyears…..”306Taylor
continuedbynotingthathedispatched“severalpamphletsonshopmanagement”and
300R.Birnie,“OrdnanceforTheLandService,”AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers25(1904):355,374;FrankRichards,“IsAnythingtheMatterwithPieceWork,”AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers25(1904):68,75.301AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,“FrederickWinslowTaylor,”TransactionsoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers28(1907):28.302HoraceDrury,ScientificManagement:AHistoryandCriticism(P.S.King&Son,LTD,1915),210.303AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,“FrederickWinslowTaylor,”31–350.304FrederickTaylortoWilliamCrozier,December10,1906,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.305Ibid.306Ibid.
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invitedCroziertodinnerathishometobefollowedthenextdaybyvisitingTaylor’sshop
sothatCroziercouldobservethesysteminactionTaylor’sinvitationwasreadilyaccepted
byCrozier.307
CorrespondencebetweentheCrozierandTaylorincreasedthroughthecoming
years;attimesletterswereexchangedseveraltimesaweek.InJanuary,1909,Crozier
alongwithseveralotherArmyofficersvisitedTaylor.Thetripwasnotonlyinformative,
butalsosymbolicsinceCrozierservedastheChiefofOrdnanceheimplicitlyspokeforthe
branch.Taylorelaboratedingreatdetailthemethodsandeffectivenessofhissystem.
FollowingthevisitCrozierreturnedtoWashingtongenuinelyenthusiasticabouthis
experienceandexpressedconsiderableinterestinTaylor’smethods.308Crozierremained
infrequentcontactwithTaylorandonmultipleoccasionsoverthenextfiveyears,oftenin
responsetonewspaperarticlesonworkerresistance,CroziersentletterstoTaylor
promptinghimtorespondtothecontroversies,aswellasprovidesolutionsiftheissues
relatedspecificallytotheOrdnancedepartment.309
Notsurprisingly,workersbristledatthenewlevelofsupervisionandmechanistic
methodsimposedbytheTaylorsystem,asystemthatminimized,ifnotremoved,theart
andcraftofthearmorer.Arsenalquotasemphasizedquantityanddrovedownwages.
TheTaylorismapproach,whichcharacterizedmenintheimageofmachinestobeutilized
asinterchangeableparts,dismissedasirrelevantexperience,expertise,andmasteryof
307Ibid.;CroziertoTaylor,December14,1906.308WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,January25,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.309WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,February13,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,March30,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,April3,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,March16,1910,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,March17,1913,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
125
one’scraft.Taylorviewedtheartisan,asdidCrozierthoughtoalesserdegree,with
skepticismnotunlikehowonemightperceivechildrengivenataskwhichtheywere
predisposedbynaturetoshirk.Thus,thechildren(workers)requiredcarefulsupervision
andongoinginspectionoftheiractionstoensureefficiency.ScientificManagement
providedthatmeans.
Inearly1909CrozierimploredTaylorinseveralletterstovisittheWatertown,
Massachusetts,arsenaltoexaminewhatshouldbedonetheretoimplementscientific
management.310Taylor,uninformedaboutfederalpersonnelpoliciesandequally
uninterested,largelyfailedtoappreciatetheobstaclesandcomplexityCrozierencountered
institutionalizingscientificmanagement.311Federalworkershadaccesstogreatresources
andwerebetterprotectedthantheirprivatecounterparts,andtheyoftencontacted
congressmenwhenevertheirjobswerethreatenedbyproposedreductionsandchangesto
improveefficiency.312Thus,CrozierandtheOrdnancearsenalmanagersworriedoverthis
kindofbureaucraticresistanceastheysoughttoimplementelementsofTaylor’ssystem,
realizingthattheyfacedpotentialCongressionalscrutinyandevenhostility.
Taylorrarelysharedordemonstratedanygreatconcernfortheworker,atleastnot
inthemanneronemightexpect.Taylor’sempathy,hiscontributiontotheircharacter
development,wasinmakingthemworktotheirfullestpotential.AccordingtoAitken,“the
introductionoftheTaylorsystemofmanagementatWatertownArsenalwasnotmerelya
technicalinnovation.Itwasahighlycomplexsocialchange,upsettingestablishedrolesand
310WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,February6,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,February8,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.311WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,May10,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.312CroziertoTaylor,February13,1909;CroziertoTaylor,April3,1909.
126
familiarpatternsofbehavior,establishingnewsystemsofauthorityandcontrol…”313The
threatofsocialchangeandthedestructionoflongestablishedmethods,especiallythe
valuesofthemastercraftsman,theartisan,greatlyincreaseddiscontentaboutthe
situation.ThearsenalsandlatertheArmyofficercorpsinevitablyexperiencedsocial
upheavalwiththeintroductionofscientificmanagementthatservedasaprecursoror
prototypefortheadvanceofsocialsciences.Thischangemirroredabroader
professionalizationthattranspiredwithinAmericaduringthisperiod.Furthermore,the
proximityandnatureofthesechangescontributedtotheintellectualframeworkofthe
Armyofficercorps.
Taylorwasnolessaprogressivethanothersofhisday,buthisprogressivismwas
ofadifferentorder,aviewof“progress”thatvaluedthetool,themachine,thesystemover
theindividual.Thebettermentofeachindividualcouldbestbeachievedthroughself-
actualization.EvenifhesympathizedwithTaylor’sviews,andthereisevidencehedid,
Croziercouldnotemploythoseideasarbitrarilywithoutcausingworkerstrikesand
politicalturmoil.314ThroughhisrelationshipwithTaylorCrozierscatteredtheseedsof
scientificmanagementwithintheArmy.Thequalitiessoughtinofficers,andthe
propensityofsolutionstoassumeamechanisticcharacterinformedbymindstrainedin
thesocialsciencesandcomplementedbyatechnologicalconstructisrooted,atleastin
part,intheideasandmethodsofCrozierandTaylor.Scientificmanagementismost
amenabletomanufacturingplantsthatfocusonrepetitivetasks,butTaylor’sandCrozier’s
acolytesexploitedthepotentialtoapplyscientificmanagementtothefieldsparticularto
313HughGeorgeJeffreyAitken,TaylorismatWatertownArsenal:ScientificManagementinAction,1908-1915(LiteraryLicensing,LLC,2011),12.314CroziertoTaylor,April3,1909.
127
man.Psychology,government,managementandevenwarappearedtobefieldsthatmight
benefitfromscientificmanagement.315
TaylorvisitedtheWatertownarsenalandthoughtitshouldbeclassifiedasan
“engineeringestablishment,ratherthanamanufacturingestablishment”becauseofthe
diverseandcomplexnatureoftasks.316TheWatertownarsenalproducedexperimental
weaponsandequipment.Theythenconductedteststoevaluatethereliabilityand
feasibilityofitemsproduced.317Taylor’sclarityonthispointleftsomethingtobedesired
becausethefactsdidnotsupporttheassertionthatWatertownwasthebestlocation
insofarastheprinciplesofscientificmanagementwereconcerned,however,bothmen
desiredtogetthesystemimplementedasquicklyaspossible.Regardless,theWatertown
arsenaldidofferauniqueopportunity,andatthesametimetheproposalofferedinsight
intotheguidingassumptionsheldbymilitaryofficers.Watertownremainedtheleast
amenabletoscientificmanagementingeneralandprobablythemostdifficultofanyofthe
arsenalsbecauseofthecomplexnatureoftheworkthere.TheTaylorsystem
demonstrateditsgreatestefficiencygainsinplantsinwhichworkermovementsremained
repetitiousandsimpleinnature.318Inspiteofthisincongruity,theWatertownarsenalwas
wheretheOrdnanceBureauimplementedTaylor’ssystem.319Crozier’slogicimpliedthatif
scientificmanagementwassuccessfullyinstalledherethenitwascapableofbeinginstalled
anywhere.CrozierendedhislettertoTaylorobserving,“Iamgladthatyourjudgment
315DanielNelson,“AMentalRevolution:ScientificManagementsinceTaylor,”1992,chap.1.316WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,April8,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.317Aitken,TaylorismatWatertownArsenal,53.318FrederickTaylortoWilliamCrozier,April20,1910,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.319CroziertoTaylor,April8,1909.
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agreeswithminethatthisarsenalisthebestplaceatwhichtomakeacommencement.”320
Thisassertionwasbasedlessonthemeritsofthesystemthanontheresistanceofworkers.
InadditiontoanyadvantagegainedintheimplementationofTaylorisminthe
complexoperationsoftheWatertownarsenal,withitsevidentdifficulties,wereoffsetwith
lowerlevelsofopposition.Inregardsto,“…questionsattheRockIslandArsenal,“Crozier
explainedtoTaylor,“wherethesuspiciousfeelingthattheGovernmentisnotalwaysdoing
itsbestfortheworkersseemstoberatherstrongerthanatanyotherofour
establishments.”321Crozierfollowedthisobservationwiththeimplicitexpectationthatthe
“examinationoftheWatertownArsenal”mightbemorefruitfulinthisrespect.322
AfewhistorianshavedelvedintothegrittydetailsofWatertownanditslittle
knownrelationshiptoscientificmanagement;however,almostnolighthasbeenprojected
ontotherelationshipbetweenTaylorandCrozierspecifically.Thelooseassociationthat
beganin1906betweenthetwomenwasbyallaccountsamicableandprofessional.The
lettersbetweenthemconveyagenuineregardandaboveallothermotivationsadrivefor
efficiencyandproductivity.Taylorneededtoturnaprofitasheadofaprivatefirm,butfor
himprofitwasabyproductandnottheprimeproduct.ForTaylor,scientificmanagement
hadanalmostspiritualcomponent.HoraceDrurynotedinScientificManagement(1915)
that,by“…1901,Mr.Taylor’spossessionofafortuneenabledhimtoretirefromworkfor
pay;butitwasonlytogivehimselfmorecompletelytothecauseofscientific
management.”323Hefirmlybelievedthathismethodsweresuperiortothoseinusebymost
320WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,April16,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.321CroziertoTaylor,March30,1909.322Ibid.323Drury,ScientificManagement:AHistoryandCriticism,89.
129
industrialfacilitiesatthetime.ItisclearthatTaylor’senthusiasmforreformofAmerican
industrystimulatedCrozierandmenlikehimtotakeaction.
Crozier’sassociationwithTaylorrapidlyevolvedintooneoffriendship.Theletters
gainedacordialtoneandthetwobeganexchangingideasnotonlyaboutscientific
management,butpeopleandpolitics.TayloroccasionallydinedwithCrozierathishome
whileinWashington,D.C.,andamutualrespectformedbetweenthem.Crozierperceiveda
degreeofgeniusinTaylor’smethodsandmanagementtechniquesthatcouldtransformthe
arsenals,ifoutsidefactorscouldbekeptatbay.AfterTaylor’sdeathin1915,Crozier’s
friendshipwiththebrilliant,stiffneckedengineer,causedhimtorefusetousetheless
controversialtermscientificmanagementinplaceofTaylorism,becausehebelievedthat
thesystem’sauthoroughttoreceivecreditforhislabor.324ForTaylor’spart,Crozier
playedacriticalrolewithinthefederalgovernmenttoensurethathismethodsgainedwide
recognitionandimplementationbyfederalinstitutions.Thatthefederalgovernmenttoa
degreeembracedscientificmanagementservedasatacitformofapprovaltothe
manufacturingindustriesatlarge.
InadditiontointroducingscientificmanagementattheWatertownArsenal,anact
ofconsiderablepersonalsatisfactiononhispart,CrozieractivelyassistedTaylorin
diffusinghismethodsthroughoutthefederalgovernment.In1912,heinformedTaylor
thathehadtakenleaveasChiefofOrdnancetospendayearattheArmyWarCollege.“…I
havegivenupthechargeoftheOrdnanceDepartment”,lamentedCroziertoTaylor,
“…separatedwithmyownconsent,although…thechangewassomethingofawrench…for
324WilliamCrozier,“ScientificManagementinGovernmentEstablishments,”BulletinofTheSocietytoPromotetheScienceofManagement1,no.5(October1915):5.
130
elevenyears…Ihadworkedinagoodmanyimprovements…andfinally,theintroductionof
theTaylorsystemofscientificmanagement….”325Crozierwastocontinuehiseffortsuntil
hisretirementin1918.
Taylorearnestlybelievedhismethodsweremoreefficientandbetterforthenation,
thecompany,andeventheindividual.InformedbytheideasofSocialDarwinismand
infusedwithprogressivism,Taylorarguedthat“soldiering”ordoingtheminimalwork
possible,hadacorrosiveeffectonthecharacteroftheworker,andthenationcouldnot
affordtohavemenandcompaniesfunctioningfarbelowtheirpotential.326Likewise,
Crozierviewedtheworldthroughasimilar,thoughmilitary,lens.Forofficerssuchas
Crozier,ImperialGermany,whoseprowessinwarandengineeringwaswellestablished,
lurkedasanever-presentthreat.ThedangersthreateningAmericansecuritydictatedasa
matterofurgency,therefore,effortstoimproveAmerica’sproductioncapabilities.InThe
StoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar(1920)SevellonBrowndetailedthedifferencebetween
theAmericanandFrenchsystem:
InAmericanthemechanicbecomesaspecialistintheproductionofasinglepartworkingtotolerancesdependingupontheaccuracyofgaugestoproduceinterchangeablepartsrequiringlittleornohand-fittingandmachiningwhentheentiremechanismisassembled.ButtheFrenchmachinistisdevelopedasahighlyskilledartist workingalwayswiththepictureofthecompletelyassembledmechanisminmindandinthehabitofdoingagreatdealofcarefulhand-fittingasthepartsareassembled.TheFrenchthusgainperfectionintheirworkattheexpenseofspeed.Generallyspeaking,highlyefficientindustrialorganizationontheimmensescalecommoninAmericaisimpossibleundertheFrenchSystem.327
325WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,October10,1912,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.326FrederickTaylortoWilliamCrozier,April15,1909,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.327SevellonBrown,TheStoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar(Washington,D.C.:JamesWilliamBryanPress,1920),37.
131
TheUnitedStatesArmycouldillaffordinefficientofficersandarsenals.Crozierperceived
inTaylor’smethodsasolutiontothisproblem,auniquelyAmericansolutioninthemaking
thatutilizedmanagementandtechnologytoachieveefficientmassproduction.
TheirpurposesfurtherconvergedunderpoliticalpressureonthepartofCongress
andlaborunions.Unionsandworkersfearedanincreasedworkloadwithoutadequate
compensation;furthermore,workersnaturallychaffedundertheimplicitlackoftrustthat
underlinedscientificmanagement.Crozierhadinvestedhimself,hisofficers,andthe
OrdnanceDepartmentintheimplementationofTaylorisminthegovernmentarsenalsto
varyingdegrees.Crozier’slegacyincludedthemeritsystem,improvementsinaccounting,
andtheoreticalandpracticalcoursesforofficers,butthoseallpaled--inhisopinion—in
comparisontotheimplementationofscientificmanagement.328Crozierconcluded,ina
careerspanningthirty-sixyearsatthetimeofthecomment,thathismostimportantand
enduringaccomplishmentwastheimplementationofscientificmanagement.Hetherefore
tookgreatcareinpromotingofficerswhocouldprotectandpropagatescientific
management--hiscareer’sgreatesttriumph.CrozierandTaylor’sjointlegacies,inthis
respect,wereunitedlesttheirworkbeundone.Crozier’sfirmsupportforthesystemand
itsmeritswascapturedinAnnualReportoftheSecretaryofWar(1911)andportendsthe
importanceofscientificmanagementtothefutureefficiencyofgovernmentoperations.
WhilenotdirectlyattributabletoCrozier,thetoneandnarrativewereunmistakablyhis.
PressuremountedtoblockreformsasCongressionalcommittees,motivatedby
laborunionswhosememberswereconstituentsandcontributorstomembersofCongress
instatesinwhichfederalarsenalswerelocated,movedtoexaminethatwhichwasalready
328CroziertoTaylor,October10,1912.
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known.Oneobviouscriticismwas,whiletheTaylorsystemdidleadtoincreasesin
productiontheimplementationofTaylor’spaysystemmeantthatworkerswerenot
compensatedequitably.Toweathercongressionalinspections,TaylorandCroziercolluded
lesttheirworkbeundone.329TaylorconveyedtoCrozierthemosteffectivetermsand
methodstoargueinfavorofscientificmanagementandofferedtorunarticlesin
sympatheticnewspaperstogarnerpublicopinion.330Croziersuppliednamesofimportant
committeememberssothatTaylorcouldprovidesupportivematerialandamass
appropriatepressureonthem.331Theydiscussedwhoandhowtoappearbefore
congressionalcommitteestoachievethemostadvantageousresults.Thiscollaboration
servedasaprecursortotheconventionalassociationsbetweenservingandretiredsenior
militaryfiguresandproducersofthegoodstheypurchasedinthemodernmilitary
industrialcomplexwhoseoriginsresidedinspirit,ifnotalsoinpart,intherelationship
betweenthesetwomen.
From1909untilTaylor’sdeathin1915,thetwomenworkedtogethertoeducate,
implement,andexpandtheinfluenceofscientificmanagement.DanielNelsoninAMental
Revolution(1992)foundthat,“Between1901and1915Taylor’sassociatesintroduced
scientificmanagementinnearly200Americanbusinesses,181oreightypercentofwhich
werefactories.”332FollowingTaylor’sdeathhisacolytesbegantoexpandscientific
managementintootherfieldsoutsideofmanufacturingandthemilitary.Theemployment
329WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,May10,1912,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,June26,1912,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;FrederickTaylortoWilliamCrozier,June20,1912,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.330FrederickTaylortoWilliamCrozier,October8,1913,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.331WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,September14,1911,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.332DanielNelson,AMentalRevolution:ScientificManagementsinceTaylor(OhioStateUniversityPress,1992),11.
133
ofscientificmanagementdidsuffersetbacksandwasevenremovedinpartfrom
Watertownandotherarsenalsin1915.CrozierinstoiclanguageinformedTaylor,“…sorry
tohavetosaytoyouthattheanti-scientificmanagementlegislationplacedontheArmyBill
bytheHousewillremainthere…”333However,afterWorldWarI(andinpartasaresultof
themilitary’sexperimentationwith“scientific”teststoassesstheaptitudesofrecruitsand
potentialofficers),thewallsofresistancegavewaytoadelugeofscientificmanagement
initiativesthatrapidlypropagatedthroughoutthefieldsofscience,manufacturing,andthe
newfieldof“management”nowseparatingfromthedisciplineofengineering.
PeterDrucker,describedasthefatherofmodernmanagementtheories,334
suggestedinThePracticeofManagement:“ScientificManagementisallbutasystematic
philosophyofworkerandwork.Altogetheritmaywellbethemostpowerfulaswellasthe
mostlastingcontributionAmericahasmadetoWesternthoughtsincetheFederalist
Papers.”335
AlthoughTaylor’sworkfellintodisreputeamongworkersatthearmories,which
resultedinthehaltingoftime-motionstudies,theirrespitefromthecrazeforefficiency
provedshort-lived.ThenecessitiesofWorldWarIprovidedtheperfectenvironmentfor
Taylorism,whichranroughshodoveroppositionfromunionsandCongresswithaspeed
andmagnitudethatonlywarcouldachieve.WorldWarIcatapultedindustrialproduction,
andtherequisiteidealofefficiencytotheforefrontofAmericanpolicygoals.
333WilliamCroziertoFrederickTaylor,March4,1915,Box114,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.334SteveDenning,“TheBestofPeterDrucker,”Forbes,July29,2014,http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2014/07/29/the-best-of-peter-drucker/.335PeterDrucker,ThePracticeofManagement(London:Routledge,1955),242.
134
Evenso,thatpracticalmanufacturingknowledgeresidedinfewplacesandwas
embracedbyevenfewermen.336MajorGeneralClarenceC.Williams,ChiefofOrdnance
from1918to1930,observedin1920,“AsIhavesaiditisimpossibletoimprovisean
Ordnanceexpert.Engineerswhohadwonfameandsuccessinprivateenterpriseand
weremastersintheirfieldcameintotheOrdnanceDepartment…”337Thoseengineers“of
fame”werelargelyTaylor’sdisciplesfromtheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers.
Warprovedthemostimportantvector,buttherewereothers.
HindySchachter,inTheroleplayedbyFrederickTaylorintheRiseoftheAcademic
ManagementFields,noted,“Taylor’sworkcoincidedintimewithamajorexpansionof
collegeeducation…Americancollegeenrollmentwasbasicallystaticfrom1820-1880,[but]
itgrewby20percentatprivateEasterncollegesand32percentatstateinstitutions
between1885-1895.”338
By1908,TaylorwaslecturingattheHarvardUniversitySchoolofBusinessandhis
workformedthefoundationforthecurriculumwithenthusiasticsupportfromHarvard’s
academicdean.339Managerstrainedinscientificmanagementthenmovedtopositionsin
governmentandothersegmentsofsociety.340ThemethodsofTaylorismwereextracted
andthenelaboratedtoproduce“bestpractices”whichthoroughlypermeatedmanagerial
America.
336ClarenceC.Williams,Brown,TheStoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar,17.337Ibid.338HindyL.Schachter,“TheRolePlayedbyFrederickTaylorintheRiseoftheAcademicManagementFields,”JournalofManagementHistory16,no.4(2010):440.339Ibid.,442.340Nelson,AMentalRevolution,1992,23.
135
Taylor’sgreatestachievementmaynothavebeenWatertownoranyoftheother
arsenals;rather,nothingsoaptlydemonstratedthemaster’sfingerprintthanwhat
transpiredintheOrdnancebranchduringtheFirstWorldWar.CrozierservedastheChief
ofOrdnancebranchfor16yearsbetween1901and1917andduringhistenurehe
developededucationalandtrainingmethodsforOrdnancebranchofficers.Furthermore,
Crozier’spowerfulpositionatthetopofthehierarchyallowedhimtopositionmenoflike
mindsteepedinTaylorismthroughoutthebranch.TherapidexpansionoftheArmyduring
WorldWarIpushedthosemenintotheupperechelonsoftheArmyandcommittees
throughoutthefederalapparatusandfromtheretheyimplementedvariousprinciplesof
scientificmanagement.TheOrdnancebranchaloneexpandedfromamere97officersto
over5000officersandhadsupervisionover500privateindustrialplantsbywar’sendin
November,1918.341
AtthebeginningofAmerica’sentryintothewar,theTaylorSocietywasoneofonly
afeworganizationsthatclaimedtohavetherequisiteexpertisetoimplementsystemsthat
wouldmassivelyincreaseindustrialoutput.AccordingtotheBulletinoftheTaylorSociety,
publishedinFebruaryof1919,“…theinfluenceofwarconditionsontheaffairsofthe
Society,especiallytheabsorptionofalloftheofficersandthegreaterpartofthe
membershipintowarorganization,madeitexpedienttosuspendpublicationin1917for
thebetterpartofayear.InDecember,1918,publicationwasresumed….”342The
magnitudeofthisstatementshowhowwidespreadandinfluentialTaylorismbecamewith
thewar;bothindepthandbreadth.Bywar’send,variousprinciplesderivedfrom
ScientificManagementpermeatedtheFederalGovernment.341Brown,TheStoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar,15.342“Note,”BulletinoftheTaylorSociety4,no.1(February1919):8.
136
Thewarbroughtwithithopeforchange,anendtothestatusquoandthe
emergenceofamoreefficientmanagementsystem.Engineers,armedwithscientific
managementprecepts,believedthatthecommonworkercouldachievegreaterefficiency.
ProgressivesbelievedthatthewarofferedanopportunitytotransformAmericansociety
andinpositionsofleadershipcouldmanage,aswellas,tomoderatethemechanistic
impulsesofengineerstowardworkers,andsocialintellectualsconceivedofaneworder
thatemphasizedandcenteredoncollectiveobjectivesratherthanthoseofthe
individual.343Dr.IraN.Hollis,presidentoftheAmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers,
observed,“Wemustagainkeepinourmindsthefactthattherearetwoefficiencies:onethe
efficiencyoftheindividual;theother,theefficiencyofthecollectivemass.Ourefficiencyas
awholewillmaintaintherepublicbuttheefficiencyoftheindividualactingalonewill
createsuchdivisionastodestroyit.”344Thewarappearedtoprovidetheperfect
mechanismtointroducecollectiveactionintoadistinctlyindividualisticAmericansociety.
Followingthewar,Armyofficersintimatelyinvolvedwithindustryand
manufacturing,andevensomewhoservedwiththeAEFinFrance,tendedtoviewvictory
throughthelensofAmerica’sproductionoftheweaponsofwar.Whenjudgingthesuccess
ofWorldWarI,theyproclaimed,oneneedchieflytolookto“Americanindustryand
engineering,toAmericanscience,thatthecreditforthisachievementmustbegiven.Itwas
Americanindustryandsciencethatwereontrial.”345TheGermanssharedthisviewand
coinedthetermMaterialschlacht,translatedwarofmaterial,tocapturetheessenceof
WorldWarI.Theheartandthesoulofwarnolongerturnedonthestruggleofmanagainst
343DavidM.Kennedy,OverHere:TheFirstWorldWarAndAmericanSociety(OxfordUniversityPress,2004).344DonaldStabile,ProphetsofOrder(SouthEndPress,1984),85.345Brown,TheStoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar,14.
137
man,“acollisionoftwolivingforces.”Itinsteadhadbecomeaquestionof“warby
algebra”--production.346MajorGeneralWilliamsconcludedin1920:“Norcouldthepower
ofourcountryhavebeenmadeeffectiveexceptatthiscompositemindharnessedscience
andindustryintheserviceofthewarmachine.”347
TheessenceofScientificManagementistime;themeasureofmotionnecessaryto
achievethedesiredresultinthesmallesttemporalwindow.Thesetwocompoundsoftime
andmotionamalgamatetoformthemodernideaofefficiency.Taylor’smethodsspread
fromtheshopfloor,toarmories,universitiesandultimatelytothesupremelevelsofpower
intheUnitedStates.However,ideasarenotstaticandwhatwasonce“shopmanagement”
evolvedintoScientificManagement.Abstracted,ScientificManagementnolongersimply
governedthebasicmotionsoffactoryworkersbutmutatedtoanintellectualconcept.If,as
RogerSpillerobservedonideas,“…they'reconceivedandadoptedbycollectionsofpeople
withacommoninterestandthatinterestisthefuelthatkeepsthemgoing.Butthatfuel
canspenditselfovertimeandtheidea'soriginalpotencyslowlydimsorelseis
transformedtoaccommodateitselfwiththerestoftheuniverseofideas.Thatis,ideasmay
notconvergesomuchasgrowcomfortableinthespacetheworldawardsthem.”348That
observationhasspecialrelevancetotheexperienceofU.S.Armyofficersoverthecourseof
theearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.
Thencompelledbywar,theinterestofArmyofficers,politicians,andevenworkers
converged,ifonlyforatime,towardacommongoal.Warprovidednosmallmeasureof
propellant(infact,nothingcouldhaveexceededitspotency)topropagateideasof346Clausewitz,OnWar,76–77.347Brown,TheStoryofOrdnanceintheWorldWar,16.348RogerSpillertoDavidHolden,Email,(February27,2015).
138
ScientificManagementthroughouttheArmyandAmericansociety.Interestingly,the
Americanphilosophyofpracticalitycombinedalmostwithanydifficultywiththeideasand
assumptionsofScientificManagement.Practicality,theonlytrueAmericanphilosophy,
providedtheperfectsoilforTaylor’sideastoproliferateandwaraffordedtheopportunity
andcatalystfortheirdissemination.
NoArmyofficerexplicitlyarticulatedtheconceptualchangethattranspired
between1914and1930.Certainly,theramifications,byproducts,orupshotswere
discussedintherenumerousechoesorphysicalreverberationswhethertanks,planes,
radiosorMaterialschlacht;theproximatecauses,thesecondandthirdordereffects,were
visible.349Itisclear,however,thatthesourceandrootofchangeremainedcloakedbehind
theeffects.Similarly,thoughtoagreaterdegree,ScientificManagementfixedclosuretothe
sourceamplydemonstratedtheintellectualchangetowardtime.LewisMumfordperceived
theevolution,thetrendinsocietalchange,observingin1934,“Intime-keeping,intrading,
infightingmencountednumbers;andfinally,asthehabitgrew,onlynumberscounted.”350
ItisatruismandnolesstruethatArmyofficers,beginningwithWorldWarIandinevery
majorconflictthenceforwardusedthekill/deathratio-numbers-astheprimarymetric
wherebyvictoryanddefeatweremeasured.
349PoormobilizationofmaterialandindustrialcapacityinWWIresultedinthecreationoftheArmyindustrialCollege.ScientificManagement,withitsfocusonefficiency,certainlyfoundanaturaloutgrowthintheAIC.FrancisW.A’Hearn,“TheIndustrialCollegeoftheArmedForces:ContextualAnalysisofanEvolvingMission,1924-1994”(DoctorofEducation,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandStateUniversity,1997).350Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,22.
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ChapterVII
TheArmybyNurture&theNavybyNature
TheU.S.Armyarrivedatthephilosophyofscientificmanagementorganicallyand
largelyunintentionally.Thatjourneywasdrivenlargelybyenvironmentalfactors.TheU.S.
Navyembracedtheconceptsknownasscientificmanagementdeliberatelyandforcefully.
Thestrikingdifferencebetweenthetwoculturesliesattheheartofthisanalysis.TheArmy
andNavybothconfronteddauntingchangeatthedawnofthetwentiethcentury.Both
wereinextricablylinkedtopreparingforwarandtheofficersthatfilledtheirranksvalued
similartraitsofleadership,courage,andforbearance.Nevertheless,theyconducted
operationsinseparateanddistinctenvironments.Toolsoftheirtradeswerenoless
diverse.TheNavytradedinvaststeelseagoingtitans.TheArmydealtinboneandsinew.
Similaritiesanddifferencesaside,theybothfundamentallypursuedoneendaboveall
others--efficiency.
FrederickTaylorbridgedtheArmyandNavyastheforemostnameinefficiencyin
thefirstdecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Heembodiedthebowwaveofmanagerial
changesweepingthroughAmericanfactories,industrialestablishments,andsoon
universities.Formostwhowereawareofhistheories,Taylorwasnosnakeoilsalesman
pedalingspuriousconcoctionsfromthebackofagaudily-paintedwagon.Taylorhada
vision.Andlikeallvisionarieshisdreamsandideasofchangegeneratedsignificant
resistance.Throughyearsofstudyandpracticalexperiencehehadrefinedhismethodsfor
improvingworkplaceefficiency.Asaresult,asearlierdiscussed,privateandpublic
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businessandorganizationsfrequentlysoughtTaylor’sexpertiseabouthowtodomore
withless.
Taylor’sinvolvementwiththeNavypredatedhisinvolvementwiththeArmy.This
contactwasgreaternotonlyinchronologicalorder,butalsoinfrequencyandquantityof
correspondence.ItappearsthatTaylorpersonallyinvestedhisinterestsandenergies
moredeeplyinrelationswiththeNavy.Ofcourse,theNavycertainlyrepresentedthe
largerquarryofthetwoservicesbyalargemeasure.Nevertheless,hisengagementwith
theU.S.Navybureaucracyandnavalofficersweredemonstrablystrongerthatthosewith
U.S.Armycounterparts.Last,theNavyandTaylorismsharedacommonnature--thatof
machines.Itisnecessarytoemphasize,however,thatscientificmanagementforTaylor
andtheU.S.Navyofficerswithwhomhedealtwasnotmerelyasetofproceduresfor
tinkeringwiththeproductionandrepairofmachines;itembodiedamindset,awayof
thinking.Intheend-it’sallabouttime.
FortuneappearedtofavorTaylor,butonlyinstints.CaptainCasperF.Goodrich,a
long-timefamilyfriend,provedtobeanimportantandpowerfulally.Goodrichwasa
strongadvocateforNavyreformandservedontheNavyBoardthatrecommendedthe
establishmentoftheNavalWarCollege.351Theirfriendship,bytoneandsubstanceclearly
predatedthe1891letterbetweenthetwowhich,representsoneoftheearliest
communiquésbetweenTaylorandanofficeroftheNavy.Theletterwascomposedtwelve
yearsbeforeTaylorpublishedhisfamouswork“ShopManagement”in1903.352
351Kuehn,“TheMartialSpirit—NavalStyle:TheNavalReformMovementandtheEstablishmentoftheGeneralBoardoftheNavy,1873-1900”;RonaldH.Spector,ProfessorsofWar:TheNavalWarCollegeandtheDevelopmentoftheNavalProfession(Newport,RI:NavalWarCollegePress,1977),23–24.352Taylor,ShopManagement.
142
TheearlylettersbetweenGoodrichandTaylorfrequentlytouchedonmattersof
workandfamilyinnearlyequalmeasure.Theterm“ScientificManagement,”asyet
uncoined,neverenteredthediscussions,althoughstatementsleavenedwithTaylor’sideas
aboutefficiencyturnedupoccasionally.Generally,thewarmandaffablemissivesbetween
TaylorandGoodrichclosedwithsomevariationof“lovetoallthefamily.”353Therewere
signsthatmoresubstantiveexchangesoccurred.InDecember1891,Goodrichencouraged
Taylor’searlysuccessbyobserving,“Ihopethingsarerunningnowwithouthitchandthat
thequantityproducedisasampleasthequalityissatisfactory.Iamalwayswithyouin
spiritandamalwayswishingyouthebestofluckinallthings.”354
However,neartheendofthecenturyTaylorstartedtograsptheessentialsofhis
systemwhileworkingasaconsultantatBethlehemSteel.InMarch1899,Taylordetailed
informationabouthisworkinalettertoGoodrichthathintedatthisprogress.“Itwould
givemetheverygreatestpleasure,”Taylorwrote,“tohaveyougothroughworkshereand
lookoverthevariouslinesinwhichwearetryingtomakeimprovements.”355Goodrich
wasunabletovisitanditappearedhispressingnavaldutiestookatollonhistimetowrite
aswell.Taylorpressedahead,makingsignificantadvancesintooldevelopmentand
proclaiminghis“newschemeofmanagement.”356HeinformedGoodrichinaletterinthe
summerof1900astohisprogress.357GoodrichcomplimentedTayloronhissuccessesbut
didnotasofyetinquireintothespecificdetailsofTaylor’ssystem.Goodrichappeared
content,asfriendsareusuallyaccustomedtodo,toacceptknowledgeofafriend’sworksin
353FrederickTaylortoC.F.Goodrich,January1892,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.354C.F.GoodrichtoFrederickTaylor,December29,1891,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.355FrederickTaylortoC.F.Goodrich,March14,1899,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.356FrederickTaylortoC.F.Goodrich,June16,1900,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.357Ibid.
143
themostgeneralterms.However,followingextendedserviceatseaduringtheSpanish-
AmericanWar,onSeptember1901Goodrichreceivedorderstotakecommandofthe
LeagueIslandNavyYardoutsidePhiladelphia.Discoveringthathisnewcommand,atthe
navalyard,wasparalyzedbytraditionalproceduresandlackedefficiency,Goodrichknew
exactlywheretoturn.358
FrankCopleystatedinFrederickTaylor,FatherofScientificManagement(1923):
ItwillberememberedthatoneofthereformseffectedbyGoodrichandNewberryupontherecommendationofTaylorwastheconcentrationatLeagueIsland,inPhiladelphiaofallthetoolmakingfortheAtlanticyards.Theorganizationofthistool-makingshopwasdirectedbyHathaway.ItwasalwaysGoodrich’sambitiontohaveBarthemployedattheBrooklynNavyyard,theretoestablishmachine-shopstandardsfortheentireservice.359
ChancehadsmiledonTaylor.Alongtimefamilyfriendgivenakeypositionwithin
theU.S.Navy’sshipyardsprovidedTaylorwiththeperfectopportunitytorefineand
expandhismanagementmethodsonascalenotpreviouslypossible.Theoldadagethat
“it’snotwhatyouknow,butwhoyouknow”fitsaptlyhere.Nevertheless,Goodrich,like
mostlineofficers,expressedsomediscontentatgivingupseacommand,exchangingship
forshoreduty.Goodrichdid,however,confidetoTaylorthat“oneoftheredeeming
featuresofmynewduty-whichIfranklydonotlike-willbethebetterchanceofseeingyou
occasionally.”360
TheadministrationofTheodoreRooseveltprovedaformidableproponentfor
governmentreform.GoodrichandTaylorbenefitedfromthestronganti-unionstanceof
Rooseveltandbothmensharedasimilarviewof“loafers”ingovernmentservicethat
358C.F.GoodrichtoFrederickTaylor,September9,1901,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.359FrankB.Copley,FrederickW.Taylor,FatherofScientificManagement,vol.II(NewYork:HarperandBrothers,1923),304–305.360GoodrichtoTaylor,December29,1891.
144
neededtoberemoved.361Stillunionsandleisurelylaborpracticespersistedwithin
America’snavalyards.
GoodrichwasTaylor’soldestally,butnothismostardentsupporter.Thattitle
belongedtoanotherofficer.Goodrich,tenyearsTaylor’ssenior,employedarefined
politicalacumen.Thus,Goodrichapproachedrestructuringofthenavalyardsobliquely,if
conservatively.HesupportedTaylorinhisplansfortheinstallationofscientific
managementideasreformbuthisnavalcareersuperseded,shoulditcometoahead,any
commitmenttohisdesireforsubstantialreform.
GoodrichmighthavebeenTaylor’soldestally,buthewasnothismostardent
supporter.Thattitlebelongedtoanotherofficer.NavalConstructorHoldenA.Evans
discoveredTaylorthroughacombinationofwordofmouthandprofessional
development.362Taylor’sreputation,forillorwell,gainedconsiderablereachwithhis
publicationofShopManagement,andhisnotorietyincreasedasaresultofwell-publicized
conflictswithlaborleaders.WhereasGoodrich’sappreciationandapplicationofTaylor’s
managementsystemhadlogicalandreasonablelimits,Evanshadnosuchcompunctions.
Hedeliberately,ifwithadegreeofrelish,sacrificedhimselfontheshrineofTaylorismand
inthenameofefficiency.363
Ideashavethepotentialtoigniteafireintheheartsofthosewhoembracedthem.
Suchindividualsaredrivenbysingle-mindedcommitmentandabeliefinthepurityoftheir
cause.Theywillimmolateothers,andeventhemselves,toseethosebeliefsrealized.
InspiredbyTaylorism,Evanssacrificedhismarriageandlaterhiscareerinacrusadeto
361FrederickTaylortoC.F.Goodrich,May7,1891,Box21,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.362H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,June28,1906,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.363HoldenA.Evans,OneMan’sFightforaBetterNavy(NewYork:Dodd,Mead,1940),182.
145
implementscientificmanagementinAmerica’snavalyards.364Thetitleofhis
autobiography,OneMan’sFightforaBetterNavy(1940)conveysthesolitarytenorofhis
journey.365
HoldenA.EvansgraduatedfromtheNavalAcademyin1892.Poorhealthnearly
abortedhiscareerbeforeitwaslaunched.However,fatesmiledonyoungEvans.Hisfather
wasa“life-long”friendofthenSecretaryoftheNavyBenjaminF.Tracy.Acordialmeeting
putthemattertorestinminutes.366However,anunfortunateconversationbetweenEvans
andSecretaryTracyplacedEvansasalineofficerratherthanasupervisorofnaval
construction.ThisoccurrencedemonstratesacleardemarcationbetweenGoodrichand
Evans.WhileEvansdesirednothingmorethanacareerinthefieldofshipyard
managementandeschewedalifeontheline,Goodrichlovedthelifeofalineofficerand
wantednothingtodowithnavalyards.AfterashorttourasalineofficerEvanswassentto
GlasgowUniversityforaneducationinnavalarchitectureandshipbuilding.367In1897,he
reportedtoNewportNavyYardtobeginhiscareerasanavalconstructor.368
OnJune28,1906,Evans,writingfromtheNavyYardatMareIslandCalifornia,
dispatchedthefirstofmanyletterstoTaylor.369Inthismissiveherequestedahalf-dozen
articlesandTaylor’smonograph,ShopManagement,becausehewas,“…anxioustogo
furtherintothissubject…”370Evanswasambitiousandcurious,apowerfulcombination
forchange.Aprolificpublicist,Taylorrarelywastedtimerespondingtorequestsfor
informationabouthismethods.Truetoform,TaylorrepliedtoEvans’srequestonJuly4,364Ibid.,88.365Evans,OneMan’sFightforaBetterNavy.366Ibid.,59,60.367Ibid.,90.368Ibid.,111.369EvanstoTaylor,June28,1906.370Ibid.
146
1897andincludedarecentlypublishedarticletitledthe“PieceRateSystem.”Hethen
notedthathehad“forwardedthebalanceofyour[Evans’]listsofpamphletstothe
AmericansocietyofMechanicalEngineers,withtherequesttothemtoforwardthese
paperstoyou.”371TaylorhadbeenelectedpresidentoftheASMEthatsameyearandmade
useoftheorganization’sstafftodealwithsuchmatters.
Overthenextseveralyears,Taylorfoundhimselffavorablypositionedbetween
CrozierwiththeArmyandGoodrichandEvanswiththeNavy.CrozierandGoodrichboth
exercisedadegreeofcautionintheirimplementationofshopmanagement,whileEvans
utterlyabandonedhimselftothecause.DrivenbyhisbeliefinTaylorismandinfusedwith
youthfulidealism,hissingle-mindedpursuitofefficiencynearlymatchedthatofTaylor
himself.Hewasnotsofortunateindealingwithresistancewithinthesystemtohis
advocacyofscientificmanagement.Taylor,unlikeEvans,waspositionedtoweatherthe
politicalfalloutthatwasinevitable.CrozierandGoodrichunderstoodthatturmoilwith
shipyardworkersmightwellsinkanyprospects,andtheircareers,ofimplementing
change.
Nevertheless,TaylorandEvanscontinuedanactivecorrespondenceoverthenext
severalyears,especiallyduring1906-1909.Taylor,ashefrequentlydidwithbright
prospects,invitedEvanstocometoPhiladelphiatoseeshopmanagementinaction,Taylor
suggestedastayofa“weektotendays”thathemight“graspthewholesystem.”372
Taylor’sinvitationsextendedtoothers,butoneotherimportantgroup-menofinfluence-
foundsimilarfavor.
371FrederickTaylortoH.A.Evans,July4,1906,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.372FrederickTaylortoH.A.Evans,April29,1907,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,July30,1906,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
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Taylordiscoveredbychance,orperhapsitwasbydesign,thatshopmanagement
foundgreatersuccesswithatwo-prongedattack.Inessence,itappearsthatheattempted
toinfluenceengineers,builders,andpractitionerssuchasEvans,menattheroots.Ifnaval
constructorsandtheircounterpartsinotherindustrialestablishmentsadoptedshop
managementforitsbenefits,thenitpropagatednaturallythroughouttheorganization.
Taylorpossessedasortofscientificmystique,anauraofconfidencethatcaused
peopletoadmirehimformasteryofacomplexsubject.Theintellectualprowessofsuch
individualsproducesanallure,amagneticattractionthatconflatesrealitywithmagic
withintheapprentice.Themasterdemonstratesanabilitytoelucidatedatawithelegance
andprecisionthatinfectsthenovicewithcuriosityandenthusiasm.Thatsortofperson
connectsopaquerelationshipsbetweendisparateaspectsofthetopicthatappearobvious
andself-evidentbutonlyinretrospect.Taylorhadthisinspades.
Aspreviouslydiscussed,themostcommontermsforTaylor’sideaswereshop
management,Taylorism,andscientificmanagement.Theideaevolvedwithtimelikethe
termitself.Initially,shopmanagementaimedprimarilyatimprovingthemechanistic
elementsofafactory.Later,theideaevolvedandappliedtotheindividual,notjust
motions,buttothought.Evolutionoftheconceptproducedthemorepowerfulelementof
scientificmanagement.
Evans,theparagonnavalconstructor,foundhimselfgrippedbyTaylorandhis
system.However,methodsandprocessesalonedonotgeneratetheemotionalappeal,the
ferventdedicationexhibitedbyEvans.Rather,suchadherentsbegantograspquiteearly
thepotentialofTaylor’ssystem.373ForEvansitwasasubtle,butnatural,stepfromefficient
373H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,December29,1906,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
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actiontoefficientthought.Hebelieveditwasamatteroftimeuntilshopmanagement
becamethelawoftheland.
Taylor’ssecondmechanismforthepromulgationofhisideasaimedtoinfluence
thoseatthetop.Forexample,hemetwithPresidentTheodoreRoosevelt,theSecretaryof
theNavyandtheAssistantSecretaryoftheNavytodiscusshissystem.Hemetwith
senatorsandinvitedthemtovisithisshops,ashedidwithEvans.Furthermore,Taylor
appearedatcongressionalhearingsbothtofurtherandattimesdefendhissystem.He
frequentlyenteredintothemostpowerfulcirclesofAmericanpolitics.
TheNavyprovedmoreimportantthandidtheArmytoensurethesuccessof
Taylorism.Complicatedmachinessuchastankshadyettobeinvented,andwheeled
vehiclesplayedonlyaminorroleintheArmyproductionandprocurementsystematthe
turnofthecentury.Ontheotherhand,theNavyproducedshipsrangingfromfrigatesto
dreadnoughts,thelargestmachinestheworldhadseen.Aswell,navalyardswerehighly
visible,beinglocatedinornearlargemetropolitanareas,andtheyemployedsignificant
numbersofworkers.Thepublicandpoliticiansremainedkeenlyattunedtoanychangesat
theyards.Thus,navyyardspromisedtobeamarveloussitefortheimplementationofthe
principlesofscientificmanagement.
However,Taylorandhisdisciplesfacedsomegiantobstacles.IfFrederickTaylorwasDavid
ofOldTestamentfame,theworkersandtheirembryonicunionsprovedtobehisGoliath--
albeitanadversarythatneverquitestayeddead.Taylorfoughtthemateveryturn.He
foughttheminprivateindustry.Hefoughttheminthearmories.Hefoughttheminthe
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navalyards.Hefoughtthemingovernment.374Buthedidnotfightthemalone.Hiswaron
inefficiencyenlistedcapablemenineverytheaterofactionlistedabove.
Taylor’sdisciplesintheNavy,primarilynavalofficersresponsibleforship
construction,demonstratedanunusualdegreeofloyaltytoTaylorandhistheories.Line
officerswerefoundintheirranksaswell,buttheirnumberswerelimited.Taylor
engenderedthisfidelitybynurturingpersonalrelationshipsandadvisinghisloyal
supporterswhenevertheyencounteredanobstacle.HeregularlyadvisedCrozierand
Evans,amongothers,astohowtodealwithworkersandunions.375
On30August1907,EvansdispatchedalettertoChiefConstructorW.L.Capps,
CommandantoftheNavyYardatMareIsland,California.Theformalrequestentitled,
“Piecework-Recommendedforscalingoutsideplatingofships”inwhichheenumerated
point-by-pointthereasonsandbenefitsofthissystem.Evansendedthemissivewithhis
mostcompellingpoint,statingthat“…pieceworkwasbrieflydiscussedwiththeHonorable
SecretaryoftheNavyduringhisvisittothisyardandIwasinformedbytheSecretarythat
hewouldapprovepiecework…”376Asitturnedout,thelettertoCappsprovedamere
formality.LessthanamonthlaterEvanshadhisanswer.Pieceworkwasago.377Theletter
toCappsprovedamereformality.
PresidentTheodoreRoosevelt--apragmatistinthetruestAmericansense--valued
utilityandefficiency.Hemadeclearthosevaluestomembersofhiscabinet.Thus,
SecretaryoftheNavyVictorH.MetcalfhadnorealobjectionstoEvans’proposalfor
374H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,April19,1907,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.375TaylortoEvans,April29,1907.376H.A.EvanstoW.L.Capps,August30,1907,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.377W.L.CappstoH.A.Evans,September20,1907,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
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pieceworkatthenavyyards,althoughitwasinitiallylimitedtowoodcaulking.378Capps,of
course,followedsuit.InhisresponsehedirectedEvans“…tokeepacarefulrecordofthe
quantitiesandcostsofpieceworkscalingdone…”forcomparisonpurposes.379Fromhis
conversationwithSecretaryMetcalf,Evansinferred,“…thathewouldlookwithfavoron
recommendationsfortheextensionofthepieceworksystem.”380Overthefollowing
months,EvanswastedlittletimeinimplementingandextendingpieceworkattheMare
Islandshipyard.
EvansandTaylorcontinuedtoexchangeideasonpieceworkandshopmanagement.
Infact,Evansstatedinonecommunicationon27July1908,“your[Taylor’s]opinionisso
valuablethatIhavetakenthelibertyofforwardingyourletter…totheNavy
Department.”381ThisdemonstratedEvans’faiththatTaylor’sopinionnotonlythatthosein
theNavywouldknowofFrederickTaylorbutthathisviewscarriedsignificantweight.
Taylorfoundhimselfinauniqueposition.BecauseofhisfriendshipwithGoodrichand
Evanshehadthepotentialtoexertsignificantinfluence,andhedidsoasanintermediary
shufflingsituationalortacticallevelinformationfromlowertoupperechelons,anot
uncommontacticthatleadersfrequentlyemploytogetunfilteredinformation.Evansonce
cautionedTayloraboutblatantmeddling.382TheNavymightnotlookkindlyonthiskindof
collusionifrevealed.
TheoutlookimprovedforTaylorandEvanswiththeappointmentofTrumanH.
NewberrytothepositionofSecretaryoftheNavyinDecember,1908.Newberry,whohada
378EvanstoCapps,August30,1907.379CappstoEvans,September20,1907.380EvanstoCapps,August30,1907.381H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,July27,1908,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.382Ibid.
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backgroundinindustry,appeareduniquelyopentoshopmanagement.However,
Newberry’sinterestextendedonlytotheendswithlittleregardtothemeans.Ifscientific
managementincreasedefficiency,andintheendsavedmoney,hefullysupportedit.383
Moreimportantly,HerbertL.Satterlee,thenewAssistantSecretaryoftheNavy,appeared
determined,asEvansreportedtoTaylor,“…tothoroughlyreorganizethemethodsinthe
navyyards.”384Thefuturelookedbrightforscientificmanagement.
In1908,Evansenumeratedinanarticle,“AnAnalysisofMachine-ShopMethods,”
theprocessesbeingimplementedtoincreaseefficiency.Evansrepeatedlyaddressedthe
“…beliefthatallGovernmentshopsareinefficientlymanaged…”abeliefwithwhichhe
explicitlydisagreed.385Yet,hisargumentsbeliedhisownsituation.Evansused
considerableinktocatalogtheproblemsthatgovernmentofficialsfacedthatcivilian
counterpartsdidnot.Inhisview,unions,bureaucraticentanglements,andlazy
governmentworkerscombinedtoreducetheefficiencyofnavalyards.Tocombatthese
maladies,Evansnoted,“I,however,believethatstop-watchtimestudies,asadvocatedby
Mr.Taylor,canbeusedtogreatadvantageinfixingstandardtimeforpremiumsystem.”386
Taylor’sinfluenceoverEvansisunmistakable.Evans’titledhis1908article“An
AnalysisofMachine-ShopMethods”atributetoTaylor’sShopManagement.Evans
confessed,“IhavebeenmuchimpressedwiththeteachingsofF.W.Taylor…”387.Healso
notedintellectualinspirationfromF.A.Halsey,aprominentmechanicalengineerandlong
timeeditoroftheAmericanMachinist.WhileEvansacknowledgedhisintellectualdebtto
383H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,November12,1908,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.384Ibid.385HoldenA.Evans,“AnAnalysisofMachine-ShopMethods,”AmericanMachinist31,no.1(1908):568.386Ibid.,569.387Ibid.,569.
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Halsey,Evans’publishedworksandhiscorrespondencedemonstratedhowimportantwas
Taylor’sinfluence.
On19November1908,TaylorwroteEvanstostresstheimportanceofgettingthe
SecretaryoftheNavytoapprovethemethodsofscientificmanagement.388Taylorand
Evanswereworkingagainsttheclock,fortimeandpoliticswerenotontheirside.They
neededtoimplementthesystemandnetsignificantresultsbeforetheunionsgained
adequatesupporttohalttheprocessofimplementingthereforms.Withoutthedata
yieldedbytheinitialchanges,theystoodlittlechanceofdefendingtheirmethodsifthe
politicalwindsshiftedagainstthem.Scientificmanagementnecessitatedasignificant
amountofdatacollection,sometimescalled“redtape”byitsadvocates.389Objectionsto
whatwasperceivedasunjustifiedexperimentationservedasonefocalpointforresistance
toscientificmanagement.
In1909stormcloudsformedonthehorizon.TheincomingWilliamH.Taft
administrationappearedmoresensitivetounionconcernsthanhadthatofTheodore
Roosevelt.Evans’windowofopportunitytoimplementscientificmanagementatMare
IslandNavyyardwasfastclosing.TaftwastedlittletimeinreplacingNewberrywith
GeorgevonMeyerasSecretaryoftheNavyinMarch1909.Meyer’sspecificfeelingstoward
scientificmanagementremainedanopenquestion,muchdebated,inthefirstfewweeks
afterhetookoffice.However,withintheNavybureaucracyresistancewasgrowing
noticeablyandquickly.TaylorlamentedtoEvans,somethreeweeksafterMeyer’s
388FrederickTaylortoH.A.Evans,November19,1908,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.389Ibid.
153
confirmation,“itseemsmostunfortunatethatNewberrywasnotallowedtocontinuethe
fineworkhehadthenervetostart.”390
Taylor’sfearwasconfirmedwhenhereceivedaletterfromEvanson15October,
1909.Scientificmanagementhadnotprogressedfastenoughinthenavyyards.Unionand
bureaucraticoppositioncombinedtoforceEvansandTayloronthedefensive.Meyer
abandonedNewberry’splans,asTaylorpredictedbecause,“resultshadnotbeenobtained
fromMr.Newberry’sscheme.”391TheinitiativeauthorizedbySecretaryNewberryran
fromFebruarytoJuly,hardlyenoughtimetofairlyadjudicateamethodsocomplexand
encompassing.ThesunhadsetontheacceptanceofscientificmanagementbytheUnited
StatesNavy—atleastforatime.
Evansflounderedduringthefollowingmonths.Scientificmanagementwasmore
thanasystem,process,ormethodtohim.Despairshadowedeverything,ashisdeepand
abidingbelief,purposeinlife,allhisworkturned,itseemed,toashes.Thislosswasmade
allthemoreacutebecausewhathadhappenedflewinthefaceoflogic.Meyer’spolicy
shiftedwiththepoliticalwindsoflaborpolicy,notonabasisofefficiencyorwhatwasbest
fortheNavy.Shrewdpoliticalmaneuveringandprimalemotionsdrovethesechanges,and
toalogicalmansuchasEvans,emotionsandpoliticsseemedasarbitraryandrandomasa
hurricaneorflood.On16October,EvansconfidedinTaylor,“…Iwillneverquit,butthereis
nouseofexpendingone’slifeinworkwheretheconditionsaresuchastomakeit
impossibletoproduceresults.”392OneoftheofficialexplanationsprofferedbytheMeyer
administrationasserted…thattheproblemofhandlingshopsofNavyYardisamilitary
390FrederickTaylortoH.A.Evans,March29,1909,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.391H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,October15,1909,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.392H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,October16,1909,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
154
ratherthananindustrialproblem.”393ToEvansandotherproponentsofscientific
management,heclaimwasasthinasthepaperitwaswrittenon.
However,thedarknesswasnotallencompassing.AssistantSecretaryoftheNavy
BeekmanWinthropdemonstratedsomeinterestinscientificmanagement.394Hissupport
wasqualifiedsince,asEvanswroteTaylor,“…hewantstofindoutforhimselfthebest
methods.”EvansprimedTaylortoexpectapotentialtelephonecallfromWinthrop.395
Meanwhile,heattemptedtoamelioratesomeofhisanxietythroughprodigious
correspondence,firingoffthreeletterstoTaylorinfourdays.On15October1909,Evans
againapproachedTaylorforhelp.ForEvans,Taylorrepresentedthefinalhopeto
overcometheresistance,thelastreserve,theOldGuard.HewageredTaylorleveraged
againstWinthropcouldplacescientificmanagement,perhapsunderadifferentguise,back
intothenavyyards.396
Intheinterim,Evanspublishedanarticle,“ReductioninCostofNavyYardWork”
thatcapturedhisbroaderthoughtsonscientificmanagementwithinthenaval
establishment.397Evanshadimplementedscientificmanagement,atleastinpart,several
yearsbeforeCrozier.Predictably,hisattemptsgeneratednosmallmeasureofdiscontent
fromworkersandpresagedsimilarunhappinessthatoccurredlateratWatertown.
However,Evansobserved,“…anotherdifficultywhichprobablyeverymanagerencounters
whenheattempttointroducesomeradicalimprovement,thatis,theoppositionofhis
workmen…probablyduetotwocauses…naturalconservatismofworkmen…anditgavethe
393EvanstoTaylor,October15,1909.394H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,October12,1909,Box116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.395Ibid.396EvanstoTaylor,October15,1909.397HoldenA.Evans,“ReductioninCostofNavyYardWork,”AmericanMachinist33,no.1(1910):3.
155
menlesstimetostandaround.”398Inhismind,workersdislikedprogressandwere
inherentlylazy.Nowhediscoveredthepoliticiansplayedthepart-andbetter.
Evansacknowledgedinthisarticlethat,“…ournavyyardshaveapoorreputation
amongbusinessmenandmanagers”inregardstoefficiency.399Hestressedthat,the
complexnatureofworkatthenavyyardsmilitatedagainstanyeasyfixes.Onlythe
applicationofFrederickTaylor’stheorieswouldcorrecttheproblems.
ItisclearthatTaylor’sinfluencecontinuedtospreadthroughouttheconstructorcorps.400
NamerecognitionofTaylorandTaylorismfueledboththespreadandoppositiontohis
methods.HisworkShopManagement,publishednearlysevenyearsbefore,gained
considerabletractionby1910.Thetermscientificmanagement,notcoineduntil1910and
notbyTaylor,implicitlyconveyedtheideaoffactual,eternalanduniversallyapplicable
lawstoincreaseefficiency.MensincetheageofAristotlehadlookedforthemagickeyto
unlockthemysteryofcreationandTaylor,asitpertainedtoefficiency,appearedtohave
foundtheanswer.
Evansremainedsteadfastinhisfaith.Unwillingtobendorrescindhismethods,his
daysatMareIslandwerenumbered.TheNavy,bythemiddleof1910,reassignedEvans
fromtheMareIslandNavyYard.401Therewasnoneedtospeculateastothecauseofhis
removal.Nevertheless,theseedsofapowerfulideahadtakenroot.Evans’s“detachment”
didnotnecessarilyreducehisinfluence.Thosewhohadnot,bymereproximity,stumbled
ontoTaylor’smethodswereledtherebymenlikeEvans.398Evans,“AnAnalysisofMachine-ShopMethods,”156.399Evans,“ReductioninCostofNavyYardWork,”1200.400H.A.EvanstoFrederickTaylor,July26,1910,Box115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;G.S.RadfordtoFrederickTaylor,December3,1910,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;G.A.BissettoFrederickTaylor,“G.A.Bisset,LettertoFrederickTaylor,”November29,1910,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.401F.G.CoburntoFrederickTaylor,September20,1910,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
156
Forexample,in1910EvansintroducedNavyconstructorA.G.CoburntoTaylor.402
Followingtheirinitialmeeting,Coburnrequestedpamphlets,muchasEvanshadbackin
1906.403Taylor’scharmwasevidenthereaswell.Coburnnoted,“…Ifeeltheneedofafirst
handinspirationtokeepmegoingforawhileundertheconditionswhichasyouknoware
extremelyuncomfortable.”404Taylorpromptlyrespondedon22Septemberwriting:“…It
wouldgivemeverygreatpleasuretohaveyoucometomyhouse,”Taylorwrote,“atany
timewhenyouareintheneighborhood…”405
Furthermore,TaylorsuggestedthatCoburngototheArmy’sWatertownArsenal
andobservethesysteminaction.OnTaylor’srecommendation,CarlBarthhadworked
therewithCroziertoimplementscientificmanagement.406Taylorthusactedasaconduitto
routeanavalofficertoanArmyarmory.Presumably,theinformednavalofficer,having
observedscientificmanagementinpracticeatanarmorysanctionedbythegovernment,
andthenreturnedtoanavalyardtoenactit,aformofintellectualcross-pollination.In
earlyOctoberCoburnbrieflystayedwithTaylorathishome.407
WithtimeonhishandsafterhisdeparturefromMareIsland,Evansrequested
extendedleaveforadvancedstudyunderTaylorinscientificmanagement.Therequest,
despiteapositivereferralfromAdmiralRichardM.Watt,wasdenied.408Theatmosphere
hadshifteddecisivelyagainstscientificmanagement,atleastthekindadvocatedbyEvans.
TaylorwrotetoWattregardingwhathetermedtheincoherenceoftheTaftadministration.
“Itis,however,extraordinary”,Taylorobserved,“whenonerealizedthatthesame402EvanstoTaylor,July26,1910.403CoburntoTaylor,September20,1910.404Ibid.405FrederickW.TaylortoF.G.Coburn,September22,1910,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.406Ibid.407F.G.CoburntoFrederickTaylor,October7,1910,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.408R.M.WatttoFrederickTaylor,December12,1910,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
157
methodswhicharesoseverelycondemnedandwhicharebeing,“…tornoutofthenavy
yards,arebeingintroducedbyGeneralCrozieratWatertownwithgreatrapidityandinthe
mostthoroughmanner.”409TaylorfoundthattheArmyarmoriesprovedastrongbulwark
againsthostilityofpoliticians.
TaylorinformedWattthatCrozierplannedameetinginearly1912ofthe
commandersofallarsenalsforthepurposeof“introducingthesamemethods.”410If
SecretaryMeyerwanteda“thoroughlyimpartial”witnessastotheviabilityofscientific
management,Taylorargued,Crozierfitthebill.411Failingthat,Taylorsoughtameeting
withPresidentTaft.412Unfortunately,asTaylorrecalled,themeetinglastedlessthana
minute.413Inthatspanthepresidentdemonstratedlittleinterestinscientificmanagement
ortheEvans“matter.”Thepresidentbluntlystated,“…heofcoursecouldnothavemuch
interestinasystemwhichwasinoppositiontotheviewoftheSecretaryoftheNavy.”414
Thus,theroadblocktoacceptanceofscientificmanagementappearedtobe,atleast
officially,SecretaryoftheNavyMeyer.
ThetreatmentofEvanscausedahighdegreeofresentmentamongfellownaval
constructors.Coburncalledtheadministration“shortsighted”and“bigoted”inits
treatmentofEvans’“case.”415However,likeEvans,Coburnexpectedlittlesympathyfor
Taylor’smethodsathisnewdutystation.Indeed,Taylorwarnedhisprotégéewithatouch
ofsarcasm:“Youwillnot…findthecommandingofficer…atLeagueIslandingreat
409FrederickTaylortoR.M.Watt,December15,1910,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.410Ibid.411Ibid.412FrederickTaylortoR.M.Watt,January12,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.413Ibid.414Ibid.415F.G.CoburntoFrederickTaylor,February7,1911,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
158
sympathywithanythingwhichinvolvedprogress.”416Taylorknewthisbecauseheresided
notfarfromtheLeagueIslandfacility.Perhapstheonlybenefitofthenewassignmentwas
TaylorandCoburnwouldnowseeagreatdealmoreofeachother.
MostofTaylor’snavalcontactsresidedintheconstructorcorpsamongstengineers
andthoseinthenavyyards,Goodrichbeinganobviousexception.However,oneother
sourceofsupportemerged—fromalineofficer.Taylorreceivedanintriguingletterfrom
LieutenantW.B.Tardyon6February1911.Tardy,astudentofscientificmanagement,
inquiredofTaylorwhetheranengineeringsectiononboardashipmightbenefit
significantlyfromsuchanorganization.417Tardynoted,thatifcorrect,delineatingthetime
ittooktodoeachjoballowedformultipleimprovementsandincreasedefficiencyaboard
thebattleship.Withthisaction,scientificmanagementexpandedfromshoretoship.The
tasksweresimilar,butthecontexthadchanged.
ApeculiarsituationexistedintheperiodbeforeWorldWarI.Meyerpersistently
toutedthefailuresofscientificmanagement,andnavalofficers,especiallyconstructors,
continuedtoimplementit.418ItisdifficulttogaugetheprevalenceorpopularityofTaylor’s
methodsintheNavyatthistime.SufficeittosaythatMeyer’svocaloppositionprovideda
valuablebenchmark.Meyerwasnottotallyopposedtothemethodsofscientific
management,buthewasopposedtoanythingthathadTaylor’snamestampedonit.
WhereTaylor’snamepoppedup,stormsfollowed.Taylorhimselfrecognizedthathewas
toxic.Inaletterof11February1911,hewarnedTardy,“…Ifeelyouwillbemorelikelyto
succeedbycallingyoursystem‘scientificmanagement’ratherthanbrandingitasthe
416FrederickTaylortoF.G.Coburn,February13,1911,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.417W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,February6,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.418FrederickTaylortoW.B.Tardy,January31,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
159
Taylorsystem.”419GeneralCrozierwasawareofthissentimentaswell,butthoughtTaylor
deservedthenameandthefruitsofhislabor.420
WhateverMeyer’smotivationsandthepoliticalintrigueinvolved,inMarch1911,he
instructedCaptainAndrewstoinviteTaylor,astheSecretary’sguest,tocomeaboardthe
U.S.S.Dolphin.FromtherethetwowouldmovetoviewnavalgunneryinactionontheU.S.S
Vermont.421TardyalsobrieflyspokewithMeyerwho,“sincerelyhopeshe[Taylor]will
accept”theinvitationandforTardytoensurethathedid.422Thisprovidedthetwomen
ampletimetodiscussthemeritsofscientificmanagement.Fromthemomenthewassworn
inMeyerhadcrushedeverysignofTaylorismintheNavy,includingreassignmentof
officers,likeEvans,whogotinhisway.Now,itappeared,theinvitationtoTaylor,the
embodimentofthemovement,todineaboardshipsuggestedthatMeyer’stunehad
changed.Buteverysongcomestoanend.
InabrazenbreachofdecorumTardyimploredTaylortoaccepttheSecretary’s
invitation.423IfTaylor’srecordwasanyindication,heneededlittlepromptingtoaccept
Meyer’soffer.DismissedbyMeyeranddeflectedbyTaftin1909,Taylornowsenseda
breachinthepoliticalbarricade.Withthecharacteristicconvictionofatruebeliever,he
chargedin.Tardyplayedadangerousgamebydancingontheboundarylineofcollusion.
However,TaylorandTardywerefamilyfriendsandtheirrelationship,akintothatwith
Goodrich,providedTaylorwithaninsideseat.
419Ibid.420Crozier,“ScientificManagementinGovernmentEstablishments.”421W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,March27,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.422Ibid.423Ibid.
160
Meyer’smovetowardscientificmanagementcausedacorrespondingshiftinthe
Navy.Officersandagentsofscientificmanagementnowbegantomoveoutoftheshadows.
AjubilantTardyobservedtoTaylor,“itlookstome,fromwhatisapparentandwhatIget
behindthescenesthatthetimeisripeforyoutoaddtheNavyscalptoyourbelt.”424If
Evans’scareerhadsufferedbecauseofhisbeliefinscientificmanagement,Tardysoughtto
profitbytheassociationwithTaylor.Furthermore,Tardy’sproximitytotheSecretary
providedhimwithconfidentialinformationaboutMeyer’snavalplansthathesharedwith
Taylor.425
Inahandwrittenletterof27March1911,afterafriendlypreamble,Tardyspelled
outhisplan.“Myreasonsforsendingyouamanuscriptletter”,Tardyexplained,“instead
ofatypewrittenoneisbecauseIamgoingtosaythingsthatIdon’twantayeomanorclerk
tosee.”426Henolongerwasdancingalongthelineofcollusion;heclearlyhadchosento
eraseit.TardydescribedhisplansindetailtoTaylor:
…whyIamsoanxioustohaveyouaccept.Nowforalittlemoreprospectivehistory,whichwillunfoldotherpersonalreasonswhyitisnecessarytomycareeralmostthatyoucome.IamgiventounderstandthatIamtobecomeamemberoftheboardofofficerswhoaretovisitscientific[management]shops.ThatifImakegoodinthatcapacityIamtobecometheSecretary’saidforNavyyardorganizationandmanagement.IbelieveIhaveaprettyclearconceptofalltheunderlyingprinciplesoftheTaylorsystemofmanagementandIknowthatIaminfullsympathywithyou…nowisthecriticalopportunemomentforyoutoadvanceyourreligionofmanagementbyaddingtheNavytothenumbersoforganizationsthatareoperatingunderTaylorsystemofmanagement.Youcanhelpmeinmyambitiontobe ofvaluetotheserviceandtorenderyouloyalassistanceinreorganizingNavyYards.YouseeifIamtheofficerdesignatedtoworkwithyourrepresentativeandtoseethateachyardadvancesasrapidlyandasuniformlyaspossiblyyounotonlydonothaveareactionaryinme,butyou haveanenthusiasticdisciplewhowillavail
424Ibid.425FrederickTaylortoR.M.Watt,March29,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.426TardytoTaylor,March27,1911.
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himselfofallthecounselyoumay caretogive…pleaseregardtheaboveasconfidentialforthepresent.427
TaylorhappilyacceptedtheSecretary’sinvitationon30March,1911.428Nolonger
thepariah,fortuneagainsmiledonhisendeavors.Thenavalexercisewasasuccessforall
interestedparties.Taylorfeltliberated,ifnotvindicated.Tardyreceivedthesupporthe
neededandtheaffirmationoftheSecretary.AndMeyerwasnowinformedonthematterof
scientificmanagement.Taylor,confidedinAdmiralWatt,“IdevotedallofmytimewithMr.
Meyertothisend…”429
TardywroteTayloron11Apriltoinformhimthat,aspredicted,hehadbeen
appointedtoaboardassignedtoinvestigatescientificmanagementatvariousshops.430
TardysuggestedtoSecretaryMeyerthatEvansbeappointedtotheboardbecauseofhis
expertiseinscientificmanagement.Taylor,likewise,defendedEvansatlengthwhile
aboardtheDolphinandVermontinthehopeofmendingtherupturebetweenthetwo
men.431TheSecretarytooktherequestunderadvisement.TardyinformedTaylorthat
“theSecretaryauthorizedmetotellyou[Taylor]inconfidencethathehadtakeupwith
WattthequestionofappointingEvanstothisBoard,andthatWattthoughtEvanslacked
judicialbalance…”432
Butmatterswerenotastheyseemed.Taylorpromptlyrespondedinamissive,on
April13,toTardy.AccordingtoTaylor,Wattrememberedtheconversationquite
differently.“WatttoldmehestronglyrecommendedEvansasamemberofthisBoard,”
427Ibid.428FrederickTaylortoW.B.Tardy,March30,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.429FrederickTaylortoR.M.Watt,April10,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.430W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,April11,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.431TaylortoWatt,April10,1911.432TardytoTaylor,April11,1911.
162
Taylorrecounted,“andstatedthathewasbetterqualifiedthananyoneelseinthe
ConstructionCorps…TheSecretaryrefusedtohaveEvansbecauseheclaimedEvanshad
attackedhiminthepress.”433GiventherecommendationbyWattthatEvansbeallowedto
takeayearofleavetostudyunderTaylor,theSecretary’sassertionappearedquestionable.
Theruptureremained,andexperiencedU.S.Navyconstructor,G.H.Rock,andCharles
ConradPaymasteroftheNavy,werenamedtheothermembersoftheBoard.
Taylor’scomplexmanagementmethodsrequiredsignificanttrainingandeducation.
Withoutpropertraining,scientificmanagementappearedburdensometotheuninformed.
Copiousrecordsanddetailedprocessesseemedunnecessary,andfortheworkerthe
requirementforrigorousrepetitioncausedfrustrationandanger.Taylorfearedthat,
lackingextensiveeducationaboutmethods,theboardmemberswouldviewscientific
management“…asembodyingavastamountofredtape,therealmeaningofwhichthey
wouldinnowayappreciate.”434Toforestallanysuchjudgment,Taylorhostedtheboard,at
hishomeinlateApril,1911.435Itsmembersmadecleartheircommitmenttoimpartiality
andobjectivity,andassuredTaylorthathehadnothingtofearfromtheboard.Thethreat
emergedfromanotherquarter.
ByAugust1911Taylorhaddefeatedoroutmaneuveredthosewhoopposed
implementationofscientificmanagementingovernmentworkshops.Tardywaspoisedto
introducescientificmanagementonalargerscale.And,surprisingly,Meyerrelentedand
allowedEvanstojointheboard.436EvansalsobecameamemberofAdmiralCharlesE.
433FrederickTaylortoW.B.Tardy,April13,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.434Ibid.435W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,June3,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.436W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,July23,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;FrederickTaylortoW.B.Tardy,August1,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
163
Vreeland’scommission,whichwasalsoworkingonmodernmanagementforNavy
Yards.437Inprinciple,theNavyacceptedscientificmanagementasofferingsuperior
methodsthatifemployedimprovedefficiency.Officersagreedonthatmuch.Nowthe
questionrevolvedaroundthedetailsofwhatwouldbedone.Taylorassumed,aslateas27
August,thatMeyer’sintroductionofscientificmanagementwasonlyamatteroftime.438
On12OctoberTaylorreceivedashockingletterfromG.S.Radford,inclosinga
newspaperclippingfromtheWashingtonPost.Thearticle,“WillTryNewNavyPlan:Sec
MeyertoImportEnglishSystem,”indicatedthepossibilityofMeyermovinginadifferent
directionthanhehadintimatedtoTaylor.439
Washington,Oct8—CastingasideallscientificsystemsofNavyYard
managementadvocatedinthiscountry,becausehebelievestheyinvolvetoomuch
detailandrequireseriouschangestotheCivilServicerulesof employment,Secofthe
NavyMeyerwillimportfromEnglandthesystemof managementinusebyVickers,
Limited…EveryoneintheNavy,itissaid,exceptpossiblysomeradicalbureauorcorps
partisans,willwelcomea systemwherebythecommandantwillagainbethechiefofall
mattersata NavyYard.440
Meyerhadonceagainchangedhismind.Heappearedtobesteeringbysailrather
thanrudder.Likemostbureaucratsofthetime,heappearedtobeguidedbythepolitical
winds.TheAmericanMachinistcapturedtheconfusionina11April,1912article,“The
VickersSystemofManagement.”Thepiecestated:“Engineersandmachinerybuildersin
437W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,August28,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.438FrederickTaylortoM.H.Karker,August27,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.439TheWashingtonPost,“WillTryNewNavyPlan:SecMeyertoImportEnglishSystem,”TheWashingtonPost,October9,1911.440Ibid.
164
AmericawereconsiderablysurprisedafewmonthsagotolearnthatSecretaryoftheNavy
Meyerhaddecidedagainstallofthesystemsofshopmanagementinuseinthiscountry
anddeterminedtoinstalltheVickerssystemofmanagementfromthegreatBritish.”441
Thedramaticshiftinpolicycaughtcivilianandpublicengineersbysurprise.
ItisnoteworthythatMeyerdidnotentirelytorpedotheideaofscientific
management.Instead,heseparatedtheconceptfromitscreator.Anythingattachedto
Taylor’sname,inanyform,becameflotsamandwasjettisonedoverboard.Needinga
substituteforTaylorism,SecretaryMeyerdispatchedtwocaptainsobserveEnglish
productionmethodsatVickers,thegiantmanufacturingcompanyproducingeverything
fromsteelcastingstomachineguns.Neitheroftheofficershadanyexperienceinscientific
management.442TaylorcynicallyremarkedtoRadfordthattheirtripwill“nodoubt…bea
greatsuccess.”443Notably,theirtriptoinspecttheVickersfactorylastedameretwo
weeks.
SecretaryMeyerinthe1911AnnualReportoftheNavyDepartmentstated:
IfoundinEngland,attheworksofMessrs.Vickers(Ltd.),atBarrow- in-Furness,amostefficientsimplesystemofmanagement.Briefly,itmaybesaidthatthisestablishmenthasanengineeringdepartmentandashipyarddepartment,withanelectricaldivisionundertheenginedepartment.Theyarrange,inthelargerjobs,fortheorderlypassageoftheseparatepartsfromoneshoptoanother,instructtheworkmenhowtoworkmostefficiently,andfollowtheseparateoperations,bymeansofacorpsofskilledprogressmen,untiltheassemblyiscompleted.Inageneralwaytheworkisthoroughlysystematizedoncommon-senseprinciples,butnoattemptismadetogointotheforecastingofminutedetails.Inconsequencetheextracostofelaborateplanningisavoided.Thegreatestpercentageofincreasedefficiencyseemstohavebeenattainedbybroadeffectsinsystematizationandinsecuringthecheerfulcooperationoftheworkmentowardbestresultsthroughproperrecognitionoftheirinitiativeandmoreefficienteffort.ThemanagementatVickersisthoroughlyconvincedthatexcessiveprevisionofdetaildoesnotpay.The
441“TheVickersSystemofManagement,”AmericanMachinist36(April11,1912):573.442FrederickTaylortoG.S.Radford,October24,1911,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.443Ibid.
165
companyisconfirmeditsexperienceatoneofitsownplants,atErith,England,whereforbetweenthreeandfouryearstherehadbeeninstalledoneofthemostelaborateofthescientificmanagementsystemswithunsatisfactoryresults.444
Meyer’smotivationswerequestionableastheyrelatedtoscientificmanagement.
PerhapsTaylor’ssystemdidrequiretoomuchpaperwork.Taylorhimselfnotedthat
withoutadequatetrainingnovicesfailedtograsptheimportanceofdetailed
quantification.445However,Meyeralsowantedasystemthatdidnotrequireyearsof
trainingandeducationtobeemployed.Taylorisminthatrespectfailedtomeetakey
threshold.
Meyer,alongwiththeheadsofothergovernmentalentities,createdmultipleboards
tostudyTaylorism.ThecompletedreportsgenerallyconcurredthattheNavyYards
requiredorganizationalandmanagementchanges.Taylor’svastnetworkofdisciples
alwaysseemedtofindtheirwayontothesecommittees.NameslikeHenryL.Gantt,
HarringtonEmerson,HollisGodfreyandCharlesDaypopulatetheliteratureonscientific
management.Afterall,theyweretheefficiencyexperts.Theirconclusionswerewhatone
mightexpectfromagroupofmenassociatedwithTaylor.446
Nevertheless,Meyer’soppositionfocusedonTaylorhimself.Asystembyanother
namesuchasprovidedbytheVickersinvestigationprovidedMeyerwiththepretensehe
needed.H.F.Wright,anavalconstructor,notedtoTayloron9November1911,“Iammore
thaneverconvincedthattheintentionofthoseinauthorityistoinstitutescientific
managementasunderstoodbyyouandtocallitbyanothername.”447Taylorrepliedonthe
444GeorgevonL.Meyer,“AnnualReportoftheSecretaryoftheNavy”(Washington,D.C.,1911),22.445TaylortoTardy,April13,1911.446DouglasD.Wilson,ed.,“ReportofthePresidentofDistrictNo.44,”Machinists’MonthlyJournal25(1913):1132;“NavyYardSystemIsDeclaredFaulty,”NewYorkTimes,March9,1912;“ScientificManagementintheNavy,”NavalInstituteProceedings37(1911).447H.F.WrighttoFrederickTaylor,November9,1911,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
166
13November,“hewouldliketogetanybenefitsthatwouldcomefromtheprinciplesof
scientificmanagement,butwouldpreferbrandingthemastheMeyerSystemrather
anythingelse.”448Taylorknewhisnameevokedresistance.However,theanimosity
betweenTaylorandMeyerhadbecomepersonal.TaylorfeltbetrayedbyMeyerafterhis
overtlyfriendlygesturesixmonthsearlier.
Onedaylater,TaylordisclosedtoCoburnthattheArmy’sleadershipprovidedsolid
supportforscientificmanagement.Hedrewstrengthfromthissuccessandreflectedonit
duringtimesoftrouble.TheSecretaryofWarandGeneralCrozierwereoutspoken
supportersofTaylorism.449Croziertestifiedmultipletimesbeforecongressional
committeesalwaystothebenefitofTaylor.TaylorassistedCrozierwithmaterialsupport
forthehearingsbeforecongress.Furthermore,Taylorclaimedtoknowhowtomanage
disgruntledworkers,sincehismethodstendedtocreatethem.Hepassedonsuggestionsto
bothCrozierandCoburnaboutthatsubject.450
TheArmy&NavyJournalranasmallpieceon16December1911highlightingthe
increasedcostofrepair,over10%,between1910and1911.451Itwasanobliqueshotat
Meyer.TaylorconfidedinCoburn,“…thismightbeunpalatablereadingtoSecretary
Meyer…Ratherunexpected[as]Ihadtheimpressionthatthey[Army&NavyJournal]were
verystrictpartisansoftheline.”452Thejournalwasquitepopularwithofficersduringthis
period.TheMeyer’sadministrationwasnowcomingunderfiremultipledirections.The
ConstructorCorps,underMeyer’sjurisdiction,continuedtoexecutetimeandmotion
448FrederickTaylortoH.F.Wright,November13,1911,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.449FrederickTaylortoF.G.Coburn,November14,1911,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.450Ibid.451F.G.CoburntoFrederickTaylor,December12,1911,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.452FrederickTaylortoF.G.Coburn,December22,1911,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
167
studiesalong,albeitcovertly,withvariousotherelementsofscientificmanagement.453
Internalfrustrationandloathingbegantoboilover.
ItappearedMeyer’srapidlyevolvingmanagementplansmightcosttheNavyoneof
itsbrightestofficers.OnNovember19,TardyinformedTaylorthathehad“…heardvague
rumorsthatEvansisgoingtoresignsoon.”454Infact,itwasnotarumor.Evanshadno
intentionofwastinghislifeinpursuitofaworthyidealthattheNavyrefusedtoembrace.
Meyerhadchangedhispositionforathirdtimeregardingscientificmanagement.Evans,
emotionallyexhausted,wasdonewithitall.455
Tardy’sintentionallybelatedletterprovidedTaylorwithsomeinsightintotheNavy
workings.Thedelayedresponseallowedeventstomature,whichaffordedTardytwo
revealingobservations.First,theNavyleadershiptook“flight”atthe“first”signsoftrouble
fromorganizedlabor.Inprinciple,theNavyacceptedtheneedforputtingintoeffect
scientificmanagement.Inpractice,politiciansandorganizedlaboropposedtheplan.
Second,Tardycontended,“Idonotbelieveforamomentthatanyeffortistobemadeto
adoptVickersmanagementfortheyards.”SecretaryMeyerwasplayingashellgameand
oneeveryoneappearedtorecognize.“AsIunderstand,whateverefficiencytheremaybein
thatsystem”,Tardyexplained,“isduetopieceworkandthepremiumsystem.”456Inshort,
thecreditbelongedtoTaylorbuthewasnotgoingtogetit.
DespiteinterferencebyMeyer’sadministration,navalofficerscontinuedto
implementscientificmanagementinitsvariousincarnations.457Lineofficers,especially
453FrederickTaylortoG.S.Radford,November18,1911,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.454W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,November19,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.455FrederickTaylortoW.B.Tardy,November21,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.456TardytoTaylor,November19,1911.457TaylortoRadford,November18,1911.
168
thoseaboardlargerships,usedittorefineandhonesailor’sactions.Thoseatshoreusedit
toreducecostandtimeinvolvedinrepairsandproduction.458
Withunabashedadvocacy,Crozierenumeratedthebenefitsandvalueofscientific
managementatArmyarmories.HetoldtheSecretaryofWarandCongressonmultiple
occasionsthatTaylor’smethodsdeliveredasuperiorproductbelowtraditionalcostandat
afasterrate.459NavyConstructorCorpsofficersdrewstrengthfromtheArmy’ssuccess.
Rationallyitseemedthatifthegovernmentapprovedtheprocessinoneareathatitought
tobeapplicableinanother.TheconclusionwasthatiftheyweatheredMeyer’sattemptsto
disassembleregardingscientificmanagementthenextadministrationmightbeamenable
tothesystem.460
TheapproachingendofMeyer’stermcouldnotcomefastenoughforTaylorandhis
followers.Ifthenightisdarkestandthecoldmostpenetratingjustbeforedawn,Meyer’s
administrationplayeditspartwell,exploitingTaylorismatitsmostvulnerablepoint.
NothingdroveTaylorintoadefensivefurylikeapotentialstrike.Itthreatenedeverything
heworkedforoverthelasttwentyyears.Turmoilmenacedsocialstability.Politiciansand
employerscouldnotabideorganizedworkeropposition,atleastforlong.
On1January1912,whilemostmenrecoveredfromthenightbefore,Taylor
feverishlyfiredofffourletters.Taylor’scorrespondencewithoveradozennavalofficers
spannedoverfifteenyearsandthecorrespondencequantitativelymeasuredhundredsof
pages.OnnootherdaydidTaylorfireofffourletterstonavalofficers,employingnearly
verbatimlanguage.Thematically,theywereidentical.Taylorexpressedhisviewstothe
458TardytoTaylor,February6,1911.459FrederickTaylortoGeoH.Rock,December20,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.460TardytoTaylor,March27,1911;CoburntoTaylor,February7,1911;R.M.WatttoFrederickTaylor,April1,1911,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
169
recipients,Rock,Wright,Coburn,andJamesReed,regardingtheproteststakingplaceatthe
BostonNavyyardandpotentiallyotherfacilities.461
Thespecialcongressionalcommitteeassignedtoevaluatescientificmanagement,
whichexaminedArmyarsenalsandNavyyards,wasnearingtheendofitsinvestigation,
scheduledtoconcludeon11February,1912.462Withonemonthremaining,Taylorneeded
todemonstrateconcreteexamplesof“loafing”atnavyyards.Heusedtheterm“loafing”
(andonotheroccasions,“soldiering”)todescribeemployeesworkingatminimumcapacity.
Taylorinquiredwhetheranyoftheofficersmighthavesuchexamples,preferringonein
anyaboutwhichaforemanmightbewillingtotestifybeforethecommittee.
TaylortoldCoburnthatifhewerewillingtotestifybeforethecommittee,hewould
payforallexpensesincurred.463CoburnagreedtoTaylor’srequest.However,Taylor
subsequentlylearnedthat“thecommitteeisnotissuingsubpoenasforpeopletoappear
beforeit,butIhavenodoubtthatIcangetthemtowriteyou,requestingthatyouappear
beforethem.”464InaletterofJanuary12,TaylorinformedCoburn:“Ishallsendyourname
toMr.Wilson,theChairmanoftheHouseCommitteetoInvestigatetheTaylorandother
SystemsofManagement,andaskhimtohaveyousubpoenaed…”OvertheyearsTaylorhad
developedanextensiveandinfluentialnetworkthatenabledhim,ataminimum,togainan
audiencewithjustaboutanypolitician.
461FrederickTaylortoJamesReed,January1,1912,117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;FrederickTaylortoF.G.Coburn,January1,1912,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;FrederickTaylortoH.F.Wright,January1,1912,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;FrederickTaylortoGeoH.Rock,January1,1912,117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.462ClarenceBertrandThompson,ScientificManagement:ACollectionoftheMoreSignificantArticlesDescribingtheTaylorSystemofManagement(HarvardUniversityPress,1914),789.463TaylortoCoburn,January1,1912.464Ibid.
170
OnJanuary19,1912,TaylorwrotetoTardy,observing:“Agoodmanywitnesses
haveappearedbeforetheCommitteefromtheBostonyardandsomefromtheNewYork
yard,andtheimpressionleftupontheCommitteebythesemenisthattheyarepretty
badlytreatedinthenavyyards…and…thatiftheTaylorSystemweretobeintroducedthey
wouldbedriventodeath.”465Taylorhadaflairforcaricatureandhismostfrequenttarget,
rivaledonlybyMeyer,wasthecommondayworker.Hisexperienceasayoungmanand
thenasacontractorhadfueledhimwithaparticulardisdaintowardwageearners.Implicit
inthepiece-rateandpremiumsystemwasthebeliefthatdayworkerswerenotworkingto
theirfullpotential.Thus,Taylor’ssysteminvolvedidentificationoftheshirkersand
achievedefficiencybyrewardingthosethatexceededthestandardwhilethosethatdidnot
receivedlesspay.Unionsandemployeesperceivedthesystemaspunitive.Theenemyof
everyunionsystemisthe“ratebreaker”whosetsaseemingly-unfairstandardfor
comparisontootherworkersperformingsimilartasks.
Taylor’slettertoTardycontinuedwiththewarningthat“…ifthey[thecommittee]
weretorecommendagainsttimestudyitwouldbecomepracticallyimpossibleinmany
casestogetafairday’sworkoutoftheworkmen.”466Histruefeelingsonthesematters
occasionallypopulatedletterstohisclosestfriends.Herepeatedlyclaimedthatscientific
managementassistedworkersinreachingtheirfullpotentialwhilehispersonalletters
betrayedadifferentperspective.Towardstheendofthemissive,TaylorentreatedTardy
toappearbeforethecommitteeaswell.Taylorplayedeverycardhepossessed.InTardy,
Taylorfoundamanoflikemind.OnJanuary26thTardyreplied,“Ifirmlybelievethatwe
mustcometoscientifictimestudiesandbonusorpremiumsystemofwagesifweareto465FrederickTaylorandW.B.Tardy,January19,1912,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.466Ibid.
171
hopeforevenfairresults.”467Taylorhopedwithacriticalmassofnavalofficersbeforethe
committeehemighttrumpthevoicesofworkers.
AfterTaylortestifiedbeforetheCommittee,hedispatchedalettertoTardy,on
February2,whichrevealedhispersonalthoughtsabouttheSecretaryofNavy.
InTaylor’sopinion:
…theSecretaryoftheNavyhadannouncedinthemostemphaticmannerthathedidnotintendandneverhadintendedintroducinganyelementofscientificmanagementintotheNavy,thathewasabouttointroducetheVickerssystem…thatscientificmanagementhadbeenusedinoneoftheVickersshopsinEnglandforyears,andhadresultedinlossofmoneytotheVickersCompany,andthatthewhentherealVickerssystemwassubstitutedinitsplacethisDepartment,whichformerlyoperatedataloss,atonceoperatedataverylargeprofit.468
Meyerusedhispositiontobroadcasthisdamagingviewsonscientificmanagement
tothepublicandtheNavy.Headoptedapopuliststance,ashadPresidentTaft,thatthere
waslittleneedforspecialistsinArmyandNavyfacilities.Thecommonmanwasjustas
capableastheeducatedprofessional.Navalofficersdemurred.469However,whileMeyer
stilloccupiedthepulpit,Taylorismwastherisingreligion.
DavidWatsonTaylorhadservedasanavalconstructorfrom1892to1894atMare
IslandNavyYard.470Tayloreventuallyattainedtherankofadmiraland,“forabouteight
yearsfrom1914to1922…servedastheChiefConstructorandChiefofBureauof
ConstructionandRepair.”471OnFebruary2,1912,twoyearsbeforeheattainedtherankof
Admiral,constructorTaylordispatchedalettertoFrederickTaylordetailinghistestimony
beforethecommittee.Thetestimony(forwhichheseemedparticularlyproud)strongly467W.B.TardytoFrederickTaylor,January26,1912,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.468FrederickTaylor,“FrederickTaylor,LettertoW.B.Tardy,”February2,1912,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.469Ibid.470WilliamHovgaard,“BiographicalMemoirofDavidWatsonTaylor1864-1940,”SocietyofNavalArchitectsandMarineEngineers22(1943):136.471Ibid.
172
supportedscientificmanagement.ConstructorTaylordescribeditas,“…thegreatmental
revolutionwhichtakesplaceunderscientificmanagement,andwhichisitsessentialfeature
[myemphasis].”472
Furthermore,constructorTaylorinformedhismentorthathehadencountereda
particularlybeneficialindividualinWashington,D.C.,whohelpedprepare“allwitnesses
whoappearforourside”,Mr.HollisGodfrey.Asidentifiedbyauthorsofastudyofshop
managementmethods,Godfreywasa,“consultingengineer,associatedwithMr.Frederick
WinslowTaylor.”473FouryearslaterWoodrowWilsonwastoappointGodfreytothe
AdvisoryCommissionofCouncilofNationalDefensein,anoversightorganizationcreated
toefficientlyfocusandmanagethenation’sresourcesinpreparednesseffortsforWWI.474
OnlytwolettersbetweenD.W.TaylorandF.W.Taylorhavebeenfound.However,
thetenorandconversantlanguagedisplayedinthesemissivesarguesforafamiliarityonly
acquiredthroughfrequentcommunication.Thisrelationshipnodoubtpaiddividendslater.
D.W.Taylor’sinfluenceasChiefConstructorallowedhimtoputintoeffectscientific
managementintheNavyYardsthroughoutthewar.D.W.TaylorworkedcloselywithF.W.
Taylortopreparenavalconstructorsfortestimonybeforethecongressionalcommittee.
Thepreparationwouldallowconstructorstohighlightthepositiveelementsofscientific
managementandavoid“embarrassing”moments.475
TheCommittee’sreportfoundnodamningevidenceagainstTaylororanyother
systemofmanagement.DespiteOrwellian-likepredictions,theCommitteeuncoveredlittle
472FrederickW.Taylor,“FrederickTaylor,LettertoD.W.Taylor,”February2,1912,117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.473WilliamB.Wilson,WilliamC.Redfield,andJohnQ.Tilson,TheTaylorandOtherSystemsofShopManagement,3vols.(Washington,D.C.:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1912).474FirstAnnualReportoftheCouncilofNationalDefense(U.S.GovernmentPrintingOffice,1917).475Taylor,“FrederickTaylor,LettertoD.W.Taylor.”
173
tosupportthenotionthatscientificmanagementcreateddraconian-likeenvironments.476
Taylorhaddeftlydodgedthecoupdegraceintendedbytheshipyardunions.
Nevertheless,Taylorreceivedashotacrossthebowfromanunexpecteddirection.
On20June1912,TaylorreceivedaletterfromT.G.Roberts,anavalconstructor.Roberts
detailedtwointriguingideas.First,“someofmycolleagueswhohavebeenassociatedwith
Evans,andareintouch,toldmethatthesysteminstalledattheVickersworkswas
introducedtherebysomeonewhogotitfromsomeonebackinAmerica…”Theallegations
provedtobetrue.InamissivetoRoberts,TayloracknowledgedthatVickersdidinfact
sendoverseveralmenin1900forthreeweekstotheBethlehemworks.Accordingto
Taylor,whiletherethemen“…learnedasmuchastheycouldaboutoursysteminthattime,
butthatwasmightylittle…”477FrederickW.Taylorhadaninventor’sdisdainforimitations
andthoseassociatedwithit.However,Robertsalsoprovideddetailedinformationona
newlypublishedattackonTaylorism.
AdmiralJohnR.Edwardspennedascathingcritiqueofscientificmanagementinthe
journaloftheAmericanSocietyofNavalEngineersinMay,1912.478Edwardsassertedthat
“…managementisanartnotascience,thattheTaylorSystemantagonizestheworkmen
andneglectsthepersonalequation…”479AgraduateoftheU.S.NavalAcademyandan
engineer,Edwards,accordingtohisofficialbiography,“…transferredtotheLineofthe
476Thompson,ScientificManagement,15.477FrederickTaylortoT.G.Roberts,August8,1912,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;T.G.RobertstoFrederickTaylor,August10,1912,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.478JohnR.Edwards,“TheFetishismofScientificManagement,”AmericanSocietyofNavalEngineersXXIV,no.2(May1912).479Thompson,ScientificManagement,22.
174
Navyin1899.”480Edwardswasamanofbothworlds,and,thus,hisperspectivecarried
weightamonghisfellowofficers.
Sinceitwasexplicitlydraftedinresponse.Taylorwroteanundateddocumentthat
correlated,intime,totheSpecialCommittee’sreportonTaylorandOtherSystemsof
ManagementConsequently,onecanconfidentlyplacetheprovenanceofthedocument
betweenMayandAugust1912.Inthethree-pagedocumentTayloracknowledged
Edward’sarticle,“TheFetishismofScientificManagement,”byname.Taylordidnot
wrestlewithEdward’smajorpoints,butmerelyobserved,“AdmiralEdwardshasnever
beeninsideasingleestablishmentinwhichscientificmanagementhasbeenintroduced.”481
TaylorassumedthatwasenoughtodiscreditEdwards.Onehighrankingofficersargument
representedathreattoTaylor’sideas,butanysuchattackspaledinmagnitudetothoseof
Meyer.
SecretaryMeyer’stenurewasanythingbutpalatabletoofficersintheNaval
Constructercorps.Taylorsharedthesentiment.Tothisend,onDecember12,1912,
RadforddispatchedarevealinglettertoTaylor.Theletteritselfwaslargelyunremarkable.
RadfordmerelywantedTaylor’sinputastothepotentialofanewtoolthatRadfordtook
thecaretosketch.However,attheendofthetypedletter,Redford,inmanuscript,penned
thecrypticmessage,“P.S.the4thofMarchapproaches”-nothingelseisintimated,nothing
elseissaid.482Fourdayslater,Taylorresponded.AttheconclusionofhisletterTaylor
acknowledgedRadford’shandwrittenmessage,“Inotetheveryimportantfactstatedby480“PapersofRearAdmiralJohnR.Edwards,”NavalHistoryandHeritage,n.d.,http://www.history.navy.mil/research/archives/research-guides-and-finding-aids/personal-papers/d-e/papers-of-john-r-edwards.html.481FrederickW.Taylor,“AnswerstoCriticismsofScientificManagementwithReferencetotheProceedingsbeforetheHouseCommitteetoInvestigatetheTaylorandOtherSystemsofManagement,andOtherDocuments,”1912.482G.S.RadfordtoFrederickTaylor,December12,1912,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
175
youinMS.attheendofyourletter.Letushopeforthebest.”483Themysteriousnote
referencedtheendofSecretaryMeyer’sterm,onMarch4,1913.
WiththeexitofMeyer,oneofthegreatestobstaclestotheacceptanceofTaylor’s
ideasbythemilitaryestablishmentoftheUnitedStatesthreatswasremoved.Unions
remainedaproblem,butamanageableonewithoutafriendlyearintowhichtopourtheir
entreaties.DespiteMeyer’shostility,navalofficers,especiallythosewithintheConstructor
Corps,sustainedandexpandedtheuseofscientificmanagementwithintheNavy.484Inthe
end,MeyersimplyimpededthedepthandbreadthofTaylor’sinfluence,foratime.
TheelectionofPresidentWoodrowWilsonprofferedthepossibilityofan
administrationamenabletoscientificmanagement.Althoughatthisjuncture,Taylorand
thenavalconstructorswouldhappilytakeadisinterestedparty.485Nevertheless,Taylor
haddoubtsabouttheNavy’snewleadership,basedonspeechesbythenewSecretaryand
AssistantSecretaryoftheNavy,JosephusDanielsandFranklinRoosevelt,respectively.486
Whetherfromfatigue,frustration,orteachingcommitmentsFrederickTaylor’s
correspondencewithnavalofficersdwindledinthelasttwoyearsbeforehisdeathin
Marchof1915.Taylor’ssupporterswithintheNavyhadlargelywonacceptanceof
scientificmanagementintheNavy,ifnotinname,thencertainlyinpractice.However,
debateaboutTaylor’smethodsmovedfromwithintheArmyarsenalsandtheNavyyards
tothehallsofCongress.Inthatvenueunionsandsympatheticlegislatorsmaintainedthe
pressure.
483FrederickTaylortoG.S.Radford,December16,1912,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.484FrederickTaylortoF.G.Coburn,November5,1913,116,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.485FrederickTaylortoT.G.Roberts,March12,1913,Box117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection;JamesReed,“JamesReed,LettertoFrederickTaylor,”April15,1913,117,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.486FrederickTaylortoA.M.Cook,May26,1913,115,FrederickWinslowTaylorCollection.
176
OnJanuary22,1915,FrederickDietrickscoredamajorwinfortheunions.He
introducedanamendmenttotheArmyspendingbillthatstated:
Provided,Thatnopartoftheappropriationsmadeinthisbillshallbe availableforthesalaryorpayofanyofficer,manager,superintendent,foreman,orotherpersonhavingchargeoftheworkofanyemployeeoftheUnitedStatesGovernmentwhilemakingorcausingtobemadewithastopwatchorothertime-measuringdevice,atimestudyofanyjobofanysuchemployeebetweenthestartingandthecompletionthereof,orofthemovementsofanysuchemployeewhileengageduponsuchwork;norshallanypartoftheappropriationsmadeInthisbillbeavailabletopayanypremiumorbonusorcashrewardtoanyemployee-inadditiontohisregularwages,exceptfor-suggestionsresultingInimprovementsoreconomyintheoperationofanyGovernmentplant;andnoclaimforservicesperformedbyanypersonwhileviolatingthisprovisoshallbeallowed.487
TwoweekslaterasimilarbillkilledsupportfortimeandmotionstudiesintheNavy.488It
appearedthatscientificmanagementintheArmyandNavyhadfinallybeendealta
deathblow.YetagainTaylorsviewsweretoarise,likeLazarus,fromthetomb.
Evans,Tardy,Watt,andD.W.Taylor,amongothersNavyConstructors,graspedwhat
manyduringtheperiodunderstoodonlyimplicitly.Yes,mostunderstoodthatscientific
managementrationallyorderedworkwithintheshop,arsenal,andnavalyard--whatever
theform—toincreaseefficiency.However,thelatentpotencyofthisprocessdidnot
resideinthephysicalrealm,butintheintellectual.Taylorhimselfdidnotappeartofully
sense,atleastinitiallyandmaybeneverfully,whathismethodactuallywrought.Allideas
evolveandmaturewithtimeastheymovefromthemindtopracticeinthephysicalrealm.
Theprocessdoesnotonlyflowinonedirection.Frequently,thesparkcreatedwiththe
collisionoftheimmaterialandmaterialworldilluminatesotherpossibilitiesthatremained
dormant,unknown,andunexploredbythehumanmind.
487(52Cong.Rec.2082,1915)488Aitken,TaylorismatWatertownArsenal,232.
177
WithintheArmy,scientificmanagementmovedforwardlylargelyatthebehestof
GeneralCrozier.OrdnanceofficerssuchasColonelWheelerplayedanimportantrole,but
directionandforceemanatedfromCrozier.Heneededmethodstoreducecostsatthe
arsenals.Todomorewithlessrequiredradicalchangeinselectionofemployees,tools,and
methods.CrozierlookedforsolutionsandfoundthemintheideasofFrederickW.Taylor.
AswasthecaseintheArmy,theNavysoughtoutTaylor.Bynomeansahousehold
name,hewasneverthelesswellknowninthefieldsofengineeringandindustry.Taylor’s
friendshipwithGoodrichprecededhisadvancesinmanagement,and,thus,Goodrich’s
proximitytoTaylor,inabsoluteterms,wasmuchcloserthanthatofCrozier.Goodrich
exertednotimesearchingforsomeonewhoknewsomethingaboutefficiency.Fortunehad
seentothat.However,theprogressionintheNavyofscientificmanagementdiffered
significantlyatseveralkeyjunctures.BoththeArmyandNavylaunchedfromsimilarpoints
intheirpursuitofefficiency,buttheyrapidlydivergedinexecution.
IftheFrenchRevolutionradicallychangedsocietyfromthebottomupandthe
Prussiansaimedto,“…dofromabovewhattheFrenchhavedonefrombelow”489theUnited
StatesArmyandNavy’sintellectualrevolutionfollowedalongasimilarpath.Scientific
ManagementpropagatedthroughtheArmyfromabovewithCrozier,and,incontrast,the
Navy’sacceptanceofthemethodologywasspearheadedbyEvansandtheconstructors
frombelow.Evans,drivenbyadevoutbeliefintheefficacyofscientificmanagement,
forfeitedhiscommissionandhismarriagetothecause.Hiscapableanddeterminedbattle
489ShearerDavisBowmanAssistantProfessorofHistoryUniversityofTexasatAustin,MastersandLords :Mid-19th-CenturyU.S.PlantersandPrussianJunkers(OxfordUniversityPress,USA,1993),123;TheQuarterlyReview,vol.231(London:LeonardScottPublicationCompany,1919),37.
178
forscientificmanagementelevatedhisnametotheattentionofeminentindividualssuchas
PresidentTaft.
TaylorandGoodrichhadsomesuccesslayingthegroundworkintheNavyfor
scientificmanagementundertheRooseveltadministration.Meanwhile,Crozierimposed
Taylorismonthearsenalslargelyunassistedandunopposed,albeitwiththesupportofthe
SecretaryofWar.However,innovatorsintheNavyfacedGoliathsofanothersize,andmore
thanjustone;SecretaryoftheNavyMeyerandtheunionscameinfirstandsecond
respectively,andlineofficersplacedadistantbutstillsignificantthird.ConstructionCorps
officersunderwrotethesuccessesandlikewisesharedinthedefeats.Theyoungofficers
advancedinthefaceofresistancethroughstubbornandnotinfrequentlyinsubordinate
actions.
FrederickW.Taylorthroughoutthispivotalperiodprovidedemotionalandmaterial
support.EvansandTardy,andmanyotherconstructors,heldTaylorinalmostspiritual
regard--notasademigod,butratherasaprophet,someoneenlightenedwhobringsa
messageofprofoundtruth.Navalconstructorsweretrainedandeducatedengineers.
Thesewerenotmen,byandlarge;whoweresuperstitious;rathertheyvaluedmathematics
andlogic.Taylor’srationalsystemextollingefficiencydoubtlessappealedtothem,and
giventhedegreeofsupport,providedanimprovementoverthestructure,orlackof
structureforthenation’snavyyards,thatpreviouslyexisted.
TotheNavy,andspecificallytotheofficersoftheConstructionCorps,mustgothe
honorofbeingthefirstofthetwoorganizationstograsptheintellectualpotentialof
scientificmanagementasasystemofthinking.TheArmy’sheroicideaofleadershipalways
causedtensionintherelationshipbetweenmenandmachines.TheNavy,inessence,wasa
179
machine.It,ofcourse,madeuseofhumanbeings,butthetools,theship,alwaysloomed
largerthanmen.FromtheinceptionoftheUnitedStatesNavy,navalofficersembracedthe
machine,andtheclosertheyconnectedwithitthebetteritran.Scientificmanagement
harmonizedmenwithmachinesbecauseitreducederrors,waste,andproduceda
methodical,calculable,andmeasurablesetofoutcomes.Properlyapplied,itreduced
chance,theeverpresentspecterforthosewhopreparedforandengagedinorganized
conflict.
180
ChapterVIII
Historymatterednot,becauseitchangedsomuch
Inthefinalanalysis,thereisbutoneobjectofinquiry--thewill.Armyofficersare
principallyconcernedwithexecutingorders,ordersthatinsomemannerconnect,or
shouldconnect,backtoapoliticalobjective.Officersdirectforcetowardaimsthat,atleast
intheory,reduceanadversary’sresolutiontoresist.Todothis,anddoitwell,onemust
intuitivelygraspwhatanimatesmentoaction.
Technologyhasincreasinglyobscuredthenatureofwar.Likelayersoffog,it
shroudsthesharpoutlinesfromobservation.Thelightofrealityfadesbehindthe
accumulatinglayersoftechnologywithknowledgeandunderstandingofthephenomenon
sufferingproportionally.Moretothepoint,theissueislessabouttechnologythantheway
wethinkaboutitandhowitconformsone’sperceptions.Thisisespeciallytrueof
Americansoverthecourseofthepastcenturyormore,whotendtolookfortechnological
solutionstomostproblems.Givenenoughtime,flawedassumptions,andmistakenbeliefs,
Americanmilitaryofficerstypicallyperceivethenatureofwarthroughthetechnological
meansofitsexecution.Ifthenatureoftechnologyistoorderandcontrol,thenperhaps,
war–chaos--lendsitselfsusceptibletosuchmeans.
Technologydivorceswarfromitsproperfocus,whichisman.Writingin1934,
LewisMumfordobserved,“…theprincipalaimofourmechanicalroutineinindustryisto
reducethedomainofchance…”490Ifthatpremiseiscorrect,thentheindustrial
managementrevolutionaryFrederickTaylorbroughtaboutoneofthegreatestmental
490Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,304.
181
revolutionssincetheEnlightenmentandRomanticmovements.WhiletheEnlightenment
andRomanticismdescribed,“…ideasaboutwhatrelationsbetweenmenhavebeen,are,
mightbe,andshouldbe…”scientificmanagementaimedtoprescribe,atleastimplicitly,the
relationshipbetweenmenandtheirmachines.491
Taylor’sapproachhadfarreachingeffects.Armyofficerswerebornintoanation
largelydevoidofmilitarytraditions.Therewerefewmorestoconfineormoldearly
militarythought.ThosethatdidexistwereimportedfromFrance,Britain,andGermany.
MilitaryideasandstructuresintroducedfromthedistantshoresoftheOldWorldmingled
andamalgamatedintoauniquelyAmericanDNA.EncodedwithintheDNAwasthesource
materialthatformedthesubstrateoftheAmericanmilitarymind.
TheruggedlandscapeofNorthAmericaproducedanequallytoughandpractical
mindsetinArmyofficers.Therewasnotimeforabstractthought,theoryandphilosophyas
theyattendedtothedemandingdutiesofwestwardexpansion.Preoccupiedwith
constabularyfunctions,Armyofficersexpendedpreciouslittleresourcesontheintellectual
developmentoftheirprofession.
Officerscamefromapeoplethatprizedliberty,individuality,andindustriousaction.
Thesevalues,inamannerthatnoonecouldquitehavepredicted,producedanoptimism
thatpermeatedAmericanculture,ahopeinthefuture,inthepotentialofthiscityonahill.
ItwastheZeitgeistoftheage.Drivenbywhattheyperceivedtobedivinestatute,
Americansexpandedgeographicallywithaconvictionanddeterminationrarelywitnessed
inhistory.TheArmydrewitsofficersfromsuchstock.
491BerlinandHardy,TheCrookedTimberofHumanity,1.
182
Bythe1860’s,boysthathadoncesharedanaweofthosewhofoughtinthe
AmericanRevolutionassumedthefieldingrayandbluewhilebothsidesinvokedthespirit
of‘76.War,forthem,wasnolongerachild’sgameandofficersmaturedquicklyinthe
battlestheywagedduringfouryearsofbrutalconflict.Lessonswerelearnedataterrible
cost.ButifAlexander,Caesar,andNapoleonachievedvictorythroughheroicleadership,
theAmericanCivilWarwhisperedofchangeintheunderstandingofwarfare.
Historyexercisesapowerful,ifcentrifugal,effectonthemind.Itprovidestherawmaterial
outofwhichthemindextrapolatespotentialandlikelyfutures.Likeapuzzle,themind
assortsthepiecestoformimpressions.Yet,thepiecesaremalleable,pliable,and
impressionable.Beginningwithsimilarsuchpieces,eachmindconstructsaunique,though
related,picture.Ifaparticularidealorconceptbeginstopermeatetheorganism,in
whateverformthatideamaybe,itgainsmomentum,apropensityandaMentalitätis
formed.492
AsbothlargersocietiesandmilitaryorganizationsintheWesternWorld
professionalizedatanacceleratedrateattheturnofthetwentiethcentury,thereemerged
asenseofincreasedtempo,ofinterconnectedness,andtheimportanceoftime
management.AmongofficersintheUnitedStatesArmy,therewasagrowingawarenessof
America’sincreasedroleontheworldstage.Andthoughrarelyexplicitlystated,officers
confessedthattheywereprofoundlyunpreparedforthisfuture.Rapidindustrialization
andproliferationofthemachinehailedthedawnofanewage.Ideasaboutleadership
evolved.Inthefactory,arsenals,andnavalyardsthemantrabecameefficiency.Leaders
werenotbornasmuchasmanufactured,anditseemedthatonenolongerledmen--one492DennisE.Showalter,“ThePrusso-GermanRMA1840-1871,”KnoxandMurray,TheDynamicsofMilitaryRevolution,1300-2050,112.
183
managedthem.WhathasbeenclaimedastheuniquelyAmericanphilosophyofpracticality
fusednaturally,almostorganically,withtheideaofmanagement.
Navalofficers,especiallyfromitsConstructorCorps,pursuedscientificmanagementwith
thezealoftruebelievers.TheNavy,afterall,wasafleetofmachines.Theunionof
TaylorismandtheNavymadeforahappyone,atleastifHoldenEvanshadhisway.
Nevertheless,theconstructorsdivinedthetrendmoreclearlythanmost.Managementis
aboutcontrol.Itisathoughtprocessthatdictateshowonearrangesthepiecesofthe
puzzle,aperceptionpredicatedontime.
PriortoWorldWarI,Armyofficershadmoredifficultyharmonizingmanand
machine,andthetrendsofmanagementwereconfinedtoarsenalsandsimilarfacilities.
Armiesstillmovedatthepaceofbeastsofburden.Prideofplacestillfelltothecavalryas
ithadformuchofthepasttwothousandyears.Perhapsnothingcapturedtheheroicideal
betterthanthemountedofficerleadinghismenfromthefront.Regardless,theU.S.Army
OrdnanceBranchandarsenalsprovidedsufficientsoilfortheideasofscientific
managementtotakeroot.
WorldWarIwasawatershedeventfortheU.S.Army.Theperceivedexistential
threatthrustinnovationtotheforefrontandneutralizedthemicro-managementthata
peacetimeCongresshadimposedonmilitaryprocurement.Governmentalfundingpushed
breakthroughsintomassproductionataratescarcelyimaginablebeforethewar.Fleetsof
airplanesandtanksappearedoverandonthebattlefieldsofEurope.Officersbeganto
measuresuccessbythenumberofartilleryshellsfired,leadingtoafour-yeartotalofan
estimatedonebillionshells.Heroismappearedtocountforlittleinindustrializedwarfare.
184
Clausewitzobserved,“…thesuperiorityofnumbersisthemostcommonelementin
victory.”493Hewasright,buthehadinmindnumbersofmen.Aftertheexperienceof
WorldWarI,officersthoughtintermsofmaterialschlacht,abattleofmaterial.Primacyin
battlemovedfrommantomachine.Mumfordperhapscaptureditbest:“Intime-keeping,
intrading,infightingmencountednumbers;andfinally,asthehabitgrewonlynumbers
counted.”494TheU.S.Navyepitomizedthisapproachinthemilitaryrealm,measuringthe
overallefficiencyofthefleetinthenumberofbattleshipsitclaimed—48in1914tobe
exact.495
Taylor’sformulationofscientificmanagementwaspredicatedontheideaofefficacy
throughreductionismbyeliminatingwastedmovementsandunnecessarysteps.Yet,
scientificmanagementportendedamoresignificantchange,oneofthought,especiallyin
managementandleadership.Ithighlightedashiftingviewoftime.Theartisanand
craftsmangavewayunderthepressuresofacceleratingtemporalrhythms.Modern
conceptionsoftime,withincreasingdivergencefromnaturaltime,becamesomethingthat
onecalculated,controlled,andsaved.
Themechanicalrealmiscontrollable,orderly,andcertainandwhenoverlaidon
man,intheory,producespredictableresults.Thus,theorderingoftheday,numberingand
delineatingoftasks,andthebreakingdownofone’sdailylifebytimeeliminatesoratleast
reduceschance.Therefore,manappearstogaingreatercontrolovertimeandofthe
future.Historically,whereonceprogresswasalmostimperceptiblyslow,nowprogress
493Clausewitz,OnWar,194.494Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,22.495“StudiesoftheGeneralBoardoftheNavy,”November17,1914,420–422,RecordGroup80,NationalArchivesandRecordAdministration(NARA).
185
becamesomethingthatonenotonlyperceives,butcanalsoexertconsiderablecontrol
over.
Inindustrialwarfare,chancefrequentlywasportrayedinanegativelightas
somethingtobereducedandeliminated.However,chanceisnotnecessarilyanegativeor
evenanundesirableevent.Certainly,onedesiresreliabilityandcontrolinnuclearreactors
andthelike,butcreativityandspontaneityinevitablyintroduceanessentialelementof
chanceintowar.Itisfundamentaltothehumanexperience,andthus,intrinsicallypartof
warfare.Officerspaylipservicetoitsrolewhileatthesametimehoningtheskillsof
technicismdesignedtoreducechance.
Theimplicationsoftechnicismformilitaryaffairsweresubtleandyetincredibly
powerful.Abyproductoftechnologicalimmersionistheillusionofcontrolandspecious
contextualunderstanding,ofeliminatingorreducingthesourcesofClausewitzianfogand
friction.Onebelievesthathecanperceiveandhaveknowledgeofphenomenatoafar
greaterdegreethanisactuallythecase.Thisillusion--causedbytechnological
determinism--distortsrealityandforceswarfareintoarealmofabstractioninwhichitcan
besubdued,harnessed,andmaderational.Intellectually,andthus,theoreticallyand
doctrinally,theunquestioningembraceoftechnicismdoesviolencetotheauthenticityof
war.
Temporalaccelerationalteredandgreatlycontributed,atanintellectuallevel,
tohowmenperceivedmodernwarfare.Overthefirstthreedecadesofthetwentieth
centuryinAmerica,thespiritofTaylorandscientificmanagementpermeatedacademia,
management,andpoliticalandmilitaryspheres.Officersandpoliticalleadersbecame
morerationalandscientificallymindedinembracingintellectualprocesses.Thuswar
186
becamemorerationalized.Themantraof“thewartoendallwars”flowedfreelyand
frequentlyonbothsidesoftheAtlantic,awhollyunderstandableconclusiongiventhe
carnageofWorldWarI.EchoesfromtheWesternFrontfurtherconfirmedthenecessity
forembracinganorderly,methodicalnatureofbattle-reducedtotimedmovementsand
phaselines.Theperfectsynchronizationofinfantryandartillerytocrossno-man’sland,
themeasuredshellspermeteroftrenchlinetoinsuresuccessallcontributedtothebelief
inarational,reducible,calculablemethodofwarfare.TheFrench,intheinter-warperiod,
definedtheirarmydoctrineas“methodical”battle.496Whatismethodicalbutanentirely
systematic,controlled,andrationaltime-boundprocesstoachieveadesiredendstate,
regardlessofitsphysicalandmentaleffectsonindividualparticipants?
Ifmilitaryminds,priorto1914,perceivedonlyminortemporaltremorsinthe
conductofwaritremainedessentiallyacontestbetweenmen,acontestofwills.The
temporalpressuresofmodernity,oftheirage,remainedtrappedinthehistoricalmindof
man.Historymatteredbecauseitresembledthepresentandthuscastlightonthe
questionsofthefuture.Thelinearflowoflogic,ofreason,requiresextrapolationofpast
trends.Buteverytrendcomestoanend.Therefore,officersenteredtheFirstWorldWar
withamindnurturedontheexploitsofageslongpast.PaulFussellinTheGreatWarand
ModernMemoryobserved:
…theGreatWarwasperhapsthelasttobeconceivedastakingplacewithinaseamless,purposeful‘history’involvingacoherentstreamoftimerunningfrompastthroughpresenttofuture.Theshrewdrecruitingposterdepictingaworriedfatherofthefuturebeingaskedbyhischildren,‘Daddy,whatdidyoudointheGreatWar?’assumesafuturewhosemoralandsocialpressuresareidenticalwiththoseofthepast…buttheGreatWartookplaceinwhatwas,comparedwithours,astaticworld,
496House,TowardCombinedArmsWarfare,58–60.
187
wherethevaluesappearedstableandwherethemeaningsofabstractionsseemedpermanentandreliable.EveryoneknewwhatGlorywas,andwhatHonormeant.497
FromtheIliad(circa800B.C.)tothepresentthereisadiscernablecontinuityto
valuesandidealscelebratingthejourneyofheroes.Notthattheirendsarethesame,for
theyarenot,butthevalues–notwhattheyserve-arenearlyuniversal.Courage,honor,
self-discipline,sacrifice,andtruthwerevaluesthatmensought,yet,themindand
imaginationanticipateand,arguably,demandstheirexemplificationinthefaceofmortal
danger.Inbothproseandpoetryoverthecenturies,heroismshinesbrightestinthe
shadowofdeath.Nevertheless,theimageoftheidealheroandtherealityofthemodern
battlefieldseemalmostincompatible.PaulFussellpurportedlysaidinaninterviewwith
PBSfor“TheGreatWar”series,“heroismdoesn’tmatterwhenyou’renotfightinghand-to-
hand.”498ThereisanundeniablelogictoFussell’sstatement.Neitheranartilleryshellnora
guidedmissilehasanyregardforthesoldier’sskillorbravery;thesequalitiesneverenter
intotheequation.
Therefore,therealityofscientificmanagement,ofthemodernbattlefieldclashed
withthedeeperimpulsesofmen.Officerswereattractedcerebrallytoscienceand
technology,tonumbersandratios,tomethodsandformulas;quantitativelymeasurable
andrational,thesesolutionsprovidedanabsolutemeanstocontrastwiththemeans
availablevis-a-visothernations.Indeed,itwastheofficers’dutytoimposeJominianorder
ontheClausewitzianchaosofbattleinordertoachieveassignedmissions.Technologyat
onceincreasedandextendedtheabilityofofficerstocontrol--whileseeminglyrendering
497PaulFussell,TheGreatWarandModernMemory(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2000),21.498PaulFussell,“TheHeroicConnotationofWar,”PBS,TheGreatWar,(n.d.),http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/historian/hist_fussell_02_heroic.html.
188
thehumanelementirrelevantoratleastlargelyinconsequential.Couragestillmattered,
foranarmyofcowardswinsnobattles,butitssignificancediminishedattheindividual
level.ThiswasperhapsthethrustofFussell’sstatement.
Thus,iftheconductofwarhaschangedovertime,whichseemsareasonable
proposition,itappearsthatman,inrespecttothetechnology-drivenadvancesinwarfare,
remainedpsychologicallystatic.Thisdiscrepancyhascreatedagreatdealoftension
clearlyobservableinhowneurosisandshell-shockwerefirstdiagnosed.Lineandmedical
officersalikestruggledtoexplainhowbravemen“suddenly”becamecowards.Technology
transformedthebattlefieldandmenpsychologicallygrappledtofunctionin,letalone
understandit.WorldWarI,forthefirsttimeinhumanhistory,strippedmanofthat
psychologicalarmoronascalepreviouslyunimaginable.Menbythetensofthousands
brokeunderthestrainofindustrializedwarfare.BritishsoldiersontheSommecould
endurenomorethanRomanlegionnairestwothousandyearsearlier.
Thedawnofmechanizedwarfaresweptthosebeforeitintoafrenzyoftechnicaland
scientificprognostication.Scientificmanagementofbothmenandmaterialnolonger
belongedsolelytothefieldofbusiness,butnowwastheconcernofstates.Interestingly,
thepracticalnatureofAmericansandtheagrarianmythabettedthisprocess.TheUnited
Statescameofagelateinthisprocessofnation-statedevelopment.Itshistoryand
heritage,andthatofitsofficercorps,werenecessarilyyoung.Theintellectualtraditions
thatexistedbelongedtotheoldworld.AndasTocqueville,Commager,andHofstadter
weretoobserve,alackoftraditionproducedaspiritualreverenceforthepractical,the
utilitarian.
189
TheintellectualtrendsoftheprewareraandlessonsofWorldWarIcreateda
peculiarAmericanMentalität,adispositiontothinkalongparticularlines.Taylorismbuilt
onthestrongundercurrentsofAmericanpracticalityandArmyengineering.Soon,theU.S.
triedtomass-producecombat-readysoldiersandleadersinthesamemannerithad
crankedoutautomobiles.Theconvergenceofthesefactorscreatedauniqueperspectiveof
modernwar.Theindustrialandmanufacturinglessonswereobvious,butthoseof
leadershipwerelessso.IfvictoryontheEuropeanbattlefieldsseemedaquestionof
productionthentheageofheroicleadershipwasataclose.Theapplicationofscientific
managementtomen“produced”anewtypeofleader,anupshotoftheAmericansynthesis
-themanager.
Managersarenotleadersinthetraditionalsensefortheirprimaryconcernisfor
efficiencynotmen.Theirconcernforsubordinatesextendsonlysofarasitaffects
production.Successandfailurearereducedtonumericalresults.Indeed,thegeneralsof
theFirstWorldWarsteeledthemselvestoregardcasualtiesasaninevitable,ifinefficient,
costofdoingbusiness.Questionswereofquantity,foronlythatwhichisreducibleto
measurementmattered.Conversely,heroesandleadersinspire,theyconsistentlynurture
values(orvirtuesastheancientscallthem),qualitiesthatareetherealanddistinctly
intangibleandoftenspiritual.Whilemanagersbetprimarilyonquantities,leadersdepend
mostlyonqualities.Inmanyrespects,bothareproductsoftheirtime.Managerscameinto
existenceonlywiththeindustrywhileleadersarenaturaloutgrowthsofthehuman
experience.Thismayexplaintheaversionthatpeoplegenerallydemonstratetoward
managerswhoseprimaryobjectiveisnumbersratherthanpeople;suchprioritiesappear
190
unnatural,evenmechanical,especiallytothesoldierswhohavetopayforthemanager’s
success.
TheMentalitätoftheU.S.officercorpsandthedevelopmentofthemanager,asa
typeinthatbody,gohandinhand.Thereisapropensity,alogictotherelationship.Ifwar
wasbecomingmoretechnologicallyfocusedasaquestionofmaterial,production,and
numbers,thenlogicdictatedthatmanagers,asofficers,playalargerrolebothoneconomic
andbattlefronts.499Theincreasing“temporalrhythms”ofmodernlifeprovidedfurther
evidenceofthischange.History,atleastsuperficially,appearedlessandlessilluminating
thefurtheroneprogressedintothetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturies.Thelogicof
circumstancesdroveofficerstopursuethenextwidgetofwarthatwidenedthegulf
betweenhumanvaluesandtechnicism,betweenheroicandmaterialwarfare.Mumford
observed(1934),“[this]phenomenon…[canbe]describedasthe‘culturallag.’Thefailure
of‘adjustment’maybelookeduponasafailureofartandmoralsandreligiontochange
withthesamedegreeofrapidityasthemachineandtochangeinthesamedirection.This
seemstomeanessentiallysuperficialinterpretation.”500
Itisasuperficialinterpretationbecause“…changeinadirectionoppositetothe
machinemaybeasimportant…”501Thus,propensitydoesnotequatetorightnessor
correctness’itismerelythemostobviousforce.AmericanArmyofficersafterWorldWarI
perceivedthegeneralmaterialtrendandintheinterveningyears,withgrowingspeedand
momentum,movedtowardacultureoftechnicism.
499BrianMcAllisterLinn,TheEchoofBattle:TheArmy’sWayofWar(HarvardUniversityPress,2009),7.500Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,316.501Ibid.
191
TheacceleratedtempoofWorldWarIandthewarsthatfolloweditimpartedan
ideaoftechnologicalandscientificdependency.Thetrendapparenttoofficerscreateda
divergencebetweenthemanandmachine.TheresultsofWorldWarIindicatedthat
victoryresidedwithmaterialdominance,andthus,tacticalsuccessonthebattlefield
throughquantityoftechnologybecamesynonymouswithstrategicvictory.Theabilityto
deliveroverwhelminglevelsoffirebecametheU.S.mantra.Bythepost-KoreanWarera,
attritionalwarfare,warbykill/deathratios,becameastrategyevenfornuclear
annihilation.Thedivergenceofmanfromwarfocusedsoheavilyonthelatterthat
strategistslargelyfailedtoaccountforthepowerofthewillandotherintangiblefactors.
JosephCampbellinthePowerofMythargued:“Peoplesaythatwhatwe’reall
seekingisameaningforlife.Idon’tthinkthat’swhatwe’rereallyseeking.Ithinkthatwhat
we’reseekingisanexperienceofbeingalive,sothatourlifeexperiencesonthepurely
physicalplanewillhaveresonanceswithinourowninnermostbeingandreality,sothatwe
actuallyfeeltheraptureofbeingalive.”502
Inasimilar,ifnotmorecompelling,statement,GeorgeOrwellsuggestedinhis1940review
ofMeinKampfbyAdolfHilter:
Alsohe[Hitler]hasgraspedthefalsityofthehedonisticattitudetolife.Nearlyallwesternthoughtsincethelastwar,certainlyall“progressive”thought,hasassumedtacitlythathumanbeingsdesirenothingbeyondease,securityandavoidanceofpain.Insuchaviewoflifethereisnoroom,forinstance,forpatriotismandthemilitaryvirtues…Hitler,becauseinhisown joylessmindhefeelsitwithexceptional strength,knowsthathumanbeingsdon’tonlywantcomfort,safety,shortworking-hours,hygiene,birth- controland,ingeneral,commonsense;theyalso,atleastintermittently,wantstruggleandself-sacrifice…whereasSocialism,andevencapitalisminamoregrudgingway,havesaidtopeople“Iofferyouagoodtime,’’Hitlerhassaid tothem“Iofferyoustruggle,dangerand
502CampbellandMoyers,ThePowerofMyth,1.
192
death,”andasaresultawholenationflingsitselfathisfeet.503 Thethoughtprocessofscientificmanagementtakesnoaccountoftheforces
describedbyCampbellandOrwell.“Warbyalgebra”onlyprovidespartoftheformula,as
Clausewitzobserved,andarguablythelesspotentpart.504Inlargemeasurethiswasnota
failureofofficerstoadjusttothetempoofmodernity,butaspuriousinterpretationof
temporalcompressionthatresultedintheconclusionsofwhatscientificmanagementand
technologycouldachieveinrelationtoman.Intheend,manismovedbyideas,values,and
faith.Anysuccessfulgeo-politicalstrategymustacknowledgeandaccount,tosomedegree,
forthesefactors.Thetechno-centricofficercorpsoverestimatedthemachineand
underestimatedtheimportanceofthetimelessvaluesorganictoman—perhapshistory
mattersafterall.
503GeorgeOrwell,TheCollectedEssays,JournalismandLettersofGeorgeOrwell,ed.SoniaOrwellandIanAngus,vol.2(HarcourtBraceJovanovich,1968).504Clausewitz,OnWar,76.
193
AppendixI
LiteratureReview
Theliteraturereviewisdividedintotwosectionstofacilitateclarity.First,
Americansociety,withitsdiverseinclinationsandattitudes,isexaminedtoextractthe
commonthemesandsharedbeliefsthatdiffusedthroughoutthecorporatebody.The
reviewbeginswithabriefanalysisofthenatureoftechnologyandthenmovestoexamine
theAmericanmindsettowardtechnology.Second,theattitudeofthearmyandits
associatedinstitutionsisexaminedtodemonstratethecommonbondsbetweenthecivilian
andmilitaryworld.Thesurveybeginswiththecolonialperiodanddevelops
chronologicallyfromtherelayingthefoundationforchapterthree.
Americans’RelationshipwithTechnology
Technology,scienceandindustryaredistinctthoughrelatedconcepts,often
interdependentbutdevelopingalonguniqueanddivergentpaths.Theconceptsof
technologyandsciencefromthecolonialperiodthroughthepostatomicworldscienceand
technologywerefrequentlyconflated.Thus,historicalterminology,giventheproximate
relationship,issomewhatloose,oftenusingthetermsinterchangeably.Nevertheless,early
Americanswerenotoverlyconcernedwithconcretedefinitionsandbytheearly
nineteenthcenturythebeliefthatthesemechanicalmarvelsimprovedeverydaylifewas
quiteprevalent.
Nearlyeverymajorworkonthehistoryandevolutionoftechnologyoverthelast
eightyyearsbeginswithanodetoLewisMumford.Thebreadth,analysisandsynthesishe
appliedtounderstandingthenatureoftechnologyremainsunmatched.InTechnicsand
194
Civilization(1934)Mumforddividesthelastthousandyearsintothreephases.The
eotechnicphase,orMiddleAges,iswhereMumfordbeginshisanalysis,believingthat
moderntechnologyhaditsoriginsatthispointratherthanthemorecommonly-citeddate
ofthemid-EighteenthCentury.Thus,theeotechnicphaseextendsfrom1000A.D.untilthe
mid-SeventeenthCenturyandisprimarilypoweredbythe“water-and-woodcomplex.”
Theeotechnicphaseisfollowedbythepaleotechnicphase,fueledbya“coal-and-iron
complex;”last,theneotechnicphaseisdrivenbyan“electricity-and-alloycomplex.”505
Mumfordneverprovidedaconcisedefinitionoftechnology.Rather,andquite
intentionally,heusedtheGreekwordTekhnethatconveysaconceptofbothartandcraft.
Likewise,Mumfordarguedman’snature-beforeanythingelse-wasthatofthe“mind-
maker”before“took-maker”.506Mumforddescribedthisphenomenon,andisperhaps,one
ofthefirsthistorianstounderlinetheshiftthatMcGilchristlateridentifiedfroma
hemisphericperspective.Mumfordascribedthisprocesstothepropagationoftechnology.
Technologyhasmanymoderndefinitions.Nearlyallofthem,regardlessofwherethe
emphasisfalls,demonstrateadesireandintenttocontrolthat,accordingtoMcGilchrist,is
oneofthedefiningfacetsofthebrain’slefthemisphere-adesiretocontrolandseethings,
includingpeople,astools.
Mumfordsuccinctlysummarizedtheprocesswherebythelivingarereducedin
orderofprecedence.Sciencedeformed“experienceasawhole…theinstrumentsofscience
werehelplessintherealmofqualities.Thequalitativewasreducedtothesubjective,the
subjectivewasdismissedasunreal,andtheunseenandunmeasurableappearednon-
existent.Intuitionandfeelingdidnotaffectmechanicalprocessormechanical505Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,110.506Mumford,“TechnicsandtheNatureofMan,”925.
195
explanations.”507Mumfordbelievedthat,inthisrespect,sciencedidnotbringoneclosureto
an“objectiveexperience”,butratherrepresenteda“departurefromit.”508Therefore,unlike
Descartes,whobelievedthatmathematicsenabledonetodiscerntruth,Mumfordargued
thatmathematicsdidjusttheoppositeinthehumanrealm.IfMumfordidentifiedbroadly
acrosstimeandgeography,AlexisdeTocquevillerecognizedtrendsparticulartothe
Americanexperience.
FewmenwerebetterpositionedtoobservethisfirststageinAmericaninvention
thanAlexisdeTocqueville,aFrenchpoliticianandhistorianwhotraveledAmericainthe
1830s.HistravelsresultedinthepublicationofDemocracyinAmerica(1835).Alexisde
Tocquevilleobservedthat,“atatimewhenAmericanswerenaturallyinclinedtoask
nothingofsciencebutitsparticularapplicationstothepracticalarts…amongthe
enlightenednationsoftheOldWorld…theyfoundcelebratedscholars,skillfulartists,and
greatwriters,andtheywereabletogatheruptreasuresoftheintellectwithoutneedingto
accumulatethem.”509EvenatthisearlystageinAmericandevelopmentthetechnological
characterappearedvividlytotheforeignobserver,inpartbecausetheeyesoftheold
worldlookeduponthenew.TheutilitariancharacterofthecommonAmericanstruckde
TocquevilleassomewhatpeculiarandcertainlydifferentfromthatofEurope.Alexisde
TocquevilleidentifiedAmericanqualitieswhileRobertGordonindicatedthepossible
originsofthosequalities.
507Mumford,TechnicsandCivilization,49.508Ibid.,50.509Tocqueville,AlexisdeTocqueville,517.
196
RobertB.Gordonin“TechnologyinColonialNorthAmerica”(2005)arguedthat
“technologyisarecordofculturalchoice.”510Notallemigrantssharedthesamevalues—
thoseofWesternEuropewerenotthoseofEasternEurope,andthoseofItalywerenot
thoseofNorway.Thus,thecolonialportofembarkationmatteredinthedirectionof
technologicalchoice.Geographylikewiseinclinedproductionandtechnological
developmentincolonialAmerica.Thesoutherncoloniesandtowns,beingmoreisolated,
maturedalongparticularlinesquitedivergentfromthoseintheNortherncolonies.By
1785coloniesnorthofVirginiahadbeguntoindustrialize,providingthebasefromwhich
theIndustrialRevolutionlaterlaunchedinAmerica.Nations,organizations,people
rejectedtechnologiesandideasthatwerenotcompatiblewiththeirvalues.IntheAmerican
contexttheutilitarianinclinationremovedmanyofthebarriersthattypicallyinhibit
adoption,especiallyinreligion,asCharlesSanfordnoted.
“TheIntellectualOriginsandNew-WorldlinessofAmericanIndustry”(1958)by
CharlesSanfordobservedthatduringtheearlyEighteenthcenturythereremained
significantreservationstowardthemoraldegradationsofindustrialization.511Leadingmen,
suchasThomasJefferson,believedthatavirtuousnationmaintainedthatcharacter
throughanagrarianeconomy.Theideaoftransitioningtoanindustrializedeconomy
broughtthehorrorsofmanufacturingplantsfromGreatBritaintotheshoresoftheUnited
Statesandthreatenedtocorruptthenewworld.
SanfordexaminedhowearlyindustrialistswithinAmericasoughttominimizethe
effectsofindustrializationupontheAmericancharacter.Throughtheirworkandthe
510RobertB.Gordon,“TechnologyinColonialNorthAmerica,”inACompaniontoAmericanTechnology,ed.CarrollPursell,2005.511CharlesSanford,“TheIntellectualOriginsandNew-WorldlinessofAmericanIndustry,”TheJournalofEconomicHistory18,no.1(March1958):1–16.
197
effectsoftheWarof1812theideaofeconomicindependencegainedpopularacceptance
andby1817garneredsupportfromJeffersonandMadison.Furthermore,manufacturing
eventuallyassumedaspectsofspiritualregeneration,andasGordonobserved,thecultural
choicefreedAmericansfromEuropeanpractices.Thus,industrialtechnologyassumednot
onlysupportofthefoundingfathers,butalsothemantleofspiritualrenewal.Thisturning
pointwentnosmallwayincontributingtoagenerallypositiveviewthatAmericanshave
towardtechnologyandwhatitcanachieve.
AmericansdemonstratedamarkeddifferencefromEuropeansintheirattitudes
towardland.Bythelateeighteenthcentury,foreigntravelersreportedrestlessnessanda
spiritofoptimismpermeatedtheAmericancharacter.Thesubjugationofnaturethrough
thedevelopmentofroadnetworksandvastcanalsproceededatafeverishpaceintheearly
nineteenthcentury,accordingtoJamesWilliamsin“TheAmericanIndustrialRevolution”
(2005).512The363-milecanalthatconnectedtheHudsonRivertoLakeEriedwarfed
anythingeverattemptedinEurope.The“canal’sengineershadlittleornopractice
buildinganything…theylearnedonthejob…”Americansprovedtimeandagainthat
tirelesseffortandpersistencecouldovercomeeventheapparentlyimpossible.Therapid
propagationofthesteamboats,railroads,andthetelegraphstrengthenedtiesamongsta
largethoughdispersedpopulationinavastcountry.Thetransportationand
communicationadvancesnotonlytightenedsocialbondsbutalsosetthestageforrapid
industrializationinthemid-nineteenthcentury.Williams,likeSmith,believedthatthe
Americanarmsindustryprovidedthemotiveandenergytoadvancemachinetoolsinplace
oftheEuropeantraditionalcraftsman.512JamesC.Williams,“TheAmericanIndustrialRevolution,”inACompaniontoAmericanTechnology,ed.CarrollPursell(Hoboken,NJ:Wiley-Blackwell,2005).
198
Nationalidentitiesarenotshapedbyaninfinitenumberoffactors,norareall
influencesequalandlikewisetheydonothaveanequaleffectuponallmembers;however,
amajorityorvocalminorityisoftenenoughtoinclinebehavior,inwhateverformthat
takes,inaparticularmanner.Somecorporateexperiencesdeeplyaffectthemindsof
nationsaccordingtoHenrySteeleCommagerinTheAmericanMind(1950)asheexamined
majorinfluencesonAmericanthoughtfromthe1880stothe1940s.513Commagerargued
thattheAmericanenvironment,initstotality,exercisedandingrainedtheAmericanmind
oftheNineteenthCenturywithaparticularperspective.Breakingthetraditionalbondsof
Europe,theland,religion,andfreedominclinedthemindtowardanewfoundoptimismat
thepossibilitiesinherentinAmerica.Asaresult,theAmericanmindeschewedthe
traditional,class-boundtraditionsoftheoldworldandforcefullygravitatedtowards
mechanicalandtechnologicalsolutions.
GordonandCommagerbothbelievedthatAmericansassumedanddemonstratedan
appreciationforpracticalandtechnologicalsolutions.However,Commagerattributedthat
tonewlydevelopedandacquiredtraitsthroughthebroadabandonmentofEuropean
valuesandtheamalgamationofdiversepeoplesinanenvironmentlargelyfreefrom
constraints.Bycontrast,Gordonarguedthatthesettlers,wheretheycamefrom,andthe
attributesofthosepeopleamalgamatedintotheAmericancharacter.Bothauthors
perceivedasimilarresult,however,themeansandmethodswereofdifferentcharacter,
thoughnotentirelyinopposition.
Commagerfoundan“intensepracticality,”commonsense,and“incurable
utilitarianism”grippedtheaverageAmerican.Thegeographyitselfbeckonedanintense
513Commager,TheAmericanMind.
199
individualismandamechanicalinclinationandfascinationgrewapacewithintheAmerican
mind.IdeasungovernedandunchainedfromthetraditionsofEuropegavebreadthtothe
Americanmind,andtheenvironmentinducedautilitarianturn.
“Mirror-ImageTwins:TheCommunitiesofScienceandTechnologyin19th-Century
America”(1971)byEdwinLaytonorientsthenarrativeaboutthedevelopmentof
technologyasaprofession.514Laytondemonstratesthattherelationshipbetweenscience
andtechnologyisnotasclearandconciseasisoftenassumed.Therelationshipisoften
describedinthefollowingmanner“sciencecreatesnewknowledgewhichtechnologist[s]
thenapply…thatthisviewofscience-technologyrelationshascontinuedintothe20th
centurywasdemonstratedbyVannevarBush,whoheadedtheOfficeofScientificResearch
andDevelopmentinWWII….”Scienceandtechnologysharedsimilaritiesbutaimedto
achievedifferentgoals.Scienceaimstounderstandandenlargeknowledgeinaparticular
field.However,thatknowledgerarelycreatestechnologydirectly.Thefirstaimedforthe
abstractandtheoreticalwhilethelatteraimedfortheutilitarianandpractical.Onemay
buildatechnologywithoutunderstandingthescientificpropertiesofthevariouselements
involved.Thus,theUSmilitaryinvestedvastsumsintheadvancementofsciencefollowing
WorldWarIIwiththeexpectationthatsuchknowledgeincreasedmilitarytechnology.
However,ProjectHindsight,a1963DepartmentofDefense(DoD)initiative,examined
severalweaponsprogramstoevaluatetheroleofscientificfundingintheirdevelopment
andfounddirectlinkagesquitetenuous.515
LaytondoesnotexplicitlyaddresstheAmericanattitudesandmindsetstoward
technologythatCommagerandGordondescribe,buthedoeshighlightagrowinginterest514Layton,“Mirror-ImageTwins.”515Ibid.,563–564.
200
andmaturingoftheAmericanmindinthisrespect.Theimportanceoftechnologygained
momentumwiththeFirstWorldWarandascendedtonewheightsfollowingtheSecond
WorldWar.Inthisrespect,LaytondescribedwhatMumfordhadfeared.
ManyhistoriansinterestedintheimpactoftechnologyontheAmericanpsyche
foundWorldWarItobecriticaltoredefiningorperhapsintensifyingthatrelationship.
ThomasP.HughesinAmericanGenesisobserved(1989)that,bythetimeoftheFirstWorld
War,Americaninventionhadshiftedfromtheindividualtomanagerial,corporateand
governmentaldevelopment.516NotuntilthedevelopmentoftheInternetwouldindividuals
arguablyrisetotheforefrontofinventionagain.Theroleofthemilitaryinthe
advancementoftechnologyisfargreater,andstartedmuchearlierthanisoftenassumed.
AccordingtoHughes,“by1900theyhadreachedthepromisedlandofthetechnological
world…[and]hadacquiredtraitsthathavebecomecharacteristicallyAmerican.”517Hughes
perceivedapropensityinAmericanbehaviortoseektechnologicalsolutions,inallarenas,
withlittleregardtothesocialcosts.HughesacknowledgedMumford’sconcernand
addressedthemtosomedegreeintheHuman-BuiltWorld(2005);nordidHughesshare
Mumford’sdiscomfortwiththemilitarycastofinnovationtechnology.ToHughes’mind,
technologyisbenigninnature,asishumanity.Mumford,however,isalmostreticentto
describehisviewonhumannatureanditsrelationshipwithtechnology,butheconveysthe
feelingthathewishesthatitwereotherwise.518
Wherevertheinitialutilitarianimpetusresided,asnotedbyCommagerandGordon,
Hughesconcludesthattheroughoutlinetookshapebytheturnofthetwentiethcentury.
516Hughes,AmericanGenesis.517Ibid.,1.518ThomasP.Hughes,Human-BuiltWorld:HowtoThinkaboutTechnologyandCulture(UniversityofChicagoPress,2005).
201
Howdifferentthattransformationmighthavelookediftheearliestcolonistshadnotbeen
ofEuropeandescentisdifficulttoascertainwithanycertainty.However,Hughes’
argumentdoesappearamenabletoCommager’sthesis.Freedfromconventionaland
traditionalconstraints,theindividualinventorfoundpracticalsolutionstothechallenges
encounteredinthenewworld.
RudiVoltiinSocietyandTechnologicalChange(2006)examinedthenatureof
technology,howitevolves,andthereciprocalrelationshipoftechnologyandsociety.Volti
warnedthat,“…thespectacularsuccessesoftechnologicaldevelopmentshouldnotblindus
tothefactthatsomeoftheinherentdifficultiesoflifearesimplynotamenableto
technologicalsolutions.”519IfHughesremainedagnosticonthesubject,adisinterested
observer,Volti,muchlikeMumford,wasmoreconcernedbythedirectionoftechnology
anditsinterplaywiththemilitary.However,Voltinoted,theorderandcontrolthat
technologyoffersoftensubsumesmostdoubtsontheabilityoftechnologytosolvethe
mostcomplexproblems.AccordingtoVolti,whiletechnologymightbehighlysuccessfulin
manyvenues,itisentirelyunsuitedtosolvingcomplexhumanproblems.Hughes
acknowledgedthisdeficiencybuthisanalysisismoredescriptivethanprescriptive.Volti
wenttogreatlengthstodescribetheerrorofattemptingtechnologicalsolutionstodeeper
socialproblems.
BrianArthurinTheNatureofTechnology(2009)arguedtechnologyisinherently
iterative,thatitbuildsuponthatwithwhichexistedprior.Technologyalsodevelopsfrom
theuseandharnessingofnaturalphenomenon.Thereisarguablynogoodfinitedefinition
oftechnology,whichatteststothemulti-facetednatureoftechnologyitself.Arthurtackled
519Volti,SocietyandTechnologicalChange,316.
202
thisquestionthroughabroadtri-tiereddefinition:“...ameanstofulfillahumanpurpose,
…[an]assemblageofpracticesandcomponents,…entirecollectionofdevicesand
engineeringpracticesavailabletoaculture.”520Arthur,quiteapartfromMumford,
perceivedtechnologyasorganic;itevolves,improvesoneupontheother,nordoeshe
explicitlyorimplicitlyhaveanydiscomfortwithpropensityofmoderntechnologyto
controlandorderhumanlife.
Arthurbelievedthat“historyisimportant”becausealltechnologicaladvancements
arecombinationsofothersthatalreadyexistorthatdevelopfromnewdomainsthatare
discovered,butarealsoorganicallyderivedfromwhatexistedprior.Perhapsitfallsoutof
hispreview,butifhistoryinformstechnologicaldevelopmentanditevolvesfromwhat
existedprior,thenthispropensitysuggestthatMumford’sconcernsarejustified.Arthur,
notunlikeHughes,isconcernedmorewithanalysis,evolution,andtechnologicalprocesses
thansocialtensionsthatresult.Interestingly,asaprofessorofeconomicsArthur
explainedhowinitially“puzzled”hewasthathistoriansofallpeopleseemedtohavethe
mosttosayaboutthenatureoftechnology.However,ahistorian’squeryisman,and
technology,atitsroot,isanextensionofman.521
Insummary,theavailablestudiesthataddressesAmericansociety’srelationship
withtechnologysuggestthatthisrelationshipdevelopedorganicallybeginningintheearly
eighteenthcentury.BytheturnofthenineteenthcenturytheAmericanmind,greatly
influencedbytheprogressmadeduringtheSecondIndustrialRevolution,perceivedthat
largersocietalissuescouldbesolvedthroughtechnologicalmeans.TheFirstWorldWar
broughtthatideatomaturityandtherelationshipinverted.Nolongerdidthemanwield520Arthur,TheNatureofTechnology,28.521MarcBloch,TheHistorian’sCraft(ManchesterUniversityPress,1992),26.
203
thetools(technology)ofwar,butnowthemachineassumedcenterstageandman
assumedasubordinaterole.
TheAmericanMilitary’sAttitudesTowardTechnology
TheliteraturereviewedhereisfocusedprincipallyontheUSArmy,althoughwriters
suchasColinGray(2006)tendtolumpthemilitaryasawholetogether.Hisassessment,as
such,amalgamatesintolargeconclusionsusinga“wayofwar”constructtomakebroad
generalizationsaboutalltheservices’dependenceandrelianceonsuperiortechnology.522
However,therearefundamentaldifferencesbetweentheNavyandtheArmy.Army
officershavesignificantlymoreinteractionwithanenemypopulacethantheNavywhilea
navalofficer’sworkrevolvesentirelyaroundthemachinehecaptains.Thus,Armyofficers
areexpectedtohaveadeeper,morecomprehensiveunderstandingofthecultural–and
thussocial--environmentinwhichtheyoperate.Theproperrelationshipbetweenthe
armyandgovernmentwasadebateofconsiderableimportanceinlateeighteenthcentury
America.
TheFederalistPapers(1787)isamongthefirstdocumentstoreflectAmerican
attitudesatthetimeofthefoundingofthenationtowardthemilitaryandhowandwhat
militaryshoulddotoprovideforthecommondefenseasoutlinedintheU.S.Constitution.
ThesewritingspredatetheratificationoftheU.S.Constitution,butwhattheyhadtosay
aboutusingtechnologyinconcertwiththemilitary,howthemilitaryshouldorshouldnot
leveragethetechnologycomingoutoftheEnlightenment,andtheongoingScientific
Revolutionis,asexpected,quitesparse.EarlyAmericansdemonstratedadeep-seatedand
broadlysharedantipathytowardanykindofprofessionalarmy,especiallyonecontrolled522ColinS.Gray,IrregularEnemiesandtheEssenceofStrategy:CantheAmericanWayofWarAdapt?(2006:Lulu.com,n.d.).
204
bythefederalgovernment.AlexanderHamilton,intheFederalist24,arguedthat
Americansshouldnotassume“anexcessofconfidenceorsecurity”affordedthembytwo
vastoceans.523Commager’sargumentontheroleofgeographicalfactorsinshapingthe
AmericanmindsetareexemplifiedinthisstatementbyHamilton.ThedangersofBritish
territoriestothenorthandwest,andSpanishtothesouthrequiredsomekindofforcein
kindtoprotecttheconfederation’sinterest.IndiantribesalongtheWesternfrontierbe
couldbereliedupontoactintheirowninterest,andsometimesinconsonancewiththatof
Britain,forinthismeasuretheyintermingled;thus,astandingarmyalbeitasmallonewas
notonlydesirable,butalsonecessaryunderthecircumstances.Thepropensity,thus
established,shapedthestructure,direction,andmindsetofthemilitary,andcitizens
towardit,forthebetterpartofacentury.
Technologyremainedofsecondaryortertiaryimportancebehindleadershipand
disciplineforanarmyofthisperiod.Technologywasnotasignificantfactorasofyet—at
leastforlandlubbers!AtthispointtheArmyandNavyideasabouttechnologybeganto
diverge.FortheArmy,thediscussionturnedontrainedmen,whocontrolledthem,andthe
totalquantityavailable.Formillennia,acrossallcivilizations,numberscountedformore
thananythingelse,andthisruleheldtrueinlateeighteenthcenturyAmerica.Americansat
thistimeperceivedtechnologyassomethingthatprovidedincrementaladvantages,but
suchadvantageswerelargelysubordinatetonaturalabilityandleadership.
Intheworldofmilitaryeducation,thePrussiansprofessionalizedfirstfollowing
theircrushingdefeatatJena-Auerstadt(1806)atthehandsofNapoleon.PriortotheCivil
WartheUSArmyofficercorpslackedamotivatingexperienceofsimilarmagnitudeto523AlexanderHamilton,“TheFederalistPapersNo.24,”accessedDecember30,2013,http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed24.asp.
205
seriouslyconsiderprofessionalization.Although,theWarof1812didprovidesome
movementtowardofficerprofessionalization,butthenascentofficercorpsandlarger
politicalfactorsmilitatedagainstsignificantArmyreforms.
Technologyisnotnecessarilylimitedtophysicalmeans;itcanalsobe,andinthe
twenty-firstcenturymoreandmorecommonlyis,organizationalandinformationalin
nature.Inthisrespect,bothastomilitarythoughtandproduction,intellectualand
materialprogressfailedtotakeholdinanypermanentformuntilaftertheFirstWorldWar,
althoughtheRootreformsinitiatedmovement.WhiletheCivilWarincreasedNorthern
industrialcapacity,thelong-termimplicationsforthearmywerequitemuted.
JohnShyinAPeopleNumerousandArmed(1976)examinestheearlyAmerican
militaryexperienceandthepropensityofAmericanmilitarismassumedfromthoseevents.
Shyfoundthatan“…unthinkingoptimismaboutthenaturalAmericanaptitudeforwarfare,
andanambivalentattitudetowardthoseAmericanswhospecializedintheuseofforce,all
havehadconsequencesinthetwentiethcentury…"524Inthisrespect,Shy’sfindingsdonot
differmuchfromtheideasthatHamiltonconfronted,althoughShyperhapsidentifiesa
morestridentmilitarisminthecolonialcharacter.Notofaprofessionalstrainofcourse,
butrecoursetoviolenceappearedmorecommonandsociallyaccepted,ifnotencouraged
inthisperiod.Sincethefirstcolonistsetfootonthenewworld,enmityandinsecurityhad
gonehand-in-handwithdailylifeasrelationshipswithindigenouspopulationsvariedfrom
tribetotribeandfromonemomenttothenext.Adequatesecurityforthecolonistsamong
theoutlyingandscatteredfarmswasbeyondtheircapabilities.But“retribution”was
524JohnW.Shy,APeopleNumerousandArmed:ReflectionsontheMilitaryStruggleforAmericanIndependence(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1976),245.
206
somethingtheycouldrepayseveralfoldandontheirterms.525Menofnaturalability,
hunters,andotherciviliansprovidedforthegeneralsecurity,notprofessionalsoldiers.
However,thisalsofedintoJefferson’shopeofthecitizen-soldiercraftedintheshadowof
Rome’sRepublicanarmiestoprovideforthecommondefense.
TheSevenYearsWar,theAmericanRevolutionaryWar,andtheWarof1812
reinforcedtheperceptionthattypicalAmericans–noneofthemprofessionalsoldiers-
couldachievevictoryoverstandingarmiescommandedbyaristocraticofficers.Federalist
No.24contrastedsharplywiththecommonAmericancitizenoftheperiod.Hamilton,a
manofformidableintelligenceandknowledge,advocatedastrongcentralgovernmentand
envisionedastrongstandingarmytohelpsolidifytheAmericanstate.Hamiltonwas
perhapsmotivatedbyadarkerormorerealisticinterpretationofhumannatureandits
historicalnarrativeupuntilthelateeighteenthcenturyandinformedhistoricallybythe
Romanexperience.Hethoughtaprofessionalarmyanecessity.Hisviewswerethe
exceptionandappearedtoconflictwithactualexperienceasAmericanamateursrackedup
impressivewinsoverthenext150years.
ThedecisivedefeatofMexico,thedestructionoftheConfederacy,andthe
dismantlingoftheSpanishEmpireallcontributedtoandfurtherreinforcedthebeliefin
Americanexceptionalism,whichincludedbeingexceptionalinwhatitcouldachieved
withoutmilitaryspecialistsandprofessionals.Americametthedemandsofthemoment
throughfierceaction.InsomerespectsthisaffirmedtheobservationsofAlexisde
TocquevilleoftheAmericanpropensityforutilitarianandpracticalsolutions,eschewing
morearcaneandtheoreticalapproaches(suchasgeneralstaffs).
525Ibid.,232–236.
207
MilitaryprofessionalismhintedatanoldworldheritagethatAmericanshadthrown
off.ThesetendencieswerethoroughlyinculcatedbytheArmy.Aprocessofrapid
militaryexpansionfollowedbyanequally,andsometimessharper,contractionkept
professionalismandarmygrowthincheck.Thisformulaappearedtoofferallthebenefits
ofastandingarmywithoutanyoftheassociatedcostsanddangers.Americanmilitary
actionwasnotonlydecisiveandeffectiveasawaytodecidenationalsecurityaffairs,but
onemightachievethoseendswithoutthe“unnecessary”burdenexperiencedbynations
withprofessionalarmies.Hamilton’sproposedoldworldapproachnevergainedthe
necessarysupport,norshouldithavewhenthecitizen-soldierboretheburdenwithgreat
success(orsothenarrativewent.)
Thinkingdeeplyaboutwarappearedneitherdesirablenornecessaryinlightof
earlyAmericanexperiences.Thus,Shyobserved,“newideaswereabsorbedandreshaped
byold,deeplyimbeddedmodesofthinkingaboutwar.”526Onecanneveroutrunone’s
history,entirely.Andoftenthoseideas,values,beliefspersistlongerandinfluencetofar
greaterdegrees,weatherconsciouslyorunconsciously,thanonewouldliketobelieve.
MarcusCunliffe’sanalysisinSoldiersandCivilians:TheMartialSpiritinAmerica,
1775-1865(1968)surveyedearlyAmericansocietyandfocusedontherelationshipand
perceptionofcivilianstowardtheArmyandviceversa.IntimesofpeaceCunliffenoteda
generalsuspicionofthemilitaryfortifiedwithahealthydegreeofindifference.If
Americanslearnedanythingfromwar,specificallytheCivilWar,Cunliffeobserved,“[it]
wasinfactoptimistic.”DespiteAmericananimositytowardtheArmy,war(oratleastits
526Ibid.,250.
208
results)itselfhadfavoredtheyoungnation.Force,moreoftenthannot,achievedresults.527
Shy,likeCunliffe,notedthatAmericanshadsharedareservationtowardaprofessional
armythatdidnotextendtotheactofwaritself.Thistendencyinformedfuturegenerations
andthepathchosenforresolution.Hamiltonmighthavethoughtaprofessionalarmy
necessary,butCunliffe’sobservationsconfirmedHamilton’sexperienceofageneral
ambivalencetowardthingsofamilitarynatureandlittlechangedbetweenthe
RevolutionaryWarandtheCivilWar.
TechnicismdevelopedorganicallyfromtheAmericanexperience.Andbytheearly
nineteenthcenturyprivateandpublicdevelopmentbegantointermingleatanincreasingly
acceleratedpace.MerrittRoeSmithinMilitaryEnterpriseandTechnologicalChange(1987)
positedthat“…militaryenterprisehasplayedacentralroleinAmerica’sriseasan
industrialpowerandthatsincetheearlydaysoftherepublic,industrialmighthasbeen
intimatelyconnectedwithmilitarymight.”528TheArmyOrdnanceCorpsprovidedanearly
andcriticallinkwithprivateindustrytoexpandmanufacturingprocesses.American
armoriesservednotonlyasrepositoriesbutincubatorsofknowledgeformethodsand
processesthat,inpart,formedthebedrockforAmericanindustry.Thislineof
developmentdivergesfromprofessionalism,orthelackthereofthatShydescribed,butthe
separationisneitherwidenorabsolute.Rather,thestreamsrunparallelandatpoints
converge.TheCivilWarservedasanotherexampleofcitizen-soldierswinningwars,even
thoughmostoftheseniorleadersonbothsidesweregraduatesofmilitaryacademies.
Likewise,therelationshipsbetweenprivateandpublicindustryformedimportantand
527Cunliffe,SoldiersandCivilians,435.528Smithetal.,MilitaryEnterpriseandTechnologicalChange,4.
209
memorablebondsintheCivilWar.Thesebonds,likemusclememory,naturallyrenewed
andincreasedwitheachwar.
IfthecollectiveAmericanmindseemedreticentandattimeshostiletoa
professionalarmy,asShyobserved,itheldnosuchreservationstowardsindustrial
technology.ThepracticalandutilitariannatureofAmericanshadnodifficultyembracing
thepotentialofindustrialproduction.Wheretheory,militarytradition,andthe
aristocracybelongedtotheoldworld;theseedsoftechnologyandproductionappeared
fruitsofthenew.TheCivilWarbroughtofficersandearlyindustrialiststogetherfor
mutualbenefit—especiallyintheNortheast.Thus,therelationshipbetweenArmyofficers
andindustrialproductionsproutedearly,atleastintheNortheast,andsufferedlittlefrom
thenegativeassociationshistorianshaveobservedrelativetomilitaryintellectualism.
Americanmanagementpracticescolludedwithscientificconceptionsofbest
practices,whichlaidthefoundationforTaylorism,amanagementsystemthatsoughtto
increaseindustrialefficiencybyanalyzingandstandardizingindividualtasks.Therootsof
technicismwerefirmlyplantedearlyinAmericanhistory.Thegeneralacceptanceof
technologicalandscientificsolutionstopracticalproblemsbecameahallmarkofthe
Americancharacter.Yet,asShynoted,thatAmericanofficerthought,thoughitcertainly
utilized,littleabouttechnologyoritsinfluenceuponwaruntilafter1890.529Despitethis,
theCivilWarstrengthenedthebondsbetweenthemilitaryengineerandprivateAmerican
industryandtherelationshiponlygrewcloserastheyearspassed.
Theabysmalconductofthewarof1812shockedtheArmy’snascentofficercorps’
(andthenation’s)faithintheamateurcitizensoldier.AccordingtoWilliamSkeltoninan
529Shy,APeopleNumerousandArmed,247.
210
AmericanProfessionofArms,Theofficerswhofoughtinthisconflictweresufficiently
motivatedbyitsresultstobegintheprocessofprofessionalization.530Theearlyofficer
corpsdrewfrequentlyanddeeplyfromthewellofscience.531Theofficercorpsdidnot
developinavacuum.InadditiontoWestPoint,whichservedasthefirstengineering
collegeinAmerica,therapidgrowthofscienceandtechnologythroughtheantebellum
periodproducedalike-mindedofficer.532Additionally,EuropeanandespeciallyFrench
influenceontheprofessionalizationofAmericaingeneralandtheArmyinparticular,
cannotbeoverstated.Thus,Gordon’sthesisontheroleofculturalorigininchoicefinds
considerablesupportinlaterliterature.533
SamuelHuntingtoninTheSoldierandtheState(1957)arguedthattheinstitutions
ofwar,necessaryforcultivatingthemilitarymind,manifestedonlyaftertheCivilWar,and
onthispoint,SkeltonandHuntingtonfaceoff.Skelton,writingdecadeslater,arguedthat
theimpulsesforprofessionalizationformedbefore,notafter,theCivilWar.However,the
locusandqualityofthatprofessionalizationareequallyimportantquestions.For
Huntington,onecannotescapeone’shistory,andthus,Jefferson’sideaofthecitizen-soldier
continuedintothefuturewellbeyonditsusefulness.Ideasneverperish,theymerely
slumberandforthisreason,asShyimplied,Americansbycharacter,cultureand
environmentarereticenttofullyengageinthetheoreticalstudyofwarwhichisatodds
withtheirwillingnesstooftenusewarinallitsformsasapracticaltooltosolvedefense
andsecurityproblems.
530Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,116.531Ibid.,123.532Ibid.,180.533Ibid.,240.
211
AccordingtoMatthewMoteninTheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitary
Profession(2000),theDelafieldCommissionwasdispatchedtoEuropeinAprilof1855to
observeallaspectsofthemilitaryfield.SecretaryofWarJeffersonDavishopedtousethe
informationgatheredfromthetriptorectifyperceivedshortcomingswithintheUS
military.Furthermore,Moten’sanalysisrevealed“Antebellumexpertisemanifest[ed]three
flaws.”TheseincludedanoverrelianceonFrenchmilitarythought,WestPoint’s
engineeringfocus,andmilitaryofficersfindingrecompenseforcivilianratherthanmilitary
efforts.534
TheUSArmyfromitsinceptionhaddevelopedfromanucleusofscienceand
engineeringatWestPointconceivedbyJeffersonasawaytodevelopengineersthatcould
assistwiththedevelopmentoftheyoungnation’sinfrastructure.Jeffersonfirmlybelieved
inthecapacityofpatriotsoldiersandwithequalfervencythedangerposedbyanelite
officercorps.Moten’sworkwascongruentwithHuntington’searlierargumentsaboutthe
officercorps’Technicism.Officersneverdevelopedadeepunderstandingofthenatureof
warandthiswasbydesign.AstheUnitedStatesmatureditgrappledwiththestudyofwar
reluctantly,atfirst,andreliedalmostentirelyontheoldworldforguidance—orintoday’s
parlance,“bestpractices.”TheactivityatthefederalarmoriesandWestPoint’s
engineeringfocuswerecongruentinnatureandthisharmonyabettedapropensityin
thoughtandaction.
Professionalizationmovedthroughthecorpsincloseconjunctionwiththe
professionalizationofotherfieldsinAmericansociety,butatafarslowerrate.535
Professionalizationneartheendofthenineteenthcenturyassumed,asSmithobserved,an534Moten,TheDelafieldCommissionandtheAmericanMilitaryProfession,55.535Skelton,AnAmericanProfessionofArms,1992,116.
212
industrialandmanagerialcomponentthatinitiallydevelopedearlierinthecenturyinthe
armoriesandnestedeasilywithinanengineer’sintellectualframework.Anunintentional
bifurcationoftheofficercorpsoccurredbetweenthosestationedintheeastandnortheast
andthosethatservedonthewesternfrontier.Armyofficerprofessionalism,especiallyfor
thoseinthenortheast,founditsimpetusnotinpotentialthreatsorintheashesofdefeat,
butratherintheimpulsederivedfromagrowingtechnicalcomplexityaswarappearedto
havefarmoreincommonwithscienceandtechnologythanthehumanities,andthus,the
trenddevolvedinthatdirection.Thetechnicalfocusoftheeastamalgamatedwiththe
practicalbentofthoseofficersservinginthewestandsouthwest.
CarolReardoninSoldiersandScholars(1990)examinedthegradualencroachment
ofcivilianacademiafrom1865-1920ontheuseandstudyofmilitaryhistorybyofficers.
Militaryhistorywagedfromtheonsetarearguardactionagainsttheencroachmentof
science,engineering,andeventuallyevensocialscienceonthedevelopmentofArmy
officers.TheArmyofficercorpsofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturytwisted
anddistortedmilitaryhistoryonthealterofpracticalityandutilitythedamagethus
inflictedrenderedtheresultslargelyineffectual.536Thedistancebetweenrealityandthe
Armyfictionreachedunsustainableproportionsandwaslikelytohavegraveconsequences
inthefuture.Theofficers,truetotheintellectualrootsthatMotenarticulated,perceived
historyasatooltobewielded-likescience-withoutanyregardtotheart.TheUSArmy
officercorps,fromitsinceptionandcertainlyitsprofessionalization,centerednearly
entirelyonthisfacet.TheArmyofficercorpsdevelopedinisolation,asHuntingtonnoted,
especiallyinthewest,butasSkeltonargueditalsoprofessionalizedwithotherfieldsin536CarolReardon,SoldiersandScholars:TheU.S.ArmyandtheUsesofMilitaryHistory,1865-1920(UniversityPressofKansas,1990),5–8.
213
America,butmainlyintheeast.Forasoldiercomingofageinthelastseveraldecadesof
theeighteenthcenturyprofessionalizationremainedadistinctlysubjectiveproposition.An
engineerofficerpostedtotheWatertownarsenalinMassachusettsprobablyunderstood
professionalismtobequitedifferentfromaninfantryofficerservingonthewestern
frontier.
InTheAmericanWayofWar(1973),RussellWeigleyfound,likeMoten,thatthe
Americanmilitarymindwaspredisposedtoaparticularwayofthinking,inthisinstance,
howitwagedwars.537TheU.S.militaryneverdevelopeditsownphilosophicalthoughtson
thenatureofwar.RatheritshiftedwiththevagariesoftheEuropeanbattlefield.Atone
momentFrench,thenextGerman,andthenbackagain,itwasneverquitesureofitself.As
Cunliffenoted,Americansingeneraldidnotthinkdeeplyonthingsofamilitarymatter,and
asaresult,theArmyofficercorpsadoptedforeignideasreadily.TheGermansandFrench,
staunchenemies,didnotagreeonmuch,butthelegaciesofNapoleonexertednosmall
amountofinfluenceonthenexttwohundredyearsofwar,andforthatreasonthesearch
fordecisivebattles–annihilation-consumedtheAmericanmilitarymindandconstituted
theAmericanWayofWarinthemindsofsomehistorians.
BrianLinninTheEchoofBattle(2007)expandedthetrailfirstblazedbyWeigley.
LinnarguedthatthereexistthreetraditionswithintheAmericanWayofWar.Firstwere
the“Guardians”whoconstitutedatraditionalviewthatwarisbothscienceandart.The
Heroeswerethosethatbelievedinthe“humanelement”aboveallothers.TheManagers
comprisedthelastgroup,believingthatwarwastheartofproductionandresource
537Weigley,TheAmericanWayofWar.
214
management.538Thesethreegroupsarenot“mutuallyexclusive”andonefindsadvocates
foreach,buttheydowrestleforascendancy.Weigleyarguedthatannihilationdefinedthe
AmericanWayofWar,whileLinnassumedanuancedargumentthatatdifferentpointsin
Americanhistorywarwaswagedbydifferentrulesets.Regardless,thehorrorsofthe
modernbattlefieldcombinedwithpowerofmodernfirepowerproducedsomeofthefirst,
andarguablythemostclear,fissuresinthepreeminenceoftheheroicsoldierimage.
InBeatingPlowsharesintoSwords:ThePoliticalEconomyofAmericanWarfare,
1601-1865(1996),PaulKoistinenexaminedtheAmericanexperience,whichseizedupon
technologicalsolutionstoagreaterdegreethanmost.Technologyandtheeconomyare
twodifferentthoughrelatedproductsofman.Theeconomyistheproductofandproduces
technologyinscale.War,especiallysincethelateeighteenthcentury,hasreliedonthe
organizedproductionofmajorenditemstosupportthevastincreaseinthesizeofarmies.
KoistinendividedtheeconomyofAmericaintofourmajorparts:political,economic,
technologicalandmilitary.KoistinenobservedthattheAmericaneconomydeveloped
throughthreeclearlydiscernablestagespreindustrial,transitional,andindustrialoverthis
period.Koistinen’sanalysiscloselyparallelsLinn’sthreetraditions,whichmirrorthe
economicdevelopmentoftheU.S.Army.TheArmyofficerprofessionmirroredthis
economicdevelopment.SkeltonalludedtothiswhennotedhowArmyprofessionalism
maturedinparallelwithotherprofessionsinAmericansociety.
TheUnitedStatespoliticalsystemlargelyrelegatedthemilitarytothesidelines
duringthepreindustrialandtransitionalstagesofeconomicdevelopmentbecauseone
couldmeetthechallengesofwarfareduringthisperiodwithcitizen-soldiers,asShy
538Linn,TheEchoofBattle,2009,5–7.
215
observed.This,however,changedastechnologiesadvancedandtheeconomymaturedand
theearliestseedssproutedinthearsenals.
Themostinfluentialaspectofthefourindeterminingthecharacteranddirectionof
theeconomy,accordingtoKoistinen,isthepoliticalelement.Koistinendoesnotprovidea
concisedefinitionoftechnology,asthatissomewhatperipheraltohismainargument;
however,hisworkcontributestoabroader,ifnotmoreholisticunderstandingofthe
culturalcontextfortheAmericanWayofWaranditseconomicdevelopmentandhow
thoseforceshelpedshapehowAmericanofficersperceiveandconductwar.Forthe
AmericanArmyofficer,professionalismandthestudyofitbecamemoreaboutproduction
andtechnologythanthestudyofmilitarytheory.War,thenatureofit,wasaquestionof
material,numbers,andmanagement.
WalterKretchikinU.S.ArmyDoctrineFromtheAmericanRevolutiontotheWaron
Terror(2011)examinedtheevolutionofArmydoctrine.Kretchiktracedthedevelopment
orborrowingofdoctrine,beginningwithBaronvonSteubenandtheContinentalArmy.
EarlyAmericandoctrinethroughtheFirstWorldWaroftenconsistedofgrossplagiarismof
Frenchmaterial,insomecasescopiednearlyverbatim.TheUSArmy,arelativelyyoung
institutionincomparisontoitsEuropeancounterparts,lackedastrongmilitarytradition,
andinmanywaysprideditselfonthatfact.Thus,withoutadequatetraditionordesirethe
USArmysimplylooked,asnotedbyMolten,attheEuropeanbattlefieldsforanswers.And
whichevermilitarydominatedatthatperiodbecametheoutlinetheArmyattemptedto
trace.MostfrequentlythiswastheFrenchArmy,especiallyfollowingNapoleon,withhis
successanddependenceonmassconscriptionseemedtheperfectfitforearlyAmerica.539
539Kretchik,U.S.ArmyDoctrine.
216
Kretchikobservedthat,“WarcollegecommitteesstudyingFrance,Germany,Great
Britain,JapanandtheSovietUnion,aswellasothernationsincludingItalyand
Switzerland,wereallfilteredthroughanAmericanCulturallens.Ifforeigndoctrinedidnot
meshwithAmericanpoliticalandsocietalnorms,aswellasmilitaryvalues,itwasoften
discounted.”540TheclearandrationalMachiavellianapproachisnotdisplayedhere,buta
preferenceforthefamiliar,theknown,notanimpulsetoexploreandembracefuture
potential,butreluctancetobreakwiththepast.“Principlesweretheimmutabletruths,”
Kretchiknoted,“thatanchoredtheintellect,”intellectuallymooredtotheoldworld.Thus,
Armyofficersneverfullydiscoveredthepossibilitiesthatresidedoutsidetheself-inflicted
intellectuallimits.
***Thecivilianandmilitaryminds,inrespecttotechnology,paralleledeachother
throughoutmuchofAmericanhistory.However,thealignmentremainedequivalentin
directiononlythediffusionandspeedoftechnologicaladoptiondependedonthe
amalgamationofmanydisparatefactors.LikemostnationstheU.S.wasbornthroughwar,
yet,intheAmericancasethebirthcamerelativelylateintheprocessofstateformation.
FreefromtheinertiathatoftenrestrainssocialchangeAmericansreadilyadopted
technologyinconjunctionwithutilitarianneedslargelyuninhibitedbyreligious,
institutionalorbureaucraticbarriers.
TheemergenceoftheU.S.coincidedfortuitouslywiththeadvanceofscienceand
technology.Themeetingproducedamentalität,“…acommonmindsetgeneratingsimilar
approachestocommonproblems…”541Theseeminglylimitlesspotentialoftechnologyto
solveeverydayproblemsthathadbedeviledmanforthousandsofyearsimbuedthat540Ibid.,140.541KnoxandMurray,TheDynamicsofMilitaryRevolution,1300-2050,112.
217
technologywithprofoundqualities,thatwhenmeasured,itprocessedonlysuperficially.
Technologicalbenefits,bytheirnaturevisible,wereextolledingreatmeasureand
enthusiasticallyembracedbyindividualsandcorporatebodiesalike;yet,thesocialcosts,
thesecondandtertiaryeffectswerenolessacutealbeitlessamenabletoquantitative
measurementandfrequentlyemergedonlyhaveanextendedincubationperiodusually
measuredinascoreormore-generational.
TheArmywaslessaninstitutionandmoreanorganism,exemplifyingthe
characteristicsofalivingcreaturewithallofitsinstinctualandintellectualfacultiesthat
onemightattributetoapredator.Technologyenhancestheseinstinctualskills--theeyes,
thelimbs,theclaws--theabilitytokill.Yet,technologyonlyamplifieswhatalreadyexistsin
theorganism.Itisnotadditiveinnature,abilitiesaremultipliedthroughtheuseand
employmentoftechnology,butsmarteritdoesnotonemake.
TheArmymovedfirmlyandslowlybutnotoutofstepwiththepotentialof
technology.Initially,technologyprovidednoabsolutesuperiorityonthebattlefieldtactical
successdependedmoreondisciplineandleadership.Humanattributesvaried,butthose
prizedhereinthenewworld,asnotedbydeTocqueville,wereofapracticalandutilitarian
strain,ofthebloodandsweatkind.TheCivilWardemonstratedthepowerof
manufacturingandadvancesintechnologytomanyobserversbothforeignanddomestic.
NascentArmyprofessionalismandweakintellectualmooringprovidedtheperfect
environmentfortechnicismtotakerootandoverthenexttwohundredyearsit
proliferated.
SomehistorianshavestudiedthedevelopmentofArmyprofessionalizationandstill
othershaveexaminedtechnologyanditseffectonthebattlefield,butfewhaveanalyzed
218
theintellectualsubstrateofArmyofficersanditsconfluencewithtechnology.Inother
words,thissubstratewastheArmyofficermentalitätthatdevelopedfromthepeculiar
Americanexperience.
219
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