Map Definitions Types and Parts

8/2/2019 Map Definitions Types and Parts

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MAP DEFINITIONS, TYPES AND PARTS

DEFINITIONS OF A WHAT A MAP IS

Traditionally, maps are conceived as directional guides

printed on papers. Other people think of maps as any two-

dimensional representation of the earths surface and is

reserved only for cartography

Map

is any graphical representation of spatial reality. A cartographic representation of specifically

chosen spatial information. The information is

transmitted through images constructed from

symbols. We tend to restrict the term to visual

maps, but spatial information may be represented

on a computer screen, through braille, or verbally

through spoken description, and these categories

of spatial representation may also be described as

maps (Mayhew). A symbolized image of geographical reality,

representing selected features or characteristics,

resulting from the creative effort of its authors

execution of choices, and is designed for use

when spatial relationships are of primary

relevance (ICA in Gomez and Jones III).

are graphic representations that facilitate a spatialunderstanding of things, concepts, conditions,

processes, or events in the human world (Harley

and Woodward in Gomez and Jones III).

Cartography

The production and study of maps and charts(Mayhew).

the body of practical and theoretical knowledgeabout making distinctive visual representations of

Earths surface in the form of maps (Knox,

Marston, and Nash).

TYPES OF MAPS

a. Focus Multivariate Bivariate Univariate

b. Symbol Dot Isoline Cholopleth Located Charts Topological Cartogram

c. Media Printed Cognitive Spoken

PARTS OF A FORMAL PRINTED MAP

title map body inset map legend numerical scale orientation (e.g. north arrow) projection (e.g. Mercator, Robinson) other information neat lineborders the map body frame line

Projection

is a systematic rendering on a flat surface of thegeographical coordinates of the features found on

Earths surface (Knox, Marston, and Nash).

Types:

a. Equidistant projections allow distance to be represented as accurately as

possible.

b. Conformal projections map projections on which compass bearings are

rendered accurately.

c. Azimuthal projections map projections on which compass directions are

correct from only one central point

d. Equal-area map projections that portray areas on Earths surface in their true

proportions

Note: A projection preserves and ignores the accuracy of

one or more of these: size, shape, area, direction, and

distance.


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APPROACHES IN MAP DESIGN ANDINTERPRETATION

MAPPING AS ART AND SCIENCE

Art in maps is reflected in aesthetics and visualpleasures derived when looking and using maps.

Science in maps is embedded in communicationand standardization of symbols when planningand making maps.

COMMUNICATIVE/BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

the map is thought of as a data storage entity andthe purpose of the cartographer is to design the

map in such a way that the map conveys the

intended information. In this model the

cartographer is the sender and the map is the

messenger.

The map is a model to be decoded by the mapreader.

CRITICAL APPROACHES

There were critical alternatives to formal,communicative and behavioral approaches in the

design, distribution, interpretation, and study of

maps and related knowledge.

Such critical approaches focused on purposes,contexts, reproduction of cartographic knowledge,

map interpretation, uses and effects of maps.

Reasons

It is argued, however, that in reality map-relatedactivities do not happen as purely technicalevents. Instead, they are tied to purposes, subject

to various interpretations of people of different

backgrounds, and are catalysts for the

reproduction of social and spatial norms.

Martin Heidegger

the essence of technology is by no meansanything technical.

Purposes

Mappers intentionally and unintentionally servepurposes that are intended to benefit particulargroups of people. A map can be for the depiction

of a territory of a nation-state and sometimes such

assertions of areal dominion goes unquestioned.

Contexts

Maps are made within political, historical, social,economic, and cultural contexts.(e.g. Cold War,

Age of imperialism). It uses map as propaganda.

Geographic Information Systems

an annual multibillion-dolllar industry and istherefore subject to the demands for profit which

leads to the service of particular interests of those

who can afford to commission digital mapping.

Securitization

in mapping involves the legitimization of theknowledge represented in maps and efforts to

mainstream and standardize things related to

cartography.

Resistance

in mapping are efforts that question theimplications, purposes, and effects of mapping-

related activities and products even mapping

itself.

Reproduction of Geographic Knowledge

The reproduction geographic knowledge and thepower that comes with such knowledge in this

age of the Internet and telecommunications is

uneven.

Also, maps portray socially accepted norms ofspatial representation, especially those of the

dominant groups.

Interpretation of Geographic Knowledge

Even though maps are purposed to convey aparticular message, map readers of different

backgrounds, attitudes, knowledge, and behavior

may interpret a map in a way that is divergentfrom the original intended message and may due

to place or time differences.

Intertextuality

A characteristic of maps that embeds the mapwithin an interpretation process in which users

use a variety of experiences and attitudes.

Uses and Effects Of Maps

Maps inform us of where we are, where we aregoing, and what we have.

Maps can help settle territorial disputes and markpossible places of potential sustainable

development.

Cartographic Anxiety

Cartographerswhether makers or scholarsarethus caught in a schizophrenic situation in which

maps are seen as having a two-edged potential.

(Jeremy Crampton)


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ELEMENTS IN MAP DESIGN

selection and organization scale and generalization projection and graticules symbolization composition

SELECTION AND ORGANIZATION

what will appear on the map is determined by thecartographer/s and the commissioner/s of the

map.

what will not appear is intentionally orunintentionally determined.

Large-scale

Quality of Features: Low Quantity of Features: High

Small-scale

Quality of Features: High Quantity of Features: Low

General rule of thumb:

Given the same amount of print/project area(ceteris paribus), the quality of features increases

with increases in numerical scale while the

quantity of features decreases with increases in

numerical scale.

ceteris paribus

assuming everything else as constantGeneralization

abstraction of real-world geographic featuressymbolized in a map as measured by quality

and/or quality.

PROJECTION AND GRATICULES

Equal-distance projection is for pilots andcaptains of ships.

Projection that preserves direction is importantfor navigators, too.

Equal-area projection is fit for the job of a realestate broker.

Projection

is a systematic rendering on a flat surface of thegeographical coordinates of the features found on

Earths surface (Knox, Marston, and Nash).

1) Equidistant projections. Polyconic2) Conformal projection. Mercator3) Azimuthal projections4) Equal-area map. Mollweide5) Compromise projection:Dymaxion

A projection preserves and ignores the accuracyof one or more of these: size, shape, area,

direction, and distance.

Graticule

a regular grid, used for referencing points on amap (Mayhew).

SYMBOLIZATION

Classification

symbol type (color, shapes, sizes) treatment (scientific, aesthetic, critical) data type (quantitative, qualitative)


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REMOTE SENSING AND IMAGEINTERPRETATION

REMOTE SENSING, IMAGE INTERPRETATION,AND THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation should not be done for the sake of doing them.

They should be fashioned and executed for

purposes such as those of research.

Research Process

on the other hand, is greatly aided by remotesensing technologies and results of image

interpretation.

REMOTE SENSING AND EMR

Remote Sensing

the gathering and recording of information aboutthe earths surface by methods which do not

involve actual contact with the surface under

consideration. (Mayhew).

Techniques: photography, infrared imagery, andradar from aircraft, satellites, and spacecraft

collection of data about features or phenomena onthe Earths surface or atmosphere, without

directly being in contact with such

features/phenomena.

is centered around the principle that particularobjects emit and/ or reflect particular types of

radiation and there are sensors that can detect

such radiations.

TASK CONCERNING IMAGE INTERPRETATION

is in the use stage in the process within whichstrict remote sensing is located.

1. Goals and Types Goals for which interpretation is to be made

aredetermined. Appropriate interpretation types

are specified.

2. Image Type Given goals, useful images of specific type/s are

selected for secondary collection

3. Availability Is checked foe the determination of alternative

images of method

4. Collection available images of particular type/s are gathered

5. Interpretation images are interpreted using basic ande thematic

elements and interpretation tools

6. Calibration and validation feedback can be given for improving the tools forcollection and interpretation. The human

interpreter gains skill. validation using other

methods like field visits can be done to ensure a

level of accuracy of the results.

I. GOALS AND TYPESINTERPRETATION GOALS

Reconnaisance

is when the study area is checked before a visit orfor the generation of hypothesis/es.Inventory

can also be served by image interpretation incases such as a listing of tree species or geologic

formations.

Mapping.

Remotely-sensed images can be converted intomaps.

Monitoring.

Images in a time series are for monitoringphenomena such as dune migration, forest cover,

and avulsion.

TYPES OF INTERPRETATION

Location

Identification

is for the determination of the types of featuresand phenomena.

Measurement

is for the quantification of attributes ofgeographical features.

Analysis

is the examination of spatial relationships andattributes of geographical features.


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II. TYPES OF IMAGERYTwo Factors:

a. Sensor Types photographic or digital. infrared, visible light, etc (various parts of the

EMR spectrum they correspond to)

passive/active (the general way the interact withradiation)

b. Platform Type1.Aerial Resolution: Higher Coverage: Smaller Storage: Digital/ Printed Altitude: Low Sensor Type: Limited

2.Satelllite

Resolution: Lower Coverage: Larger Storage: Digital/ Printed Altitude: High Sensor Type: Wide Range

III.AVAILABILITY OF IMAGES images that are needed are subject to availability

due to ownership, image time, location of area

represented by the image, scale, resolution, and

type of spatial data expected in the images.

IV. COLLECTIONV. ELEMENTS OF IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Elements are signs that are sought for in aremotely-sensed image to produce a useful and

proper interpretation.

can be classified as basic or thematic.INTERPRETATION TOOLS

The human eye and mind stereoscope viewer for overlapping hardcopy

images

zoom transfer scope GIS for digital GIS layers

VI. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATIONCalibration of interpretation and collection tools

is done using feedbacks from intepretationactivities for better remote sensing activities in

the future.

human mind and eyes are calibrated too.

Validation

is done to ensure the accuracy of theinterpretation, through field visits and other

research methods and materials such as reports

supplements

THE HUMAN INTERPRETER

subjects the images to a system that is systematicand using supplementary materials such as field

reports and other maps. (Lillesand and Kiefer)

needs skills, patience, and enough understandingof what is being studied. (Lillesand and Kiefer)


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ELEMENTS OF IMAGEINTERPRETATION

I.BASIC ELEMENTSTone/ Hue

refers to the relative brightness or color of objectson photographs.

Light-toned areas (higher and/or drier) Dark-toned areas (lower and/or wetter)

Shape

refers to the general form, configuration, oroutline of individual objects.

In the case of stereoscopic photographs, theobjects height also defines its shape.

Size

of objects on photographs must be considered inthe context of the photo scale.

Relative sizes among objects on photographs ofthe same scale must also be considered.

Height/Depth

pertains to elevation/depression from the sealevel.

Height/depth is detected using tones and shadows.Shadows

Importance:1. The shape or outline of a shadow tells the type

of object it is representing.

2. Objects within shadows reflect little light and

are difficult to discern on photographs.

Terrain variations can be interpreted usingshadows.

Pattern

relates to the spatial arrangement of objects.Texture

is the frequency of tonal change on thephotographic image.

It is produced by an aggregation of unit featuresthat may be too small to be discerned individually

on the photograph

It is a product of their individual shape, size,pattern, shadow and tone.

There are rough and smooth textures.

Context

refers to the occurrence of certain features inrelation to others.

useful for the identification of a site(topographical/geographical location) and is

helpful in the interpretation of types of flora.

Interpretation keys

they are visual guides in the form of palettes thatcan guide the relatively unskilled interpreter in

dealing with images new to him/her and not

elements or signs sought after in image

interpretation.

are texts and images used to guide noviceinterpreters in interpreting aerial photographs.

II.THEMATIC ELEMENTS There are special elements particular to image

types. These types of images range from thosedepicting terrain, infrared, and others.

Terrain

is of prime importance in the analysis of systems,scapes, forms, and processes and special attention

is given to it in this class.


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TERRAIN ANALYSIS

Terrain Analysis

The use of remote sensing satellite data formapping various aspects of terrain, such as land

cover, land use, and soils.

Software may then be utilized to derive terrainparameters, such as aspect, catchment area, andwetness index, which are then used to describe

the morphology of the landscape and the

influence of topography on environmental

processes.

SOIL

residual, transported, organic fine-textured, coarse-textured percentages of clay, silt, sand, and gravel drainage

TOPOGRAPHY

With vertical photographs having a normal 60percent overlap, most individuals using

stereograms see the terrain exaggerated in height

about three of four times

DRAINAGE

Attributes:

I. Patterna. Destructional dendritic

rectangular trellis radial centripetal deranged

b. Constructional

II. Texture

a. Fine-textured soils and rocks have poor internal drainage and

high surface runoff

b. Coarse-textured soils and rocks have good internal drainage and

little surface runoff

EROSION

Erosion expressed in gullies.Gullies

result from the erosion of unconsolidatedmaterial by runoff and develop where rainfall

cannot adequately percolate into the ground,

but instead collects and flow across the surface

in small rivulets

These initial rivulets enlarge and take on aparticular shape characteristic of the material in

which they are formed.

channel or ditch formed by water erosion. Shape

a. v-shaped: Sand and gravelb. u-shaped: Siltc. gently-rounded: Silt clay and Clay

Ridge

landform feature characterized by acontinuous elevational crest with sloping

sides.

PHOTOTONE

refers to the brightness at any point on apanchromatic photograph.

depends on terrain characteristic, photographicfactors (film-filter combination, exposure, andphotographic processing) and meteorological and

climatological factors (atmospheric haze, sun

angle, and cloud shadows)

because of these, relative tone values are assessedrather than absolute tone values.

a. lighter-toned areas topographically higher position coarser soil texture lower soil moisture content lower organic content

b. darker-toned areas topographically lower position finer soil texture higher soil moisture content higher organic content

reminder: These points are for black and white

panchromatic images

VEGETATION AND LAND USE

differences in natural or cultivated vegetationoften indicate differences in terrain conditions.a. orchards and vineyards are generally

located on well-drained soils,

b. truck farming activities often take placeon highly organic soils such as muck and peat

deposits.

vegetation and land use obscure differences interrain conditions and the interpreter must be

careful to draw inferences.


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THE GEOMORPHIC SYSTEM ANDSCAPE

System

any set of interrelated factors (Mayhew).Geomorphic Systems

open systems where the energy of operationcomes from outside, and moves across, the

system boundary.

Changes in inputs will produce changes inoutputs; hence, any change in energy or mass

causes the processes and their statistically related

landforms to adjust in order to maintain a balance

in the system.

The geomorphic systems approach emphasizesthe intimate relationship between process and

form, stresses the multivariate nature of

geomorphology, and reveals that some landforms

may not be in balance because they owe their

character to relict conditions example, glaciated

landforms (Mayhew).

Any analysis of geomorphology or physicalgeography in general is simplified by the use of

the concept of geomorphic system.

Landscape

an area, the appearance of an area, or thegathering of objects that make that appearance

(Mayhew).

Geomorphological Landscape

the totality of surface landforms (Mayhew).

EARTH-SUN RELATIONSHIP

Perihelion

The closest point on the Earth's orbit relative tothe Sun. Happens in January 3.

Aphelion

The farthest point on the Earth's orbit relative tothe Sun. Happens in July 4.

Equinox

A day when daytime and nighttime are of equallength.

March 21 is the Spring Equinox. September 22 is the Fall Equinox.

Solstice

A day when the overhead sun is furthest from theequator.

June 21 is the Summer Solstice. December 21 is the Winter Solstice.

Seasonal Zone

Tropical0 to 23.5 in both hemispheres

Temperate23.5 to 66.5 in both hemispheres.

Polar66.5 to 90 in both hemispheres.

The Spatial Relationship

Earths orbit and axis tilt determine thedistribution of various kinds of geological and

biological resources across the globe.

EARTH SYSTEM AND EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE

The earth is both like a machine and an organism. As an organic machine, the earth is comprised

of parts that interact, grow, become stable, and

decline alternately and simultaneously.

As such, the earth is a system with parts that aredirectly and indirectly linked to each other.

Systems Analysis

is a way of viewing complex geomorphologicalsystems as the product of the storage, throughput,

input, and output of energy and mass (Mayhew).

the analysis of the structure and function ofidentifiable systems (Holt-Jensen).

Earth System

the unified set of physical, chemical, biological,and social components and interactions that

together determine the state and dynamics of

Planet Earth, including its biota and human

occupants (ESSP in Goudie).

Earth System Science (ESS)

is the study of the Earth System, with anemphasis on observing, understanding and

predicting global environmental changes

involving interactions between atmosphere,

water, ice, biosphere, societies, technologies, and

economies (ESSP in Goudie).

Criticism: hodge podge of perspectives &analyses of what already exists and attempt to

give scientific credence to particular endeavors


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THE GLOBAL TECTONIC ANDHYDROCLIMATIC SYSTEMS

Two System of Earth System:

a. Tectonic system is primarily about rock (whethersolid or molten) and the

b. Hydroclimatic system is about air and water(wheter liquid or frozen).

Interaction: Air flow is blocked by mountains. Lava

flows release gas into the atmosphere. Erosion through

rainfall denudes landforms. Hard material diverts

running water.

Hydrologic system

is the complex cycle through which water movesfrom the oceans, to the atmosphere, over the land,

and back to the oceans again. Water in the

hydrologic system moving as surface runoff,

groundwater, glaciers, waves, and currents

erodes, transports and deposits surface rockmaterial (Hamblin and Christiansen).

hydrologic system is only a part of thehydroclimatic system.

Tectonic System

involves the movement of the lithosphere whichis broken into a mosaic of separate plates. These

plates move independently, separating, colliding,

and sliding past one another.

The margins of the plates are the sites ofconsiderable geologic activity such as seafloor

spreading, continental rifting, mountain building,

volcanism, and earthquakes (Hamblin and

Christiansen).

Type of Plate BoundariesA. Divergent boundaries are areas where plates move away from each

other, forming either mid-oceanic ridges or rift

valleys.

B. Convergent boundaries are areas where plates move toward each other

and collide. These are also known as

compressional or destructive boundaries.

1. oceanic -continental: Volcanic arch2. oceanic -oceanic: Island arch3. continental-continental: Mountain Ranges

C. Transform boundaries occur when two plates grind past each other with

only limited convergent or divergent activity.

Hydroclimatic System.

the conjuction of work between the hydrologicsystem and climatic system

Direction of Ocean Currents:

Northern Hemisphere- Clockwise Southern Hemisphere- Counter-clockwise

Direction of Wind Currents:

Northern Hemisphere: Counter- clock wise Southern Hemisphere: Clockwise

FOUR SPHERES

Biosphere

the zone where life is found.Atmosphere

the layer of air surrounding the Earth with anaverage composition, by volume, of 79%

nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1 % of other gases

(carbon dioxide and water vapor)

Hydrosphere

all the water on, or close to, the surface of theearth. Some 97% is in the earth's seas and oceans;

of the rest, about 75% is in ice caps and sheets,about 25% in surface drainage and groundwater,

and about 0.03% in the atmosphere.

Lithosphere

simple: the rest of the earth including, molten andhardened rock.

strict: the earth's crust, and that upper layer of themantle which lies above the asthenosphere.

Layers

by composition: crust, mantle, core by physical properties: lithosphere(strict), plastic

asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, inner core


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GEOECOSPHERE

In this view, the earth is composed of three major spheres

a) atmosphere,b) lithosphere.c) toposphere,

cryosphere (ice), hydrosphere (water), biosphere (life), pedosphere (soil).

GEOECOSPHERE, NOSPHERE, ANDANTHROPOSPHERE

Anthroposphere

the cultural and technological environment builtby humans. (the modified geoecosphere)

Nosphere

which is the sphere of mental activity of humans.Barysphere

the part of the earth that is about core and mantleprocesses.

ignores in geoecosphere view.


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THE WORLD SYSTEM

World-system

An interpendent system of countries linked byeconomic and political competition.

modern world-system began in fifteenth-centuryEurope. Exploration, shipbuilding, and navigationcaused expansion to non-European areas.

State

independent political units with territorialboundaries that are internationally recognized by

other political units.

has sovereignty, territory, a government, and apopulation.

Core Regions

Regions that dominate trade, control the mostadvanced technologies, and have high levels of

productivity within diversified economies.

Semiperipheral Regions

Regions that are able to exploit peripheral regionsbut are themselves exploited and dominated by

core regions.

Peripheral Regions

Regions with undeveloped or narrowlyspecialized economies with low levels of

productivity.

External Arena

Regions of the world not fully-absorbed into themodern world-system

PREMODERN GEOGRAPHIC CHANGE

Mini-System

A society with a single cultural base and areciprocal social economy.

Slash-and-burn agriculture was practiced Hearth areas emerged where there was plenty of

resources:

1. The Middle East2. South Asia3. Areas in the Americas

World-Empire

Mini-systems that have been absorbed into acommon political system while retaining their

fundamental cultural differences.

Famous world-empires Egypt, Greece, China,Byzantium, and Rome.

Expansion of the World-Empires.

Urbanization and Colonization were importantcontributions of the world-empires to an evolving

world-system.

Hearth area

Pre-modern regions that were sources oftechnological innovation and centers of economic

and political power.

Hinterland

the sphere of economic influence of a town or city

A NEW WORLD GEOGRAPHY

Internal Growth

Technological Innovation

Overseas Expansion

Leadership Cycles

Periods of international power established byindividual states through economic, political, and

military competition.

The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and Americanshad their own leadership cycle.

Hegemony

Domination over the world economy exercised byone national state in a particular historical epoch

through a combination of economic, military,

financial, and cultural means.

Plantations

Large landholdings that usually specialize in theproduction of one particular crop for market.

Import Substitution

The process by which domestic producers providegoods or services that formerly were brought

from foreign producers.


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ORGANIZING THE PERIPHERY

International Division of Labor

Colonies specialized when there was:1. Established demand in the industrial core.

2. Comparative advantage in the production of goods.

3. No competition of products within core countries.

The keyword was dependency.

Division of Labor

The specialization of different people, regions, orcountries, in particular kinds of economic

activities.

Comparative Advantage

Principle whereby places and regions specialize inactivities for which they have the greatestadvantage in productivity relative to other regions

or for which they have the least disadvantage.

Imperialism

The control of one or a number of countries by adominant nation. This control may be political,

economic, or both, and indicates a degree of

dependence in the subordinate nation.

Imperialism can exist without the creation offormal colonies, which usually require militaryforce and the institution of a colonial

administration.

Colonialism

The acquisition and colonization by a nation ofother territories and their peoples. In this respect,

colonialism is as old as society.

Subaltern Theory

A theory examining the ways in which thecolonized margin is culturally dominated by thecolonizing centre.

It studies how the centre is producing the conceptof others.

Examines the ways in which the periphery ismarginalized by the colonizing centre.

GLOBALIZATION

The Three World:

1. First World: United States and the world-system core

2. Second World: Soviet Union, China, and their

satellite countries.

3. Third World: Most of the periphery and independentcountries.

Neocolonialism

Economic and political strategies by whichpowerful states in core economies indirectly

maintain or extend their influence over other

areas or people.

Globalization

The increase in the volume, scale, and velocity ofsocial (and environmental interactions.

Globalization is not new, pre-dating colonialism

The increasing integration of peoples and places.Transnational Corporations

Companies with investments and activities thatspan international boundaries and with subsidiary

companies, factories, offices, or facilities in

several countries.

Results of Globalization

1. commodity chains, consumerism, pop culture,

English language

2. environmental degradation

3. growth of globally oriented groups

4. differences in the world economy

5. mingling, clashing, and the emergence of cultures

and pathways to economic and cultural development

Commodity Chains Networks of labor and production processes

beginning with the extraction or production of

raw materials and ending with the delivery of a

finished commodity.


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In 1999, the fifth of the worlds population living in the

highest-income countries had

74 % of world income (the bottom fifth had 1%) 82 % of the world export markets (the bottom

fifth had just 1%)

74 %of world telephone lines, todays basicmeans of communication (the bottom fifth had

just 1.5%)

Fast World

People, places, and regions directly involved, asproducers and consumers, in transnational

industry, modern telecommunications,

materialistic consumption, and international news

and entertainment.

Slow World

People, places, and regions whose participation intransnational industry, modern

telecommunications, materialistic consumption,and international news and entertainment is

limited.

Digital Divide

Inequality of access to telecommunications andinformation technology, particularly the Internet.

Spatial Justice

The fairness of the distribution of society'sburdens and benefits, taking into account spatial

variations in people's needs and in their

contribution to the production of wealth andsocial well-being.


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INTERPRETING PLACES ANDLANDSCAPES

PLACE

A particular point on the earth's surface; anidentifiable centre produced from human and

social interactions and thereafter endowed with

meaning.

LANDSCAPE

An area, the appearance of an area, or thegathering of objects that make that appearance.

MENTAL MAP

A map of the environment within the mind of anindividual which reflects the knowledge and

prejudices of that individual.

Such a map reflects the individual's perceptionsof, and preferences for, different places and is the

result of the way in which an individual acquires,

classifies, stores, retrieves, and decodes

information about locations.

COGNITIVE MAPPING

The acquisition, coding, storage, manipulation,and recall of spatial information within the mind.

simplifies the complexity of the landscape and themental map derived thereby is held to influence

behavior.

a. Sequential mapping focuses on links between places

b. Spatial mapping concentrates on landmarks and areas rather

than on paths.

LANDSCAPE AS A HUMAN SYSTEM

Landscapes possess human imprints on theenvironment. The landscape is a palimpsest

Types:

Power Landscape

Landscapes that shows powerDespair Landscape

Landscapes that shows hopeless and sadness

Sublime Landscape

A landscape so impressive that it inspire awe orwonder.

Fear Landscape

Landscapes that shows fearOrdinary Landscape

The everyday landscapes that people create in thecourse of their lives.

Symbolic Landscape

Representations of particular values or aspirationsthat the builders and financiers of those

landscapes want to impart to a larger public.

Derelict Landscapes

Landscapes that have experienced abandonment,misuse, disinvestment, or vandalism.

Humanistic Approach

Places the individual especially individualvalues, meaning systems, intentions, and

conscious actsat the center of analysis.

Landschaft

A German concept of landscape which attemptedto classify landscapes, usually distinguishingbetween the natural and the cultural landscape.

Landscape As Text

and written with a code. The idea that landscapes can be read and written

by groups and individuals.

LANDSCAPE AS A HUMAN SYSTEM

Different people perceive the environmentdifferently.

Landscape is a text written by individuals andgroups possessing culture and experiences.

Signs are codes that exists within a landscape andare those that draw our attention to them away

from others. The codes can be aesthetic

applications on the landscape. These codes

pertain to the definition of the landscape as an

appearance.

In comparison, the landscape as an area caninspire awe and wonder.


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Aesthetic

Culturally determined standard of beauty andgood taste.

PLACE MAKING AND PLACE MARKETING

Territoriality

The persistent attachment of individuals orpeoples to a specific location or territory.

defined as any attempt to fulfill socially producedneeds for identity, defence, and stimulation.

a) Territoriality for social interactionb) Territoriality for regulation of access to people and

resources

c) Territoriality for provision of a focus and symbol ofgroup membership an identity

Proxemics

The study of the social and cultural meanings thatpeople give to personal space.Sense of Place

Feelings evoked among people as a result of theexperiences and memories that they associate

with a place and the symbolism.

How are Cognitive Images of a Place Created?

1. It starts with the real world.

2. From everything that is sensible in a situation, a limited

set of information is received

3. by our senses. These limited sensed information isperception.

4. Perception then undergoes mental processes and is

filtered by our personality.

5. Perception is transformed into cognition, which is

understanding.

6. Cognition is further filtered by our culture.

7. The final output is a transformed cognitive image, a

mental map.

Elements of Cognitive Images/ Mental Maps

Paths channels of movement Edges barriers Districts areas you enter and leave Nodes strategic points for travel Landmarks physical reference points

Images and Behavior Environments are learned through experience.

Meanwhile, cognitive images, once generated,

influence behavior. People's values and feelings

work with cognitive images to influence behavior

in.

CODED SPACES

Coded Spaces

are full of signs and symbols. Ex: malls and sacred spaces Step on to a coded space. Observe the signs.

Which symbols, once removed, shall largely

devoid the coded space of its meaning?

Semiotics

The practice of writing and reading signs.Sacred Space

An area recognized by individuals or groups asworthy of special attention as a site of special

religious experiences or events.

POSTMODERN SPACES

Modernism A forward-looking view of the world that

emphasizes reason, scientific rationality,

creativity, novelty, and progress

Postmodernism

A view of the world that emphasizes on opennessto a range of perspectives in social inquiry,

artistic expression, and political empowerment.

Postmodern Spaces

Postmodernism abandons modernism's emphasison economic and scientific progress, arguing themodernism's failure to deliver such progress is

indicative of its flaws. Because of this,

postmodernism also rejects the value of grand

universal theories. For some, postmodernism is

living for the moment. Postmodernism is

consumption-oriented.

Globalization and postmodernism converge inconsumption. Examples are ethnic cuisines.

CYBERSPACE

There are virtual stores, virtual meeting places,etc. The culture propagated by the Internet is very

much core-oriented. There is also the issue of the

personality or publicity of the cyberspace of

individuals.


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GEOGRAPHIES OF POPULATION

Population Geography

The study of human populations; theircomposition, growth, distribution, and migratory

movements with an emphasis on the last two.

It is concerned with the study of demographicprocesses which affect the environment, but

differs from demography in that it is concerned

with the spatial expression of such processes.

Demography

The study of the characteristics of humanpopulations.

THE DEMOGRAPHER'S TOOLBOX

Sources of Information

A.Census The count of the number of people in a country,

region, or city.

B. Vital Records Information about births, deaths, marriages,

divorces, and the incidence of certain infectious

diseases.

C.Family Reconstitution The process of reconstructing individual and

family life histories by linking together separately

recorded birth, marriage, and death data.

D.Administrative Record Linkage The linking together of a number of different

government databases to build one database with

much more detailed information on each

individual it contains.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AND STRUCTURE

Factors that Shape Population Distribution

degree of accessibility topography soil fertility climate and weather water availability quality & type& availability of natural resources political and economic experiences and

characteristics

culture (religion, tradition, or historicalexperience).

Population Distribution

Almost all of the world's inhabitants live on 10percent of the land. Most live near the edges of

land masses, near the oceans or seas or along

rivers with easy access to a navigable waterway.

Approximately 90 percent live north of theequator, where the largest proportion of the total

land area (63 percent) is located. Finally, most of the world's population lives in

temperate, low-lying areas with fertile soils.

Population Density and Composition

A. Crude Density (Arithmetic Density) The total number of people divided by the total

land area.

B. Nutritional Density The ratio between the total population and the

amount of land under cultivation in a given unit

of area.

C. Agricultural Density The ratio between the total population and the

number of agriculturists per unit of arable land in

a specific area.

Population In Terms of Its Composition

Cohort

A group of individuals who share a commontemporal demographic experince

A. Youth Cohort Members of the population who are less than 15 years

of age and generally considered to be too young to be

fully active in the labor force.

B. Middle Cohort Members of the population 15 to 64 years of age who

are considered economically active and productive.

C.Old-Age Cohort Members of the population 65 years of age and older

who are considered beyond their economically active

and productive years.

Age-Sex Pyramid

A representation of the population based on itscomposition according to age and sex.


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Dependency Ratio

The measure of the economic impact of the youngand old on the more economically productive

members of the population.

Baby Boom

The increased number of births in the two decadesfollowing the Second World War.

Aging

A term used to describe the effects of anincreasing proportion of older age groups on the

population.

Participation Rate

The proportion of a cohort or group that becomesinvolved in a specific activity, such as attending

an educational institution.

POPULATION DYNAMICS AND PROCESSES

Crude Birth Rate

The ratio of the number of live births in a singleyear for every thousand people in the population.

Crude Death Rate (CDR)

The number of deaths in a single year for everythousand people in the population.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The average number of children a woman willhave throughout the years that demographers have

identified as her childbearing years,

approximately ages 15 to 49.

Doubling Time

The measure of how long it will take thepopulation of an area to grow to twice its current

size

Natural Increase

The difference between the CBR and CDR, whichis the surplus of births over deaths.

Natural Decrease

The difference between CDR and CBR, which isthe deficit of births relative to deaths.

Infant Mortality Rate

The annual number of deaths of infants under oneyear compared to the total number of live births

for that same year.

Life Expectancy

The average number of years an individual canexpect to live.

Demographic Transition Theory

Many demographers believe that fertility andmortality rates are directly tied to the level of

economic development of a country, region, or

place.

Demographic Transition

The replacement of high birth and death rates bylow birth and death rates.

POPULATION MOVEMENT AND MIGRATION

Mobility

The ability to move, either permanently ortemporarily.

Migration

A long-distance move to a new location.

Emigration

A movement in which a person leaves a country.Immigration

A movement in which a person goes to anothercountry.

International Migration

A move from one country to another.Internal Migration

A move within a particular country or region.


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Gross Migration

The total number of migrants moving into and outof a place, region, or country

Net Migration

The gain or loss in the total population of aparticular area as a result of migration.

Push Factors

Events and conditions that impel an individual tomove away from a location.

Pull Factors

Forces of attraction that influence migrants tomove to a particular location.

Voluntary Migration

The movement by an individual against his or herwill.

Forced Migration

The movement by an individual against his or herwill.

Guest Workers

Individuals who migrate temporarily to take jobsto other countries.

Eco-Migration

A population movement caused by thedegradation of land and essential natural

resources.

POPULATION DEBATES AND POLICIES

Population and Resources

The question of whether too many people existfor Earth to sustain has bedevilled population

policy-makers and political leaders for most of

the second half of the twentieth century.

Carrying Capacity

The maximum potential number of inhabitantswhich can be supported in a given area.

Population Policies and Programs

Population Policy

An official government policy designed to affectany or all of several objectives including the size,

composition, and distribution of population.

Population Program

An instrument for implementing the goals andobjectives of a population policy.

POPULATION, HEALTH, AND THEENVIRONMENT

The study of the interconnections amongpopulation, health, and the environment defines

the field of study known as medical geography.

This broad area of research has traditionally been

made up of two quite distinct approaches (the

study of the cause and spread of disease and thestudy of the provision and consumption of health

care), to which modern geographical work adds

two more (the study of the social construction of

health and the study of the effects of

environmental change).

a) cause and spread of diseaseb) provision and consumption of health carec) social construction of healthd) effects of environmental change


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Documents

Map Definitions Types and Parts