March, 2002

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Table of Contents

Title Page

I. Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 II. Dimensions and Causes of Food Security ............................................. 3 III. The Food Security Strategy ................................................................... 8 A. Overview of the Strategy ........................................................................ 8 B. Essential Elements of the Strategy ...................................................... 10

B.1 Agricultural Production, Marketing and Credit .............................. 10 B.2 Pastoral Areas ............................................................................. 17 B.3 Micro and Small Scale Enterprises .............................................. 20 B.4 Agricultural Exports and Diversification ....................................... 21

C. Additional Entitlement/Access and Targeted Programs ....................... 22

C.1 Supplementary Employment and Income Schemes .................... 23 C.2 Targeted Programs ...................................................................... 24 C.3 Nutrition and Health Interventions ................................................ 25

D. Emergency Capabilities ....................................................................... 27

E. Institutional Strengthening, Networking and Capacity Building ............ 28

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Ethiopia's Food Security Strategy (FSS), issued in November 1996, highlighted

Government plans to address causality and effect of food insecurity in Ethiopia. The

regional food security programs and projects were subsequently designed on the basis of

that strategy. This document updates the original 1996 FSS by sharpening the strategic

element to address food insecurity based on lessons learned to date.

2. This updated strategy is targeted mainly to the chronically food insecure moisture deficit

and pastoral areas. A clearer focus on environmental rehabilitation as a measure to

reverse the level of degradation and also as a source of income generation for food

insecure households through a focus on biological measures marks a deviation from the

1996 strategy. Water harvesting and the introduction of high value crops, livestock and

agro-forestry development further inform its content. In recognition that the pursuit of

food security is a long-term and multi-sector challenge, institutional strengthening and

capacity building is included as a central element of the strategy. As in the past, however,

the overall objective of the FSS is to ensure food security at the household level, while

Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) will focus on creating the

conditions for national food self-sufficiency.

3. Agriculture is found to be the starting point for initiating the structural transformation of

the economy, as result, ADLI is pursued as a major policy framework for development

since 1991. ADLI forms the basis of the FSS, as it does with the Poverty Reduction

Strategy (PRS) process and is viewed as the engine for poverty reduction in Ethiopia.

4. Given that Ethiopia is a predominantly agrarian society, ADLI focuses on the

development of the rural sector. The adoption of ADLI presupposes productivity

enhancement of smallholder agriculture and industrialization, based on utilization of

domestic raw materials via adopting labor-intensive technology. The strategy also

focuses on the development of large-scale private commercial farms. In ADLI, it is

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generally believed that the development of agriculture helps expand market for domestic

manufacture, implying increased incomes of small holders.

5. More specifically, the central elements of ADLI are enshrined in the Government’s new

Rural Development Strategy, completed in January 2002. The essential elements of this

can be summarized in terms of the development and optimal use of both labor and land as

a primary resource for economic development. Market-led agricultural development

(demand as opposed to supply oriented) is integral to this goal.

6. High population growth rates continue to undermine Ethiopia’s ability to be food secured

and provide effective education, health and other essential social and economic services.

The central elements of the policy focus on improving the database for family planning

services, and expanding education, and a multi-sector approach. Full attention will be

given to the attainment of these goals within the remit of the food security strategy and

subsequent programs.

7. HIV/AIDS is a formidable challenge to the pursuit of food security in Ethiopia as it

reduces and debilitates the productive population. In turn, this places a further burden on

society as a whole. Therefore, the Government has put in place a national policy and

countrywide program down to grass roots level to control and reduce the spread of the

disease.

8. The gender dimension of food security is critical in Ethiopia as women contribute greatly

to economic development. In addition to women’s reproductive role, women also have a

substantive productive role in the rural sector, including participation in livestock

maintenance and management, crop production, and the marketing of rural produce.

Building on the constitutionally granted democratic, economic and social rights of

women, the National Policy on Ethiopian Women (1993) will further create an enabling

environment for the empowerment of women through integration of gender perspectives

in the design and implementation of economic and social policies, programs and projects.

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9. Environmental sustainability is critical to the pursuit of food security and economic

development generally. Development depends on appropriate and sustainable use of the

environment and the management of natural resources. To enforce this, the

Environmental Policy of Ethiopia was issued in April 1997. Given the high

environmental degradation in drought prone and pastoral areas environmental

rehabilitation i.e. soil and water conservation is an essential element. Emphasis is given

to both environmental rehabilitation and conservation and to use of natural resources and

the environment as a source of income generation through, for example, the planting of

multi-purpose trees, and forage.

II. DIMENSIONS AND CAUSES OF FOOD INSECURITY

10. Food insecurity is divided into categories of the chronic and acute. Chronic food

insecurity is commonly perceived as a result of overwhelming poverty indicated by a lack

of assets. Acute food insecurity is viewed as more of a transitory phenomenon related to

man made, and unusual shocks, such as drought. While the chronically food insecure

population may experience food deficits relative to need in any given year, irrespective of

the impact of shocks, the acutely food insecure are assumed to require short term

assistance to help them cope with unusual circumstances that impact temporarily on their

livelihoods.

11. While we may theoretically separate the two categories, there are linkages between the

categories of acute and chronic. This is because unpredictable shocks do not suddenly

lead to acute food insecurity unless people are already very poor, as is the case o f the

chronically food insecure. Thus, it tends to be the chronically food insecure who are also

represented in the acute category. Perhaps, therefore, it is more correct to speak of

predictable and unpredictable needs, rather than to attempt to define the profiles of food

insecure households as in reality most of the food insecure featuring in the annual disaster

appeal are chronically food insecure.

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12 Both chronic and transitory problems of food insecurity are widespread and severe in

Ethiopia.

Indicative category of food insecure households in Ethiopia

Chronic Rural Urban Others Resource poor households

land-less or land-scarce

oxen-less

poor pastoralists

female-headed households

elderly

disabled & sick

poor non-agricultural

households

newly established settlers

Low income Households

Employed in the Informal

sector

Those outside the labor

market, such as but not

exclusive to:

- Elderly

- Disabled & sick

- Some female-headed

households

- Street children

Refugees

Displaced people

Transitory Less resource poor households

vulnerable to shocks, especially

but not only drought farmers and others in drought-

pone areas

pastoralists

others vulnerable to economic

shocks. e.g. in low potential

areas

Urban poor vulnerable to

economic shocks, especially

those causing food price rises

Groups affected by

temporary civil

unrest

13. A combination of short-term and long-term causal factors can explain the trend towards

the increasing food insecure caseload. Long-term factors, such as the interaction between

environment, high population growth, diminishing land-holdings, and a lack of on-farm

technological innovation have led to a significant decline in productivity per household.

These trends have combined with the repeated effects of drought over the years, to

substantially erode the productive assets of communities and households. A loss of

community assets (e.g., pasture and forest) has led to increasing environmental

degradation and increased the pressure on-farm, leading to declining investment in soil

and water conservation practices. More importantly, households are less able to cope with

shocks because they cannot accumulate savings (e.g., livestock holdings and food stores)

even in good years.

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14. The above causal factors are only true because past policy environment has failed to

address these issues and create off-farm income opportunities. This is particularly true of

agrarian policies of the 1970s and 1980s, which, when combined with civil conflict led to

agricultural stagnation and increasing levels of poverty across the board.

15. As a consequence, for the last two decades in particular, Ethiopia has become

increasingly reliant on food aid to meet national food deficits. In 1984-85, external food

aid made up just over 26% of the total food availability in country. Over the last decade,

this has declined to an average of 10% of the volume of national cereal production.

16. Food insecurity is one of the defining features of rural poverty, particularly in the

moisture deficit northeast highland plateaus and some pastoral areas. The incidence of

food poverty is higher, estimated at 50% of the population; 52% in the rural areas and

37% in the urban areas. This is shown in Tables, 1 and 2.

Table 1. Poverty by Region (population weighted) using poverty line based on basket of 2200

Kcal.

Region Head

Count

Poverty

Gap

Poverty

Severity

Tigray 0.56 0.17 0.07

Afar 0.33 0.1 0.04

Amhara 0.54 0.16 0.06

Oromiya 0.34 0.08 0.03

Somali 0.31 0.07 0.02

Bensh-Gumuz 0.47 0.13 0.05

SNNP 0.56 0.18 0.07

Gambella 0.34 0.09 0.03

Harari 0.22 0.05 0.02

Addis Ababa 0.30 0.09 0.04

Dire Dawa 0.29 0.07 0.02

National 0.45 0.13 0.05

Source: Stefan Dercon: calculated using HHICES 1995/96 data

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Table 2. Poverty Measures: Rural-Urban Comparison by Region

Poverty Levels Poverty Gap Severity P2

Region Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban

Tigray 0.58 0.46 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.05

Afar 0.52 0.16 0.06

Amhara 0.57 0.37 0.17 0.12 0.07 0.06

Oromiya 0.35 0.28 0.08 0.09 0.03 0.03

Somali 0.35 0.02 0.08 0.03

Bensh-Gumuz 0.48 0.35 0.14 0.04 0.05 0.01

SNNP 0.57 0.46 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.05

Gambella 0.42 0.24 0.12 0.05 0.05 0.01

Harari 0.13 0.29 0.02 0.07 0.04 0.03

Addis Ababa 0.40 0.30 0.11 0.09 0.04

Dire Dawa 0.37 0.25 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.02

National 0.47 0.33 0.13 0.10 0.05 0.04

Source: Stefan Dercon: Calculated using HHICES 1995/96 data

17. Because of the primary dependence on crop production in Ethiopia, harvest failure leads

to household food deficits, which in the absence of off-farm income opportunities, and/or

timely food aid assistance, leads to asset depletion and, increasing levels of destitution at

the household level. The effect is mirrored at the national level, resulting in overall

declining food availability and increased reliance on food aid imports to prevent

widespread mortality, as in 2000. Over the last fifteen years this situation has resulted in

Ethiopia importing an average of 700,000 metric tons (MT) food aid per annum to meet

food needs, among others, demonstrating the scale of the problem in Ethiopia.

18. Indicative of, but not exclusive to food insecurity, is the high level of nutritional

deprivation. According to the Central Statistics Authority the 2000 Demographic and

Health Survey, among under fives, 52% are stunted, 47% are underweight, and 11% of

children are also wasted.

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19. While it is important to deepen and refine the general understanding of the nature,

magnitude, trends and impact of poverty, and the coping mechanisms used by various

groups, addressing the root causes of food insecurity is a more immediate requirement.

Key to this is the need to increase agricultural production nationally and to build the

resource base of chronic food deficit households, to increase employment and income in

both rural and urban areas, and to provide targeted transfers to deficit households. The

following section discusses how this is to be done by defining the overall and elements of

the Food Security Strategy of Ethiopia.

III. The Food Security Strategy

A. Overview of the Strategy

20. The previous section has shown the depth of overall poverty and food insecurity, which

the Government is committed to addressing through implementation of Food Security

Strategy. This strategy addresses both the supply and the demand side of the food

equation – that is, availability and entitlement respectively from both a national and

household level perspective. Within this, particular attention is focused on the diversity of

food production zones in Ethiopia (i.e. areas with adequate moisture, moisture deficit and

pastoral) to tailor options and strategies accordingly.

Accordingly, the strategy adopted rests on these three basic pillars:

To increase the availability of food through increased domestic production.

To ensure access to food for food deficit households; and

To strengthen emergency response capabilities.

21. Given the dominance of rain fed agriculture, domestic production will give priority to

increase production in the areas of dependable rainfall i.e. areas with adequate moisture.

The present subsistence farming has to transform into small-scale commercial

agriculture. Rural credit, markets, infrastructure and farmers' skill all need to be

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improved. A more consolidated agricultural extension programme by offering the farmers

a choice from a menu of market-oriented packages will be in place.

22. Ensuring household access to food poses a formidable challenge in view of the fact that

chronic food insecure households are predominantly located in drought prone moisture

deficit areas and peripheral pastoral areas. These areas are chronically food insecure in

several respects: they do not produce enough food to feed themselves, food production is

highly variable, and there are many households with insufficient income to secure enough

food through the market.

23. Accordingly, chronically food insecure areas require a more comprehensive and

appropriate package of interventions to cater to their situation. Such package may include

soil and water management, plant nutrient generation and recycling, drought and pest

resistant crops, improved post harvest management. Diversity is key to managing risks

and thus a move away from traditional crop mixes to specialized oil seeds, fruits and

vegetables, and livestock are proposed to generate cash incomes and increase purchasing

power in the market. Livestock, water harvesting and management, and agro-forestry

would be the central elements of food security activities in moisture deficit and pastoral

areas. However, opportunities for increased crop production will also be exploited to the

maximum.

24. Diversity of agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia create opportunities to exploit and enhance

diversification and specialization. Extension packages will therefore be designed to

reflect the diversity of agricultural zones and encourage specialization where appropriate.

This will assist in the diversification of the household economy and eventually realize the

transformation from subsistence farming to commercialization (for exchange through the

market).

25. Off-farm income generating activities also play an important supplementary role to

enhance self-provisioning of households. Capacity building, agricultural research to

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generate technology, agricultural marketing and credit as well as infrastructures are

critical crosscutting aspects of the food security strategy.

26. The real possibility of closing the food gap at the national level and the persistence of

food insecurity at the households level over the medium to long-term have implications

for food assistance in cash and in kind. Overall, this implies the need to transfer

resources to the vulnerable population, shifting assistance from in-kind to financial flows,

and shifting procurement of food for relief distribution away from imports to domestic

supply. This provides for a transition period within which food entitlements will be

increasingly met by self-provisioning of food, and increased purchasing power of the

food insecure themselves.

B. Essential Elements of the Strategy

B.1 Agricultural Production, Marketing and Credit

27. The Government has embarked on sets of actions to narrow substantially the food gap

over the medium term. Closing the gap would imply production growth rate faster than

what has ever been experienced.

28. To increase food production in areas of reliable rainfall as quickly as possible, the

strategy focuses on the diffusion of simple technology packages, within smallholder

agriculture through the national extension program. In these areas the technical

opportunity for raising farm output are reasonably well understood and there are

generally good yield responses to the use of improved seeds and fertilizers.

29. Increasing food security in the moisture deficit areas will come through the

diversification of livelihood systems, and the farming system in particular. Where

markets permit, the strategy will focus on optimum exploitation of traditional grain

production to more labor intensive with a focus on higher value crop production. An

increase in diversified livestock holdings shall complement this approach. Yield increases

obtained through the extension programme will be intensified and extended to other

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grains, legumes, and oil crops. Hence, more attention will be given to improve research in

crop and livestock.

30. The Government believes that the development of irrigation is integral to the pursuit of

food security in order to reduce dependency on rain-fed agricultural conditions and

thereby increase the opportunities for year round agricultural production. The objectives

are, in order of priority, to improve food security in drought -prone areas; increase the

volume of production of high value crops, especially fruits and vegetables, open up

agricultural land in marginal areas, and use irrigation as a method to increase productivity

in areas of reliable rainfall. Effort will be made to identify and promote appropriate

technology of household-based water harvesting and conservation based sound and

efficient management. Conservation based agriculture is critical to both moisture deficit

as well as reliable rainfall areas, while in the longer term, the Government will strive to

reduce both the human and animal population in situ.

31. Where water resources exist to allow cost effective development in areas of reliable

rainfall, the focus will be on creating conditions for year-round agricultural activity, and

for diversifying into high value enterprises. In order to encourage commercial farming,

the Government will streamline access to land, within the existing tenure system, and

open up new areas for large-scale agricultural production. While the Government will

participate in studies, design, and repairs beyond local capacity, water use planning and

regulatory activities, private contractors will be encouraged for construction, and

irrigation cooperatives for operation and maintenance.

32. Livestock development is an important component of the FSS. Emphasis on the output

side fall into smallholder dairies to increase farm incomes. Moreover, meat production,

hides and skin as well as leather products are areas of focus to earn foreign exchange

through exports.

33. Interventions designed to achieve food security are different for the drought prone and

moisture deficit areas and recognized as a long-term task. Primary agricultural attention

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will be given to livestock development and agro-forestry and natural resource

management. Livestock rearing like poultry, sheep and goats are important economic

activities. Since soil and water conservation is very important, in these areas planting

multi-purpose fruit, trees will have a number of benefits both as a source of income,

livestock feed and managing the soil fertility. The introduction of improved crossbred

cows, animal nutrition and health services are important, moreover; attention will be

given to the development of apiculture. All of these combined will help to diversify and

strengthen the economic base of the households. The potential of the fisheries sector to

reduce food insecurity has not been fully realized to date. Where relevant

geographically, and in relation to food security, the Government will develop this sector

through regional food security programs following feasibility studies.

34. Disseminating appropriate technologies and products for dry land agriculture is also a

focus of interventions in the moisture deficit areas. This will include early maturing

drought resistant crops, and technologies for better water harvesting particularly at

household level.

35. As a strategy of responding to the problems of highland degradation, population and

small farm size, in moisture deficit areas, programs will be effected to resettle farmers in

suitable, under-utilized areas. This is in partial recognition of a reality already occurring

on the ground whereby people are spontaneously resettling to unsuitable areas.

36. The resettlement program will be carried out intra-regionally and voluntarily. Regional

Governments will identify suitable under-utilized lands fit within their own regions.

Government will provide minimum infrastructure including schools, health facilities,

roads and water systems.

37. The resettlement program will have a positive effect on food security in that under-

utilized land will be brought to economic use resulting in the improvement of the welfare

of the resettled people, and contributing to economic growth. Moreover, the Government

will continue to focus its efforts towards increasing the carry capacity of the land through

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the adoption of appropriate technological practices agricultural and environmental

development.

38. Communities should assume greater responsibility for safeguarding natural resources to

accrue the benefits thereof. Government will establish the rights of communities to

legally exploit the products of their surroundings when communities assume a role in

resource management. Such products include fuel wood, bee products and medicinal

plants and incense. Wildlife and the development of eco-tourism can also be a significant

source of income.

39. The food security strategy, as a multi-sector strategy, will touch on many different policy

areas including that of land tenure and land use, rural credit and marketing systems. With

regard to land management, the Government will increase security of tenure through

certification, and with community participatory land use planning, better manage the

natural resources.

40. The Government will take several measures to strengthen the financial sector through

ensuring credit availability to rural communities and reducing the costs of credit

administration. Measures will be taken to strengthen and expand rural micro-finance

institutions and to broaden services to include banking services to rural communities to

encourage rural savings and investments in farming and non-farming activities. Micro

finance institutions will also serve urban low-income groups to support employment and

income generation activities.

41. The Government's overall policy in agricultural marketing and distribution is to

encourage the participation of private sector to improve the efficiency of the system. In

the sphere of marketing, parastatal enterprises will play significant roles in stabilizing

prices as well as reaching farmers who are far from agricultural input markets. To benefit

from all these policy agricultural price and market information systems will be in place.

The Government will focus on measures for the creation of a conducive business

environment through appropriate fiscal policies and incentives, streamlining of

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bureaucratic procedures in licensing, and the promotion of appropriate technologies and

provision of support services.

42. Appropriate decision-making by farmers depend on access to accurate and timely market

information by: -

Encouraging grain flows from relatively surplus to relatively deficit areas.

Promoting a more competitive marketing system, which will benefit both producers

and consumers.

43. Substantial improvement in the provision of market information will be sought in order to

increase integration of markets, with further reduction of costs. The Government will

improve the legal and regulatory framework for agricultural marketing, with a view to

promoting and maintaining competition, and reducing transaction costs for all

agricultural products. The latter will include establishing and enforcing a standard grain

classification system, and moving towards a system of standard, enforceable grain trading

contracts in that these are a pre-requisite for reducing transaction costs by moving

towards bulk handling of grain. Towards this end, measures will be taken to put in place a

National Commodity Exchange System that facilitates market based interaction between

farmer's service cooperatives, private traders and state trading enterprises.

44. Strengthening farmers' cooperatives are important elements of rural development in

Ethiopia. Service cooperatives play a key role in improving the rural marketing and

credit system. Existing service cooperatives are being strengthened while new ones are

organized in areas where they do not exist. Support will focus on providing training to

cooperative members, particularly, the leadership in the field of operation and

management of cooperatives.

45. Improved livestock marketing facilities are also an essential step in increasing the off-

take from herds to redress the balance between stock numbers and the range resources.

Animal health measures, the collection and dissemination of market information and

improved market infrastructure, such as the establishment and refurbishment of national

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and trans boundary stock routes, associated water points, holding areas and improved

grazing land will facilitate domestic and export marketing of livestock in food insecure

areas. The link between primary markets and terminal markets, promotion of private

investment in export and domestic processing, slaughter facilities, and transportation are

crucial. Privatization of tanning plants, coupled with intensive efforts to increase value

added through training of operators and introduction of improved grading schemes will

improve the system.

46. Demand for dairy products is highest in urban areas whereas production takes place

mainly in rural areas. Improved marketing of dairy products will increase food insecure

households’ cash income. To create links between the rural producer and the urban

consumer, the private sector will be encouraged to invest in processing schemes to handle

additional production.

47. Since 1993 fertilizer import, distribution and marketing has also seen a major transition

from one of the state monopoly to a situation where the private sector plays an increasing

role in the import, distributing and trading of fertilizers. Effort will continue in line with

the fertilizer policy to further develop a competitive fertilizer importing and marketing

system. This will be combined with the management of transition to ensure a smooth and

timely supply of fertilizer to the farmers which avoids a supply gap in the transition to a

more competitive market. Co-operatives and private fertilizer dealers would be

encouraged to offer better services. To safe guard the interest of farmers and fertilizer

trade the enforcement of fertilizer quality and packaging standards in line with the

Fertilizer Law is crucial.

48. With respect to improved seeds, the existing private and public sectors are interested in

multiplying seeds of high yielding crop varieties suitable for reliable rainfall areas so as

to earn good profit from business. Both private and public seed companies will be

encouraged to give services to food insecure areas. In the short term, efforts will be made

to promote farmer seed production and marketing schemes until the demand for seed is

increased sufficiently to interest the private sector.

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49. For the majority of the Ethiopian farmers, traction and improved agricultural hand tools

and implements are critical for agricultural production. Strengthening indigenous

knowledge and practices, new areas of research and adaptation of improved farm

implements as well as rural production capacity of the rural technology promotion centers

and other related organizations would be promoted. To this purpose, the rural and urban

private sector will be encouraged to play a role.

50. Focused attention will be give by Federal and Regional Agricultural Research

Organization to expand the research network into agro-ecological zones so far not

covered adequately, especially to the more drought-prone environments. It will also

initiate biotechnology research phase by phase.

51. Because of the limitation on the availability of suitable agricultural technologies

especially for the dry land and food insecure areas, the importation of agricultural

technologies from other countries having similar climatic conditions is part of the Food

Security Strategy. These technologies will further be utilized after conducting verification

in multi-locational trial sites across the country. In addition, attention will be given to

utilize the conserved bio-diversity resources.

52. For the majority of the Ethiopian farmers, the availability of improved animal drawn

equipment as well as improved agricultural hand tools and implements are critical for

agricultural production. With this regard, there is a need to strengthen research in the

development or adoption of improved tools and implements. In addition, it will be

necessary to increase the productive capacity of the rural technology promotion centers

and other related organizations. Production and promotion of improved tools must be

strengthened. The involvement of private enterprises in the manufacture and sale of

agricultural tools and implements would be encouraged. Emphasis should also begin to

local blacksmiths to play a significant role in the manufacturing and improving traditional

tools and implements used by farmers.

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53. To reduce marketing costs, and improve distribution of food, the strategy will include

extensive construction of new roads, and rehabilitation of existing roads, in rural areas.

The use of labor-based construction and maintenance will be further intensified,

especially on the regional road network.

54. The improvement of infrastructure will be combined with promotion of competition in

the transportation, trade, processing and distribution of food, as well as marketing of

inputs. One of the focal areas of the roads sector development program is the

improvement of rural travel and transport services. This program is already in the process

of implementation where, significant level of community participation is also envisaged.

Barriers to food and agricultural input distribution within and between regions will be

reduced. Measures will be adopted to increase the numbers of traders, and to enhance

their efficiency, management skills, and financial capabilities. Considering the limitations

of rural roads coverage and the volume of commodity moved in various parts of the rural

community, attention will also be focused on pack animals.

B.2 Pastoral Areas

55. The Five-year (2000-2004) Development Plan recognizes the knowledge gap that exists

in pastoral development. Whilst pastoralists share a set of issues distinct to those of

sedentary farmers, they are not a uniform group. The situation is complex where

problems and opportunities vary across different pastoralist communities in Ethiopia.

56. Pastoral Communities in Ethiopia basically depend on livestock for their livelihood. This

part of the country is semi-arid and arid with low and erratic rainfall. Any threat to the

livestock economy strikes at the heart of pastoral communities, such is, their basic

reliance on livestock for consumption or trade. During droughts, not only do large

numbers of the livestock die, but also the terms of trade between livestock and cereals

deteriorate quite substantially. High cereal prices relative to livestock then mean

pastoralists need to sell off more livestock in order to survive.

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57. Increases in human and livestock populations have put pressure on rangeland resources

resulting in soil erosion, deforestation and bush encroachment, thus increasing the

vulnerability of pastoral communities. Improving livestock development and

diversification outside pastoralism or directing to agro-pastoralism will strengthen their

economic base and reduce their food insecurity.

58. The goals of agricultural activities in pastoral areas are: increasing livestock farm

productivity and improving the welfare of the people through voluntary and non-coercive

settlement in consultation with local communities. This necessitates integrated

intervention programs and setting up a culturally acceptable mechanism to oversee the

utilization and management of resources.

59. Relating settlement schemes to environmental protection, planting grass and cattle feed in

designated grazing areas, provision of sufficient drinking water for people and livestock,

preventing overgrazing and soil erosion are some of the main activities to be considered.

Moreover improvement of the cattle breeding skills and provision of animal health

services to increase productivity and income will also be given due attention.

60. Strengthening livestock marketing is an important part of the food security strategy of

pastoral areas that will benefit the local people by having their livestock and livestock

derivatives secure better price hence improved cattle market centers and cattle routes will

be established. Efforts will be directed towards setting up abattoirs with the active

participation of the private sector, and in places where the private sector cannot do so;

combined effort of the local people and the government will be initiated.

61. Though livestock is a primary focus for pastoral communities, diversification into

sedentary agriculture and off-farm activities is necessary for sustainable livelihoods.

Thus due consideration will be given to mobilize local communities to develop small-

scale irrigation schemes in order to create a sedentary life and engage them in crop

farming and hence ensure that the area is conducive enough to encourage settlement.

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62. Long-term options for pastoral area development range from strengthening traditional

systems to enabling voluntary settlement based on close consultation with communities.

Hence, given the complex and diverse nature of pastoral situations, the following

measures will also be taken to improve food security situation:

a) Strengthening an early warning system that addresses the special characteristics of

pastoral systems, triggering responses that build on traditional coping strategies;

b) Encouragement of carefully researched diversification in local economic system,

including the introduction of forage legumes adopted to arid areas;

c) Identification and development of appropriate technology selection as well as the

introduction of adopted forage legumes and research priorities on pastoral areas;

d) Encouragement and support of large scale commercial ranches; and

e) Encouragement of carefully researched diversification of the local economic

systems where appropriate, and after close consultation with pastoral communities.

B.3 Micro and Small Scale Enterprises

63. The improved growth of agriculture based on technological advancement leads to a large

increase to lead to large indirect growth in non-farm incomes and employment. The

linkage of agriculture with other sectors will work partly through the increased use of

farm inputs, partly through the processing, marketing and transport services. The

successive induced growth springing from the agricultural growth impetus will be

maintained through goods and services produced in small labor-intensive enterprises.

64. Growth linkages of agriculture occur in both rural and urban areas. The multiplier effects

from agricultural growth will generally be made higher than those from other sectors, by

establishing a conducive policy environment, and investing in productive infrastructure

related to market access, adequate transport, improved schemes of competitiveness and

product quality.

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65. The three main areas of public policy, which will influence the patterns of growth, are:

provision of infrastructure, encouragement of competitive marketing of input and output,

and taxation of selective commodities to shift the consumption patterns. These

government interventions will assist the growth of industries dominated by agro-

processing. Moreover, emphasis will be given to address the constraints in the areas of

education, credit, research and extension, risk and uncertainty.

66. To promote micro and small-scale enterprises the government will initiate and strengthen

industrial extension services. Towards this end, micro and small-scale enterprises

development agencies have been established at both federal and regional levels. The

capacities of these agencies will be increased and strengthened.

B.4 Agricultural Exports and Diversification

67. The natural resource base of the country provides ample opportunities for diversification

of horticulture, oilseeds, and pulses, which contribute to some degree of exports. The

potential of exports in some other commodities like canned meat, leather products and

garment needs further exploration. In line with this, attentions will be given to the

problems of product quality, processing, transportation and etc.

68. Substantial investment is envisaged in agricultural research and other areas. Over the

next decades main emphasis will be given to increase the yields of the major crop and

livestock products with export potential. The infrastructure investment program, will be

directed to wards supporting efficiency in the production and marketing of both food and

export commodities.

69. Increasing the production of export commodities is equally important as that of food

production. It is the intention of the Government to move in the direction of decreasing

food aid receipt except in emergency situations. In line with its export strategy the

commodities like coffee, hide and skin will continue to dominate the sector and efforts

20

will be made to reduce wastage and increase production, other agricultural products

(especially horticulture, pulses and oilseeds), are also expected to increase substantially.

70. Emphasis will be placed on the textile and leather industries in the medium term to

compete in international markets. Actions will be taken to increase competitiveness.

With respect to textile industry, clothing offers good opportunity for increasing exports.

This will be done through increased domestic investment and contractual agreement with

international firms as well as technical management agreements. The leather industries

will be encouraged in processing hides and skin that will result in value added

commodity to the livestock sector. Further exploration of markets needs to be done for

leather goods as well as garments. The main levers to be done will be privatizing major

productive entities in the tanning industry, and maintaining conducive climate to private

sector development. Steps will also be taken to make use of market access opportunities

opened to least developed countries through strengthening exporters. The Export

Promotion Agency will efficiently work to provide and coordinate support to the export

sector.

C. Additional Entitlement/Access and Targeted Programs

71. Increase in agricultural production, economic growth and employment will add to food

availability and increase income (and therefore entitlements) over the medium term.

However, these factors are not enough by themselves to ensure sufficient food for

everyone. The short-term objective of programmes that aim to ensure food entitlement is

avoidance of death by starvation, while the longer-term aim is building the capacity of

households, both rural and urban, to attain food security on their own. The focus

throughout the programs is to increase food entitlement will be on the most vulnerable

groups and households.

72. Under entitlement, there are three major components:

i) Employment/income support schemes

21

ii) Targeted programs

iii) Nutrition intervention.

Implementation of these programs will be through (sub-) regional administrations, NGOs,

the private sector and communities. The overall aim is the transfer of resources to the

vulnerable population, following three important principles: (i) resource transfers will be

designed as much as possible to enhance the capacities of the recipients for self

provisioning in the longer term; (ii) targeting will be through self-selection, wherever

possible; and (iii) a distinction will be made between those in the vulnerable groups who

are likely to be able to provide themselves in the short to medium term, and those who

are a long way from being able to support themselves.

C.1 Supplementary Employment and Income Schemes

73. These schemes will be supplementary to the employment and income generation arising

from economic growth, because of the fact that growth is not likely to evenly distribute

resources to the most vulnerable population. The schemes will be linked with priorities

for rural areas, in that they will contribute to the construction of roads, small-scale

irrigation schemes, water supply and sanitation needed to increase food production,

reduce real food prices, and improve health. They will also address environmental

rehabilitation and protection through soil conservation. In urban areas, the program

would focus on the rehabilitation of roads, construction of public facilities, building of

flood control walls, and implementation of similar activities, some of which would be

aimed at helping the private sector to improve their business earnings.

74. Linking relief with development is not a new concept in Ethiopia. It has been widely

discussed, and incorporated in The National Policy for Disaster Prevention and

preparedness. The underlying idea is to direct relief resources towards reducing

vulnerability and enhancing long-term development.

22

75. Community training in execution and maintenance of infrastructure would entail a

significant degree of empowerment. This will ensure the long-term survivals of such

programs.

C.2 Targeted Programs

76. These programs will be designed to transfer resources both to develop capacity for self-

provisioning, and to support vulnerable groups who will not be capable of self-

provisioning in the short to medium term. Provision of inputs such as seeds and fertilizers

to resource-poor farmers and loans to destitute women will assist both groups to develop

sustainable livelihoods. Provision of cash transfers to orphans, aged and handicapped is

also important.

77. There are two common themes which should govern the types of programs undertaken:

(a) to the extent possible, these programs will aim at transferring purchasing power to the

poor by increasing employment opportunities and capacity to generate income, while

avoiding market distortions, and (b) the programs will aim at providing the poor with

more, opportunities and choices i.e. to the extent possible the poor themselves should be

able to decide what to purchase and what to produce. The targeted programs should be

developed with careful attention to their compatibility with macro-economic and social

goals, the likelihood that the programs will actually reach vulnerable groups, ease of

implementation, cost effectiveness, sustainability and administrative feasibility.

78. This targeting program will continue over the coming years, unlike the original 1993/94

programs. It would be implemented by regional bureaus responsible for programs aimed

at particular sets of target recipients. The emphasis of this program would be on small

loans of flexible vouchers to targeted recipient households selected by the peasant

association or kebele. The zonal and wereda administrations would be involved in the

actual program implementation and loan repayment.

23

79. The loans would be extended for similar-purposes to those of the original Safety Net

Program (SNP) to increase productivity by small farm households, assist the urban

unemployed by providing job opportunities in regional and woreda administrative centers

or other towns, and to provide loans to both urban and rural households to start small

enterprises or family businesses. The program would be implemented and assessed in the

context of development of the financial sector, especially in rural areas.

80. Selected small towns in the most food insecure areas would be targeted for investment in

micro-enterprise activities to increase sustainable growth amongst small town

households. The objective would be to begin the process of increasing purchasing power

among the households of these towns, which would increase effective demand. At the

beginning, a survey of a number of candidate small towns should be undertaken to

determine what the opportunities would be for small enterprises in each of the towns. A

pilot program would be tested with two or three different approaches. The activities

might include tailoring, restaurants, petty trading, small-scale grain milling, bakeries,

blacksmithing and retailing.

C.3 Nutrition and Health interventions

81. In addition to the income generating and price support initiatives indicated above targeted

nutrition and health interventions are envisaged with the objective of reducing the serious

levels of under nutrition observed in the country. This is an important intervention

envisaged in the on going Health Sector Development program. Actions include, among

other things, the followings.

i) Minimization of children diarrhea, promotion of family planning service and targeted

nutrition initiatives through hospitals and clinics (including growth monitoring and

promotion, nutrition education, and distribution of the special weaning food, like Faffa);

ii) Promotion of proper weaning practices through developing a nutritional formulation

using local materials, seeking ways to reduce costs of local production, expanding the

24

educational campaign on weaning practices through the mass media will also be

promoted;

iii) Developing community-based nutrition and health interventions based on lessons

learned;

iv) Support for micronutrient programs, especially vitamin A, Iodine and Iron; Developing

the institutional capacity of the Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research Institute in

collaboration with DPPC and other organizations concerned with nutrition; and

v) Increase investments in environmental sanitation-sewerage and water supply through

labor based public works programs.

82. The highest priority area here is addressing the needs of those with both the highest risks

and the most serious consequences of malnutrition: children under five, and pregnant and

lactating mothers. The targeted nutrition program would be administrated by the Public

Health Institutions with widespread community outreach and participation. The program

would be integrated at the primary level, and its main focus would be preventive with

some rehabilitation and feeding components.

83. The training of health care and community works in integrated primary health care

delivery would include training on basic nutrition. Over the medium term, the

institutional capacity of the ministry of Health to deliver integrated maternal and child

health services (immunization, diarrhea control, and nutrition) would be very important.

The extension package addresses primary health care as one of its important components.

The linkages between better nutrition and improved domestic water supply and sanitation

in both rural and urban areas would be emphasized.

84. Significant proportion of the poorer households in both rural and urban areas are headed

by women, whose reproductive and work burdens are well-known. Special efforts are

needed to assist them in finding labor saving ways to prepare food, secure firewood and

water, and as well as ensure that they receive priority in income generation programs, and

25

access to child care initiatives where feasible. Nutrition education, better feeding and

health care are also envisaged.

D. Emergency Capabilities

85. The Government will continue to strengthen its emergency response capabilities,

including the monitoring, surveillance, and early warning arrangements, the capacity for

food and relief distribution, strategic reserves of food grains, and its analysis of the

international food trade and aid situation. At the same time, the methods used to judge

the onset of food insecurity will further be fine tuned and develop the capacity to better

able to assess the risk of an occurrence of event, which will affect food security, the

likelihood of adverse effects, and the levels of vulnerability of households.

86. Given that resource constraints will almost certainly prevent massive infusions of

development resources into the food insecure areas of Ethiopia, the need for constantly

improving targeting mechanisms will be undiminished well into the future. Regular

monitoring and evaluation will be essential elements for improving targeting mechanisms

and for determining its impact. Periodic household surveys and rapid appraisals of both

targeted and non-targeted households will be carried out to determine whether the

infusion of resources under a renewed Safety Net Program is reaching the correct target

groups. To determine the availability of food, income and nutrition effects of the

program, inducing management effectiveness of the implementing organizations is also

important in decreasing the incidence of food insecurity.

87. The strategy for strengthening emergency response capability would be built on the

successful experience of 1993/94 Safety Net Program.

88. The purpose of the Emergency Strategic Food Reserve (ESFR) is to cover emergency

requirements of food for about four month until food aid deliveries can be made available

from abroad. The reserve level will be built up in accordance to the requirement. The

26

level of the stock of ESFR is determined by the proportion of vulnerable population.

Loans will be extended to non-Governmental organization to recycle the stock.

89. The purpose and size of the strategic reserve under favorable conditions needs to be re-

assessed, depending on the cost of holding stock, and the possibility of exports. From

this vantage point, it would be logical to presume that as the magnitude of surplus

production increases, more emphasis should be placed on exports and establishment of a

foreign exchange fund as an integral part of the strategic arrangements.

90. At the micro level, the Government will focus on decreasing significant pre- and post

harvest losses through different technologies.

E. Institutional Strengthening, Networking and Capacity Building

91. The democratization and devolution process in Ethiopia has created conducive

environment for inclusive and participatory development Regional Governments have

constitutionally defined powers and functions that focus on provision of basic needs for

the people. Hence the capacity of regional Government in general and woreda/kebele

administration in particular needs to be developed.

92. When this capacity of the regions particularly the woredas and kebeles is developed and

strengthened, regional Governments can mobilize their communities for development,

provide support to development projects and programs. Create conducive environment

for private entrepreneurs to contribute to the development of the regions, and

competently provide economic and social services to communities. Because of this,

capacity development strategy of bottom up approach would be enhanced.

93. A number of bottlenecks, and weaknesses are bound to emerge in the process of actual

operation and functioning of various institutions/organs and would indeed call for

appropriate modifications and adjustments to streamline the organizational setup,

improve inter-organizational relationship and refine coordination mechanisms. The

27

system being presently evolved and under implementation will need a careful monitoring

and study of its actual operation and performance.

94. Institutional capacity building focuses on short and long-term training. More focus is

given on the technical vocational training in order to produce skilled and competent staff

at the grass root level who can do the job that would create wealth. Added to this,

training institutes tailored to technical vocational training needs and farmers training

centers are established while existing ones are strengthened.

95. The Technical Vocational Training aims at rural transformation by improving access to

relevant and practical training of young people in agriculture and non-agriculture areas.

These would be engaged in profit-centered commercial farms, and non-agricultural

enterprises, among others, for the ultimate benefit of the community and the nation at

large.

The three areas of emphasis in realizing this program are:

Middle and junior level school level training: The objective is capacity building by

creating farmers who would have completed the eighth grade through the provision of the

required knowledge and skills to meet the immediate and short term requirement of the

agricultural sector.

Staff and program development: Here emphasis is given to staff training, curriculum

development, teaching aids development, development of trainees recruitment criteria,

certification and accreditation, strengthening apprenticeship, assessment of training

needs, establishment of national standards and cost sharing mechanism, the creation of

linkages between TVET and higher learning institutions to enhance the quality and

standard of the agricultural Technical Vocational Education Training.

Provision of credit in the form of revolving fund where trainees after completing the skill

training will be provided with the required finance in order to create jobs of their own.

Moreover, they could be used as trainers to the surrounding community where they will

be residing.

28

96. The importance of grass-root level rural institution Peasant Associations (PAs) and

service cooperatives (SCs) in carrying out coordinated and comprehensive development

efforts can not be ignored. This is especially true in Ethiopia where farm holdings are

small, application of modern technology is very low, and production is mainly of

subsistence nature with low marketable surplus. Thus strengthening the organizational

base of farmers will be given high emphasis. In line with the cooperatives law many of

the service cooperatives need to be rehabilitated, strengthened, and public organization in

the field of rural credit, marketing and supply of inputs.

97. An effective agricultural technology development and delivery, amongst others things,

needs good linkage strategies particularity between agricultural research and extension

services. The strategy for forging links with the research-extension system would be

looked at institutional level linkage as well as grassroots. The institutional framework

envisages bringing all stakeholders engage in technology development and transfer under

the umbrella of one institutional set up/administration.

98. The establishment of legalized councils, which should take different forms, is the central

point of this framework. This linkage arrangement is therefore addressed by establishing

research-extension advisory council to be established at three levels namely: at federal,

regional and research center based. These advisory councils will have legal status with

duties and obligations. The functional framework of research-extension-farmer linkage

underlines grassroots or field level linkage where researchers, extension workers and

farmers converge in the field no matter under which administrative control they may fall,

it basically refers to the day to day activities that operationally link field level

practitioners.

99. Agricultural research and extension service provided to food insecure areas is inadequate

in terms of coverage and quality. Thus program based special support tailored to the

needs of these areas will be given on priority basis

29

100. The involvement of private entrepreneurs in market based economy is essential for

Ethiopian agricultural development, thus private investors will be encouraged to play

significant roles in agricultural input and outputs marketing, agro-processing and creating

linkages with small farmers to serve as out-growers through partnership arrangement.

Food Security Assistance

101. Until 1994/95, the bulk of food security assistance was food aid in kind. This had to

contend with perennial arguments concerning the possible negative consequences for

domestic prices and production. Presently, due to the conjuncture of several factors

within the donor community and world trade in food crops, the emphasis is shifting

towards assistance in cash, which may be tantamount to balance-of-payments support. At

the same time, Ethiopia is making progress towards closing the food gap through

domestic production. This creates a fortunate coincidence of interest in the progressive

switch of food security assistance towards cash. Cash assistance has the obvious

advantage of shutting outward the demand for food. Which helps to keep producer prices

from falling precipitately due to the lack of effective demand, thus providing implicit

producer price support. This is not incompatible with further reductions in real food

prices at the consumer level achieved through a combination of technological change in

food production and reducing marketing costs through increased competition. Of course,

food aid in kind will also be needed, as the primary purpose of food entitlement.

102. The Government envisages not only a gradual reduction in the magnitude of external

food assistance but also a shift from in kind to cash. This shift has to be dictated by

objective conditions in the country so as to avoid unnecessary disruptions of food aid-

supported programs. Reliable information on market situations and marketable surpluses

will be needed to implement such program. The gradual reduction in food aid needs

would be achieved by increasing more food domestically, refining need assessment

techniques, improving targeting of beneficiaries, and achieving steady and broad-based

economic growth.

30

103. In addition, regular budgeted and multi-annually assisted Employment Generation

Scheme (EGS) /Employment Based Safety Net (EBSN) can respond to the huge

chronically vulnerable populations' needs and therefore reduce emergencies to what they

are normally and internationally defined as. EGS/EBSN should be cash-based wherever

the situation would allow. This would require a broad-based promotion of cash for work

and cash for relief programs. Cash assistance will assist to minimize/ avoid producer

prices falling due to the increase of effective demand.

104. The country's financial capacity to purchase food from either local or intentional markets

will be limited in the short and medium term. Therefore intentional assistance will continue

to be sought to fill critical gaps, especially for supporting development projects focusing on

water and soil conservation, terraces, check dams small-scale irrigation, micro dams, access

roads, clinics, schools and so on.

31

Annex 1

Production By Region in 2000(000`Qts)

Region Cereals Pulses Others Total

Tigray 5657.46 453.83 115.99 6227.28

Afar 237.1 --- 1.17 245.93

Amhara 23285.97 4691.7 829.48 28807.11

Oromia 39288.57 3605.3 825.87 43719.76

Somali 219.08 --- --- 225.21

Benishangul-Gumuz 1688.45 45.03 112.03 1845,51

Snnpr 6619.89 762.6 5.08 7387.57

Gambela 245.78 --- --- 249.07

Harari 49.83 0.19 8.13 58.15

Addis Ababa 60.7 21.7 0.6 83

Dire Dawa 59.8 1.55 --- 61.35

All Regions 77,412.63 9,581.9 1,893.35 88,909.94

Source: - CSA Sample Survey Report for 2000 Meher Season

32

Annex 2

AREA Planted By Region (in 2000), 000' Hectares

Region Cereals Pulses Others Total

Tigray 489.49 43.15 28.25 560.89

Afar 17.70 1.02 0.27 18.99

Amhara 2368.69 504.13 201.5 3074.32

Oromia 3060.54 387.24 165.43 3613.21

Somali 46.17 1.00 0.41 47.58

Benishangul-Gumuz 141.28 6.90 24.5 172.68

SNNPR 593.33 99.63 2.57 695.53

Gambela 12.49 NA 0.26 12.79

Harari 5.56 0.02 0.98 6.56

Addis Ababa 6.30 1.65 0.09 8.04

Dire Dawa 5.91 0.19 0.01 6.11

All Regions 6747.47 1044.97 425.26 8216.70

Source: - CSA Sample Survey Report for 2000 Meher Season

NA:- Data not available

33

Annex 3

Drought/Disaster Affected Population in Ethiopia, 1981 - 2001

Year Total Population

(Million)

Disaster/Drought

Affected Population

(Million)

Proportion

Affected %

1981 36.67 2.82 7.7

1982 37.77 3.70 9.8

1983 38.90 3.30 8.5

1984 40.07 4.21 10.5

1985 41.21 6.99 17.0

1986 42.39 6.14 14.5

1987 43.40 2.53 5.8

1988 44.84 4.16 9.3

1989 46.12 5.35 11.6

1990 47.44 3.21 6.8

1991 48.79 7.22 14.8

1992 50.18 7.85 15.6

1993 51.61 4.97 9.6

1994 53.09 6.70 12.6

1995 54.65 3.99 7.3

1996 56.37 2.78 4.9

1997 58.12 3.36 5.8

1998 59.88 4.10 6.8

1999 61.67 7.19 11.7

2000 63.50 10.56 16.6

2001 65.34 6.24 9.6

Average 52.10 5.37 10.3

Source: - Affected Population from Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (DPPC)

and Total Population from Projections of National Office of Population

34

Annex 4

Food Aid Vs Production, 1985 -2000

Year Food Aid 000'

Mts

Food Grain

Production

000' MTs

Food Aid as

Proportion

Production (%)

1985 1272.00 4855.00 26.2

1986 926.00 5404.00 17.1

1987 277.00 6684.00 4.1

1988 1096.00 6902.00 15.9

1989 461.00 6676.00 6.9

1990 657.00 6579.00 10.0

1991 925.00 7078.00 13.1

1992 840.00 7055.00 11.9

1993 519.00 7619.00 6.8

1994 980.00 6945.00 14.1

1995 683.00 7492.00 9.1

1996 150.19 10328.00 1.5

1997 205.47 10217.10 2.0

1998 417.31 8102.70 5.2

1999 511.03 8867.0 5.8

2000 979.56 9404.5 10.4

Average 1985 - 2000 726.64 7513.0 9.7

Source: - Food Aid From WFP and National DPPC and Food Grain Production Form

CSA

Note: - Food Aid Equals to Food Grain Delivered.