Marketing Fragment 6 x 10.5 - Cambridge University Pressassets.cambridge.org/97805218/44444/index/9780521844444... · 2008-04-28 · data protection under avoiding detection under,

Index

A and others v. Secretary of State for the HomeDepartment, 335

Abbasi, Feroz, 89, 90Abbott, Diane, 63Abdalla, Suleiman, 75Abdullah, Abu, 295Abu Ghraib

denial of abuses at, 100exposure of abuses at, 100Geneva Conventions, effect of suspension

of, 102inquiries into abuses at, 101–102international inquiries into abuses at,

102–103military intelligence, role of, 102public reaction to abuses at, 100–101report on, 102specific techniques used at, 101–102

Accountability in counterterrorism. SeeTransparency and accountability incounterterrorism

Ackner, Lord, 17Acxiom, 185Adams, David, 56–57Adams, Gerry, 126, 128, 293Adams, Jan, 254Adams, John, 276Aden, Abdirisak, 178Administrative efficiency, effect of

counterterrorism on, 28Admissibility of evidence

interception of communications,recommendation re, 354

RIPA, under, 200–201

torture, evidence obtained throughConvention Against Torture and, 113ECHR and, 113Guantanamo Bay, 92–93

Advanced Research and Development Activity,258

ADVISE (Analysis, Dissemination,Visualization, Insight and SemanticEnhancement), 259–260

AEDPA. See Antiterrorism and Effective DeathPenalty Act of 1996

Afghanistan WarGeneva Conventions, applicability of, 76,

78, 81, 82Guantanamo Bay, and indefinite detention

at, 74Taliban (See Taliban)

Agiza, Ahmed, 106al-Barakaat, 177–178, 180Alberts, Bruce, 309Albright, Madeline, 149Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798 (US), 23, 276,

277, 291al-Itihaad al-Islamiya, 177Allen, Lew, 224al Qaeda

designated foreign terrorist organization, as,149, 154, 166

enemy combatants, as, 77–78, 82funding of

alternative remittances, 157–158amounts required, 153–154bin Laden, by, 146–147, 154, 156changes in methods, 347

469

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470 Index

al Qaeda (cont.)charitable sources, 154diamond trade, through, 156–157drug trade, through, 156–157foreign sources, 156Saudi sources, 154

Geneva Conventions, applicability of,77–78, 80, 81, 82, 87–88

lack of awareness by United States, 154organizational structure of, 154prisoners of war, as, 81

al Sanabil Association for Relief andDevelopment, 180

al Taqwa, 171, 179Alternative remittances, 157–158, 180–181American Association for the Advancement of

Science, 301American Bankers Association, 162American Civil Liberties Union, 227, 249–250,

255, 270American Friends Service Committee, 227American Library Association, 240, 343Americans for Democratic Action, 227American Society for Microbiology, 296–297American Society of Newspaper Editors, 343Amsterdam Treaty, 6Analysis, Dissemination, Visualization, Insight

and Semantic Enhancement (ADVISE),259–260

Anelay, Baroness, 69Anti-Drug Abuse Act (US), 151, 152Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and Security Act (UK)

criticism of, 58data protection under

avoiding detection under, 211ECHR and, 212expansion beyond terrorism information,

210–211overview, 210proportionality, 211–212USA PATRIOT Act compared, 210–211voluntary code of practice, 210

financial counterterrorism underforfeiture of assets, 141–142freezing of assets, 142minimal impact of, 142open warrants, 142reporting requirements, 142

indefinite detention under, 58knowledge-based speech under, 310port and border controls under, 214reports by judiciary under, 265speed of enactment, 11

Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Actof 1996 (US)

designation of unlawful organizations under,312

domestic rebellion and, 26financial counterterrorism under

due process and, 150financial transactions with foreign

governments, 149freedom of speech and, 150–151judicial authority, 149–150material support for terrorist

organizations, 149overview, 123, 148, 149

habeas corpus under, 16interception of communications under,

13Aqeel, Aqeel al-, 176–177Arar, Maher, 108, 111Armey, Dick, 252, 270Armstrong, Colin, 144Armstrong, Robert, 328Army Field Manual, 98Arnaout, Enaam, 171Ashcroft, John

Abu Ghraib, on, 100business records, on obtaining, 234citizen reporting programs and, 254emergency warrants and, 235executive detention and, 311FOIA and, 342funding requests, 13Geneva Conventions, on applicability of,

82National Security Letters, on, 238TIPS and, 252Truong case, on, 234USA PATRIOT Act and

advocacy of, 1Congressional testimony of, 1–2defense of, 26, 270opponents of, on, 2

“wall” between investigation andprosecution, and elimination of, 249

Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145ATCSA. See Anti-Terrorism, Crime, and

Security ActAtkins, Humphrey, 36Atlas, Ronald, 296Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (US), 298, 301,

330Atomic Energy Commission, 301AT&T, 244–245






Index 471

Attorney-client privilege under FinancialInvestigations (Northern Ireland)Order, 140, 141

Aufhauser, David, 169Authorization for Use of Military Force (US),

9, 71, 83, 244Aziz, Shaukat, 118

Baez, Joan, 227Bailey, Adrian, 355Baker, George, 338Baker, James, 155Bank Secrecy Act Advisory Group, 152Bank Secrecy Act (US), 151, 161, 162Barot, Dhiren, 333Barr, Bob, 252, 270Bassam, Lord, 213Bates, Richard Dawson, 37Beaver, Diana E., 95–96Begg, Moazzam, 89, 90, 120Beggs, Roy, 355Belfast Workers’ Film Guild, 292Bellinger, John, 9Benefits of counterterrorism, 3Benevolence International Foundation, 171,

180Benevolence International Foundation v.

Ashcroft, 173, 175Berger, Sandy, 9Bethe, Hans, 301Bingham, Lord, 59–60, 61–63bin Laden, Osama

al-Barakaat and, 177al Qaeda, funding of, 146–147, 154, 156communications by, 274, 351designated foreign terrorist, as, 166Executive Order 13,099 and, 148

Biological Weapons Convention, 296, 309Biometric tracking, 30–31Birkett Committee, 187, 190“Birmingham Six,”294Bishra, Shukry, 172Black, Cofer, 103Black, Hugo, 11, 322“Black lists,”357Blackman, Honor, 67Blackstone, William, 35, 39, 49, 191, 290Blair, Ian, 66Blair, Tony

control orders and, 65glorification of terrorism, on, 294–295, 339minority groups, on, 27Northern Ireland, on, 138

security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4war model versus criminal law model, on,

7–8, 10Blears, Hazel, 27“Bloody Sunday,”38Bloomfield, Kenneth, 293Blunkett, David, 47, 63Border controls. See Port and border controlsBoyd-Carpenter, John Archibald, 50Brandeis, Louis, 221, 279, 280Brandenburg v. Ohio, 282–283, 298, 315, 316,

335Brennan, William J., Jr., 24, 221Breyer, Stephen, 20, 84Bridger Tracker software, 169–170Britani, Abu Esa al, 333British Broadcasting Corporation, 293, 294,

308, 327–328British Union of Fascists, 288Brittain, Leon, 132Brown, H. Rap, 225Brownell, Herbert, 220Bugging. See Interception of communicationsBureau for International Narcotics and Law

Enforcement Affairs, 181Bureau of Investigation. See Federal Bureau of

InvestigationBureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs,

224Burger, Warren E., 227Burnside, David, 144Bush, George H.W.

Saudi links, 155torture, on, 111

Bush, George W.al-Barakaat, on, 177citizen reporting programs and, 252Convention Against Torture, on, 100enemy combatant status, on, 82financial counterterrorism, on, 165, 167,

172Geneva Conventions, on applicability of,

80patriotism, appeals to, 13state of emergency, declaration of, 71war model versus criminal law model, on, 7

Butler, Bill, 90Butt, Hassan, 295Bybee, Jay, 95

Cainkar, Louise, 118, 168Cairde Sinn Fein, 128Cambone, Stephen A., 247






472 Index

Cameras, surveillance by. See Closed-circuittelevision, surveillance by

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, 326Campbell, Duncan, 327–328CAPS (Computer Assisted Passenger

Screening) program, 255Carlile, Lord, 115, 354Carlucci, Frank, 155Carlyle Group, 155Carnivore, 250Carter, Jimmy

classified information under, 320Privacy Act and, 229surveillance oversight under, 265

Casement Park trials, 215Casey Foundation, 118, 168Castro, Fidel, 121Catania, Giusto, 179Cavada, Jean-Marie, 179Cavendish, Anthony, 308Censorship and terrorism, 273–274Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

297Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

al Qaeda, investigation of, 154Counter Terrorism Center, 147data mining, 257financial counterterrorism, role in

focus on, 158overview, 146–147

FOIA exception, 343indefinite detention, role in, 103–104interception of communications by, 223MKULTRA, 270nondisclosure agreements, 318–320Octopus, 257Operation CHAOS, 223, 227Project BLUEBIRD/ARTICHOKE, 270Publications Review Board, 319Quantum Leap, 257surveillance oversight by, 265

Centre for Policy Studies, 117Charity Commission for England and Wales,

176–177Chase, Salmon P., 87Cheh, Mary, 352Cheney, Dick

Detainee Treatment Act, on, 110–111financial counterterrorism, on, 165Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board,

on, 19Qur’an desecration, on, 119Secretary of Defense, as, 272Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 262

Chertoff, Michael, 159, 169Chief Surveillance Commissioner, 198, 204Choicepoint, 185, 186Christian, George, 240Church, Frank, 223, 228Church Committee, 228–229, 249, 253Churchill, Winston, 7, 36Churchill-Coleman, George, 117CIA. See Central Intelligence AgencyCIFA, 245, 246–248Citizen Corps program, 253–254Citizen reporting programs

arguments in favor of, 252–253Citizen Corps program, 253–254Coastal Beacon, 252dangers of, 253Highway Watch, 252Marine Watch, 252misuse of information, 253Terrorism Information and Prevention

System (TIPS), 251–252Transportation Security Administration,

252Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act 1922–43

(UK)designation of unlawful organizations under,

313ECHR and, 55expansion of powers under, 15financial counterterrorism under, 129forfeiture of assets under, 131generally, 12indefinite detention under, 36–37jurisdictional issues, 112legality of, 39military, legality of actions, 42sedition under, 291suspension proposed, 44temporary provisions under, 15unlawful assembly under, 286–287

Clarke, Charlescontrol orders, on, 61, 63, 65glorification of terrorism, on, 295Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 66,

68Clarke, Kenneth, 68Clarke, Richard, 147Classified information, 320, 321, 343Clinton, Bill

IEEPA, Executive Orders under, 148political surveillance by, 11rendition, on, 104war model versus criminal law model, on,

9–10






Index 473

Closed-circuit television, surveillance byUnited Kingdom, in

counterterrorism, role in, 215Data Protection Act 1998, under,

215–216, 217directed surveillance, 216extent of, 215historical background, 214–215Peck v. United Kingdom, 216–217

United States, in, 217–218Closing of records

criminal prosecutions, 326–328historical background, 325–326Official Secrets Act 1911, under, 326–328Official Secrets Act 1989, under, 328Ponting case, 327, 328Shayler case, 328–330Tisdall case, 326–327unauthorized communication of

information, 326Zircon affair, 327–328

Coastal Beacon, 252Code of Practice on Access to Government

Information, 343Code of Practice on Intrusive Surveillance, 201Coercive interrogation

Abu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)costs of, 111foreign policy, impact on, 120–121Guantanamo Bay, at (See Guantanamo Bay)Iraq War, in (See Iraq War)Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)United Kingdom, in

independent inquiries, 113judicial branch authority re, 113–114legislative branch authority re, 112–113overview, 34

United States, inArmy Field Manual, applicability of, 98Convention Against Torture, applicability

of, 98extradition, impact on, 109international reaction, 106, 108–109judicial branch authority re, 111–112,

113–114judicial rulings re, 111legislative branch authority re, 111–112necessity defense and, 98overview, 34–35press, reaction of, 109revision of standards, 97–98UCMJ, applicability of, 98

Coke, Edward, 48Cole, David, 4, 254

Combatant Status Review Tribunal, 85Commerce Department, 209Commissioner of Patents, 298Committee on Public Information, 277Communist Control Act of 1954 (US), 281Communist Party (US), 225Compton Committee, 113Computer Assisted Passenger Screening

(CAPS) program, 255Computers

ATCSA, avoiding detection under, 211email. See Emailsurveillance, effect on, 185, 186

Computer Sciences Corporation, 248Condon, Lord, 117Confiscation of assets. See Forfeiture of assetsCongress. See generally Legislative branchesCongressional Research Service, 340Contempt of Court Act 1981 (UK), 326Continuity Irish Republican Army, 128Control orders

Islamist threat in United Kingdom and (SeeIslamist threat in United Kingdom)

Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005concessions by government, 70–71criminal law, extension to, 22restrictions on, 70

Convention Against Tortureadmissibility of evidence and, 113coercive interrogation, applicability to, 98extraordinary rendition and, 105Guantanamo Bay, impact on use of torture

at, 92, 93Iraq War and

applicability to, 110coercive interrogation, applicability to, 99

requirements under, 93–94United States and

limitations on, 110ratification by, 94–95

Conventional weapons, information re,302–306

Convention on the Rights of the Child, 91Conyers, John, 338Coplon, Judith, 219–220Corbyn, Jeremy, 89Corcoran, Thomas, 11Council of Europe

ATCSA, on, 58extraordinary rendition, on, 108freezing of assets, on, 178Guantanamo Bay, on, 91

Counterintelligence Field Activity (CIFA), 245,246–248






474 Index

Courts. See generally Judicial branchesCovert human intelligence sources, 204Criminal Evidence (NI) Order 1999 (UK),

355Criminal Justice Act 1988 (UK), 143Criminal Justice Act 1993 (UK), 135–136Criminal Justice Act 2003 (UK), 46–47Criminal Justice (International Cooperation)

Act 1990 (UK), 136Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy)

Act 1998 (UK), 137–138, 139, 315,317

Criminal lawclosing of records and, 326–328Diplock Courts, in, 46–47extraordinary rendition and

criminal complaints re, 107trial, unrelated to, 104–105

intrusion of counterterrorism intomechanisms for, 15–16Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, 22,

71reasons for, 350

National Security Letters andcriminal penalties for violating gag orders,

240–241intrusion into criminal law, 238, 243

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)Act 1973, criminal charges under, 132

surveillance, use of inaccurate informationobtained through, 267

USA PATRIOT Act, intrusion of, 16,233–234

war model of counterterrorism compared(See War modelversus criminal lawmodel of counterterrorism )

Criminal Law Act 1967 (UK),191

Critical infrastructure information, 342Cromwell, Oliver, 49Cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment,

95Culture of restraint

importance of, 336–337inquiries, role of, 337–338

Customs and ExciseATCSA and, 144data protection and, 210drug trafficking and, 136, 137, 138financial counterterrorism and, 145interception of communications by, 188,

189, 194organized crime and, 140port and border controls and, 213, 214

Daley, Richard M., 217Dalyell, Tam, 327Dam, Kenneth, 154DA-Notices,307. See also D–Notice systemData mining

Advanced Research and DevelopmentActivity, 258

ADVISE, 259–260centralized clearinghouse of information,

260CIA, 257dangers of, 260–261Defense Intelligence Agency, 257Education Department, 257Genoa II, 258Homeland Security Department, 257,

259–260Information Awareness Office, 184–185Information Awareness Prototype System,

258Insight Smart Discovery, 257intrusiveness of, 260Justice Department, 257Notebook I2, 257Octopus, 257overview, 256–257Pathfinder, 257Project Strikeback, 257Quantum Leap, 257Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype

Environment, 257Technology and Privacy Advisory

Committee, 258–259Terrorism Information Awareness, 258Total Information Awareness, 184, 257–258Verity K2 Enterprise, 257

Data protectionEuropean Union, in

Data Protection Directive, 207expansion beyond terrorism information,

211opt-in standard, 208overview, 206–207specific protections, 208third countries, transfer of information to,

208United States, transfer of information to,

208–209overview, 206United Kingdom, in

ATCSA, under (See Anti-Terrorism,Crime, and Security Act)

Customs and Excise, role of, 210RIPA, under, 209–210






Index 475

United States, inoverview, 208Safe Harbor, 209

Data Protection Act 1998 (UK), 215–216,217

Data Protection Principles 1998 (UK), 212Davis, David, 28, 64, 65Debs, Eugene, 279Debs v. United States, 279Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year

2004 (US), 342Defense Department

interception of communications by, 223Operation CONUS, 223, 227–228Project CHATTER, 270surveillance by

CIFA, 245, 246–248Northern Command Intelligence Units,

244, 246Operation Eagle Eyes, 245overview, 184, 243privacy, impact on, 248TALON program, 245–246

Defense Intelligence Agencyal-Barakaat and, 177data mining, 257Insight Smart Discovery, 257Pathfinder, 257surveillance by, 184, 244, 245, 248surveillance oversight by, 265Verity K2 Enterprise, 257

Defense of the Realm Acts 1914–15 (UK), 15,313

Defense of the Realm Consolidation Act (UK),287

Delahunty, Robert J., 76–78, 79Delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236Denham, John, 63Dennis v. United States, 281, 282Dergoul, Tarek, 90, 120Designation of unlawful organizations

AEDPA, under, 312Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act

1922–43, under, 313ECHR and, 312freedom of speech, effect on (See Speech,

freedom of)Human Rights Act 1998, under, 313Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 314Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 314–315Sinn Fein, 314

Detainee Treatment Act (US)Guantanamo Bay, and indefinite detention

at, 85–86habeas corpus and, 21legislative branch authority under, 112torture, amendments to prohibit

adoption of, 110–111opposition to, 110–111support for, 110

Detention. See Executive detention; Indefinitedetention

Detention of Terrorists Order (UK), 42, 55Devlin, Bernadette, 44Dicey, Albert, 5Diplock, Lord, 43, 330Diplock Committee, 113Diplock Courts

advantages, 44–45Catholics, effect on, 46confessions in, 57creation of, 15–16criminal law in, 46–47disadvantages, 44–45evidence rules in, 46foreign policy, impact on, 46judicial authority of, 25juries, elimination of, 45non-terrorist cases in, 46–47peers, elimination of, 45–46procedural safeguards, 45public support for, 45reaction to, 44recommendations re, 44

Directed surveillance, 203–204, 216Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 5

(MI5)exposure of secret programs, 193–194Hewitt and Harman v. United Kingdom

and, 192–193interception of communications by,

188–189, 195safeguards on, 335Security Service Act 1989/1996, under, 194

Directorate of Military Intelligence Section 6(MI6), 189, 195, 335

Director of National Intelligence, 263, 265D-Notice system,298,307–308. See also

D–NoticesDocusearch.com, 185Dodds, Nigel, 355Doe v. Ashcroft, 239–240Doe v. Gonzales, 240Domestic rebellion in United States, historical

background, 26






476 Index

Donaldson, Lord, 68Dostum, Rashid, 75Douglas, William O., 11, 221, 228, 322Drug Trafficking Act 1994 (UK), 136–137Drug Trafficking Act 1996 (UK), 143Drug trafficking and financial counterterrorism

additional offenses, 137assumptions re proceeds, 135–136cash, seizure of, 137Criminal Justice Act 1993, 135–136Customs and Excise, role of, 136, 137, 138forfeiture of assets, 132–133, 135, 136–137freezing of assets, 132–133introduction of measures, 132money laundering and, 136overview, 132standard of proof, 136, 137

Drug Trafficking Offenses Act 1986 (UK), 132,133, 136

Due processAEDPA, under, 150financial counterterrorism and, 150, 174property rights and, 174security and, 29–30

Dunlavey, Michael, 74, 95Dworkin, Ronald, 67

Echelon, 272ECHR. See European Convention on Human

RightsEconomic activity, impact of counterterrorism,

28, 271–272Education Department, 257Eighth Amendment, 92Eisenhower, Dwight D., 281Electronic Communications Privacy Act of

1986 (US), 235, 241Electronic Frontier Foundation, 244Electronic Privacy Information Center,250,343Electronic surveillance. See Interception of

communicationsEllsberg, Daniel, 11Email

ATCSA and, 211Carnivore and, 250keystroke programs and, 251Magic Lantern and,National Security Letters, use of, 237–238RIPA and, 205–206, 209–210Terrorist Surveillance Program, 244–245

Emergency Provisions Act 1973. See NorthernIreland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1973

Encrypted data under RIPA, 205

Enemy combatantsal Qaeda as, 77–78, 82Combatant Status Review Tribunal, 85customary international law, under, 79Geneva Conventions, applicability of

non-expansive reading of, 78overview, 75–76, 79positivist interpretation of, 78suspension, power of, 78–79

Taliban as, 78England, Gordon, 248English, Glenn, 183EPA 1973. See Northern Ireland (Emergency

Provisions) Act 1973Espionage Act of 1917 (US), 23, 277–279, 322Ethnic profiling. See Minority groups, effect of

counterterrorism onEuropean Commission Against Racism and

Intolerance, 58European Communities Act 1992 (UK), 6European Convention on Human Rights

(ECHR)admissibility of evidence obtained through

torture, 113Criminal Justice (Terrorism and Conspiracy)

Act 1998 and, 138data protection and, 212derogation from by United Kingdom, 58designation of unlawful organizations and,

312Diplock Courts and, 44executive detention and, 312extradition and, 109forfeiture of assets and, 143freezing of assets and, 178Halford v. United Kingdom and, 195–196hate speech and, 289Hewitt and Harman v. United Kingdom

and, 193interception of communications and

Interception of Communications Act1985, 192

RIPA, 195, 197, 198Security Service Act 1989/1996, 192, 194,

195Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56Islamist threat in United Kingdom and

control orders, 63–64indefinite detention, 59, 61torture, 61

judicial review and, 20R. v. Khan and, 201–202knowledge-based speech and, 298






Index 477

Malone case and, 190–192media ban and, 294Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogation

in, 51Official Secrets Act 1989 and, 328Peck v. United Kingdom and, 216–217political speech and, 283, 296security versus freedom paradigm and, 5–6Shayler case and, 328–330“Spycatcher” case and, 328surveillance and, 183–184surveillance oversight and, 264–265unlawful assembly and, 289–290

European Court of Human Rights. Seegenerally European Convention onHuman Rights

European Court of Justice, 6, 178European Parliament, 108, 179European Union, data protection in. See Data

protectionEvidence rules

admissibility of evidence (See Admissibilityof evidence)

Diplock Courts, in, 46Federal Rules of Evidence, 163freedom of speech, effect on

United Kingdom, in, 316–317United States, in, 315–316

Ewing, Keith, 327Executive branches

expansion of powers, 10, 334financial counterterrorism, deference

in,174–175freedom of speech and

deference to executive branch in, 330expansion of authority in, 275–276

safeguards, importance of, 334–335separation of powers and, 11slow accretion of power, dangers of, 359surveillance oversight and

United Kingdom, in, 265–266United States, in, 265

war model versus criminal law model andrange of powers sought, differences in, 9source of authority of power, differences

in, 9Executive detention

ECHR and, 312freedom of speech, effect on

United Kingdom, in, 312United States, in, 311–312

Executive Office for Terrorist Financing andFinancial Crimes, 159

Executive Order 10,450 (US), 281Executive Order 12,947 (US), 148, 166–167Executive Order 13,099 (US), 148Executive Order 13,224 (US)

financial counterterrorism underExecutive Order 12,947 distinguished,

166–167groups monitored under, 167–168issuance of, 166limited impact of, 167mere association standard, 166overview, 123, 147

forfeiture of assets under, 170Specially Designated Terrorist List, 166

Executive Order 13, 292 (US), 321Export Administration Act of 1979 (US), 149Export Control Act 2002 (UK), 298, 310Expression, freedom of. See Speech, freedom ofExtradition, impact of coercive interrogation

by United States on, 109Extraordinary rendition

Convention Against Torture and, 105criminal law and

complaints re, 107trial, unrelated to, 104–105

extent of, 105Geneva Conventions and, 106Guantanamo Bay, impact on indefinite

detention at, 75ICCPR and, 105–106international inquiries, 106, 108international reaction, 108legality of, 105–106Refugee Convention of 1951 and, 106regular rendition distinguished, 104responsibility for, 106United Kingdom, reaction of, 107–108

Fadle, Jamal Ahmed al-, 156Falconer, Lord, 35Falklands War, 327Faul, Father Dennis, 43, 50Faulkner, Brian, 10, 37, 38Fay, George, 102FBI. See Federal Bureau of InvestigationFederal Aviation Administration, 255–256Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)

al-Barakaat and, 177Church Committee and, 228–229COINTELPRO, 223, 224–227financial counterterrorism, role in

joint terrorism task forces, 158overview, 146






478 Index

Federal Bureau (cont.)Terrorist Financing Operations Section,

158interception of communications by, 222Investigative Data Warehouse, 238No Fly List and, 254surveillance by

anti-communism and, 219–220antiwar demonstrators, of, 249–250Attorney General guidelines, weakening

of, 249Carnivore, 250historical background, 218–219library records, 228Magic Lantern, 250–251Muslims, targeting of, 312national security and, 220National Security Letters, use of, 238, 241political surveillance under FDR, 219Privacy Act and, 229“wall” between investigation and

prosecution, elimination of, 249terrorism guidelines, 16

Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (US), 163Federal Rules of Evidence (US), 163Federation of American Scientists, 299, 343Feingold, Russ, 2Feldman, David, 328Fife, David Maxwell, 189Fife Directive, 193Fifth Amendment

due process (See Due process)Guantanamo Bay, impact on use of torture

at, 93loyalty programs and, 282secret evidence, and use of, 173

Films, banning of, 291–292Financial Action Task Force, 137, 159, 346Financial counterterrorism

charitable contributions, impact on,168–169

drug trafficking and (See Drug traffickingand financial counterterrorism)

due process and, 150, 174erosion of rights resulting from, 168, 171executive branches, deference to, 174–175forfeiture of assets (See Forfeiture of assets)freezing of assets (See Freezing of assets)intent requirement, elimination of, 171–172money laundering and (See Money

laundering and financialcounterterrorism)

Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)organized crime and

Financial Investigations (NorthernIreland) Order (See FinancialInvestigations (Northern Ireland)Order)

generally, 139Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland)

Order 1996, 139–140political costs of, 175–176, 181preventing funding of terrorists, difficulty in,

126privacy, impact on, 169property rights, impact on, 170, 174Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish

Republican Army)purposes of, 122racketeering law and, 134–135searches and, 174secret evidence, use of

alternatives to, 173–174arguments re, 172–173Benevolence International Foundation v.

Ashcroft, 173Fifth Amendment concerns, 172–173Global Relief Foundation, Inc. v. O’Neill,

173risks of, 173ruling on merits of case based on, 173Sixth Amendment concerns, 172

stigmatization and, 175United Kingdom, in

Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145ATCSA, under (See Anti-Terrorism,

Crime, and Security Act)costs of, 145–146Criminal Justice (Terrorism and

Conspiracy) Act 1998, under, 137–138,139

Customs and Excise, role of, 145Money Laundering Regulations, 145National Witness Protection Program,146Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1991, under, 134open warrants, 142overview, 122–123POCA, under (See Proceeds of Crime Act

2002)post-9/11, 141–145pre-9/11, 130–131Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989, under,

133Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 130, 131reporting requirements, 142Serious Organized Crime Agency, 146






Index 479

Terrorism Act 2000, under, 138–139,170–171

United States, inAEDPA, under (See Antiterrorism and

Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996)alternative remittances, impact on,

180–181CIA, role of (See Central Intelligence

Agency)drug trafficking and, 181Executive Order 13,224, under (See

Executive Order 13,224)FBI, role of (See Federal Bureau of

Investigation)FinCEN, role of, 158–159Homeland Security Department, role of,

158, 159–160IEEPA, under (See International

Emergency Economic Powers Act)Immigration and Customs Enforcement,

role of, 158, 159–160ineffectiveness of, 179interagency disputes, 159–160international reaction, 179IRS, role of, 158Justice Department, role of, 158Latin America, impact in, 181Muslim charities, targeting of, 179–180OFAC (See Office of Foreign Assets

Control)Operation Cornerstone, 159–160Operation Green Quest, 159overview, 123post-9/11, 158–160pre-9/11, 147SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach

to Reducing Exploitation), 159–160Trading with the Enemy Act, under,

147–149Treasury Department, role of, 159USA PATRIOT Act, under (See USA

PATRIOT Act)Financial Crimes Enforcement Network

(FinCEN)financial counterterrorism, role in, 158–159Suspicious Activity Reports and, 349USA PATRIOT Act, and searches of records

under, 162–163Financial institutions, regulation under USA

PATRIOT Act, 161–163, 169–170Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland)

Orderattorney-client privilege under, 140, 141debate re, 140–141

general solicitors’ circulars, 140, 141introduction, 139investigations under, 140Parliamentary Northern Ireland Grand

Committee, consideration in, 141Financial Investigative Units, 349Fine, Glenn, 242First Amendment. See Speech, freedom ofFISA. See Foreign Intelligence Surveillance ActFISA Court. See Foreign Intelligence

Surveillance CourtFlags and Emblems Act 1954 (UK), 15FOIA. See Freedom of Information ActFord, Gerald, 228–229Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act

(US), 105Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938 (US),

128, 163Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978

(US)applications for surveillance, 230–231drawbacks of, 232expansion of executive powers under, 10financial counterterrorism under, 173, 174overview, 229–230, 232pen registers, 231–232probable cause and, 230–231, 232, 233–234surveillance oversight in United Kingdom

compared, 265trap and trace devices, 231–232United Kingdom compared, 232USA PATRIOT Act amending (See USA

PATRIOT Act)warrantless searches under, 231

Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court,230–231, 233, 263–264, 340–341

Foreign policycoercive interrogation, impact of, 120–121counterterrorism, effect of, 28Diplock Courts, impact of, 46indefinite detention, impact of, 120–121

Forfeiture of assets. See also Freezing of assetsintent requirement, elimination of, 171–172Sinn Fein, 131United Kingdom, in

ATCSA, under, 141–142Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act

1922–43, under, 131Criminal Justice Act 1993, under, 135,

136Drug Trafficking Act 1994, under,

136–137drug trafficking and, 132–133, 135,

136–137






480 Index

Forfeiture of assets (cont.)Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 131–132Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1991, under, 134, 136Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989, under,

133–134Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 131, 132Terrorism Act 2000, under, 138–139

United States, inExecutive Order 13,224, under, 170USA PATRIOT Act, under, 163, 170

Formal inquiry into terrorism, lack of, 13–14Forsyth, Frederick, 67Fortesque, John, 48–49Fourth Amendment

Bank Secrecy Act of 1970 and, 151–152Katz v. United States, 220–221keystroke programs and, 251searches (See Searches)surveillance and

avoidance of, 269executive authority and, 220

Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244USA PATRIOT Act, and warrantless

searches under, 234warrants (See Warrants)

Fox, Charles James, 291Frank, Barney, 165Frankfurter, Felix, 32, 62, 281, 283, 359Fraser, Ronald, 309Freedom of Information Act (US)

Carnivore and, 250CIA exception, 343knowledge-based speech and, 299national security exception, 22No Fly List and, 255NSA exception, 342–343political groups, exposure of surveillance of,

249TALON program and, 246transparency and accountability and

critical infrastructure information, 342national security and, 342overview, 341–342presumptions re, 342

United Kingdom compared, 343–345Freedom of speech. See Speech, freedom ofFreedom versus security paradigm. See

Security versus freedom paradigmFreezing of assets. See also Forfeiture of assets

United Kingdom, inATCSA, under, 142

drug trafficking and, 132–133United States, in

al-Barakaat, 177–178“black lists,”357conflict of interest in, 175false designations, 178–179IEEPA, under, 148–149insufficient evidence, based on, 176international reaction, 177Palestinian Relief and Development Fund,

176–177unbalanced inclusion of names on lists,

357–358USA PATRIOT Act, under, 163verification of information,

recommendation re, 357Frohwerk v. United States, 278–279Fulbright, J. William, 227Funding

al Qaeda (See al Qaeda)Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish

Republican Army)Sinn Fein, 126

Gabriel, Peter, 67Gaddafi, Moammar, 128Gardiner, Lord, 47, 50, 52–54Gardiner Committee, 113Gaylor, Noel, 254Gearty, Conor, 67, 327Gejdenson, Sam, 272General Accounting Office, 229, 262, 342General Belgrano, 327Geneva Conventions

Abu Ghraib, effect of suspension on abusesat, 102

Afghanistan War, applicability in, 76, 78,81, 82

al Qaeda, applicability to, 77–78, 80, 81,82, 87–88

enemy combatants, applicability to (SeeEnemy combatants)

extraordinary rendition and, 106Guantanamo Bay and

generally, 20torture, impact on use of, 92

Iraq War andapplicability to, 76, 110coercive interrogation, applicability to,

98–99non-expansive reading of, 78Northern Ireland, applicability to

coercive interrogation in, 50–51, 52, 53generally, 31, 34






Index 481

positivist interpretation of, 78suspension of

advantages of, 80authority to suspend, 78–79disadvantages of, 80–81military discipline, effect on, 81reaction to, 81, 356, 358

Taliban, applicability to, 78, 80, 81, 82terrorism, applicability to, 31, 34–35United Kingdom as party to, 48

Genoa II, 258Ghaffur, Tarique, 117“Ghost detainees,”103Gidari, Al, 237Ginsburg, Ruth Bader, 84, 240, 267Gitlow v. New York, 280Glanville, Ranulf de, 283Global Relief Foundation, 174, 175Global Relief Foundation, Inc. v. O’Neill,

173Glorification of terrorism, 294–296Goldsmith, Peter

extraordinary rendition, on, 107Guantanamo Bay, and indefinite detention

at, 89, 90security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4–5

Goldstein, Ritt, 251Goldstock, Ron, 355Gonzales, Alberto

Convention Against Torture, on, 110Geneva Conventions, on applicability of,

80–81security versus freedom paradigm, on, 4

Gordon, Rebecca, 254Gore, Al, 155Government Accountability Office, 160Government Communications Headquarters,

195, 210, 335Government employee speech. See Privileged

speechGovernment of Ireland Act 1920 (UK), 40,

42Greenpeace, 250Grieve, Dominic, 67, 68Guantanamo Bay

coercive interrogation atdeaths of detainees, 96development of standards, 95erosion of standards, 93extradition, impact on, 109international reaction, 106, 108–109overview, 91–92press, reaction of, 109specific techniques, 95–97

Convention Against Torture, impact on useof torture, 92, 93

enemy combatants at (See Enemycombatants)

Geneva Conventions andgenerally, 20torture, impact on use of, 92

habeas corpus atgenerally, 83Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84indefinite detention and, 73Rasul v. Bush, 83–84

indefinite detention atadministrative review board, 84–85authorization of, 71–72Combatant Status Review Tribunal,

85Detainee Treatment Act, under, 85–86extraordinary rendition, impact of, 75foreign governments, access to detainees

by, 89, 90–91habeas corpus and, 73Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84high-level terrorists, 73–74individual analysis, lack of, 75international reaction, 89–91jurisdictional issues, 73low-level terrorists, 74–75minors, 91non-terrorists, 74–75overview, 71practical problems with, 72–73psychological effects of, 115Rasul v. Bush, 83–84security measures, 73separation of powers and, 72standards, lack of, 82–83treatment of detainees, 73, 90–91United Kingdom, reaction of, 89–90

Qur’an desecration at, 118–120torture at

admissibility of evidence, impact on,92–93

Convention Against Torture, impact of,92, 93

cruel, inhuman or degrading treatmentdistinguished, 95

Eighth Amendment, impact of, 92erosion of standards, 93Fifth Amendment, impact of, 93Geneva Conventions, impact of, 92overview, 91–92






482 Index

The Guardian, 284–285, 324, 325Gul, Awal, 74

Habeas corpusAntiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty

Act of 1996, under, 16Civil War (US), suspension during, 276–277Detainee Treatment Act and, 21Guantanamo Bay, at (See Guantanamo Bay)Military Commissions Act, under, 21–22,

88–89Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)United Kingdom, historical background in,

35USA PATRIOT Act, suspension in, 1

Habeas Corpus Act 1679 (UK), 35Habeas Corpus Act 1862 (UK), 39Habib, Mamdouh, 105Hadden, Tom, 43Hague Convention, 78Hailsham, Lord, 338Halford, Alison, 195–196Halleck, Charles, 220Hamdan, Salim Ahmed, 86Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 86–89, 335Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 83, 84Hamza, Abu, 295Hand, Learned, 278, 280Hanssen, Robert P., 14Hare, David, 67Harman, Harriet, 107, 192–193Haskins, Lord, 67Hastert, Dennis, 2Hate speech, 289Hattersley, Roy, 13Hawkins, Nicholas, 339Hayden, Michael V., 258Hayes, Patrick, 215Haynes, William, 96Heath, Edward, 338Henry of Bracton, 48Herbert, Bob, 120Heseltine, Michael, 327Hewitt, Patricia, 192–193Highway Watch, 252Hill, David, 144Hill, James T., 95–96Hill, Pauline, 144Hillyard, Paddy, 43Hoffman, Lord, 60–61, 62Hollis, Roger, 323Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 278–280Homeland Security Act (US), 342

Homeland Security Departmentadministrative efficiency and, 28Advanced Research Projects Agency, 259ADVISE, 259–260citizen reporting programs, 252creation of, 8data mining, 257, 259–260Directorate for Information Analysis and

Infrastructure Protection, 259financial counterterrorism, role in, 158,

159–160knowledge-based speech and, 297Muslims, targeting of, 312Notebook I2, 257Operation Green Quest and, 159SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach to

Reducing Exploitation), 159–160surveillance by, 184, 243watch lists, 256

Home Officedata retention and, 210films, banning of, 292interception of communications and,

188–190Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 and, 66RIPA and, 196surveillance warrants and, 265–266, 335witness protection programs and, 355

Hood, Jay W., 120Hoon, Geoff, 89Hoover, J. Edgar, 218–220, 225, 227, 279Hope, Lord, 62Horton, Scott, 105Housing and Community Development Act

(US), 151, 152Howard, Michael, 64, 65Human Rights Act 1998 (UK)

complaint procedures, 197designation of unlawful organizations under,

313ECHR and, 6, 69indefinite detention under, 20interception of communications under, 196judicial review and, 20, 113R. v. Shayler and, 328–329treason under, 284, 285unlawful assembly under, 289

Human Rights Commission, 140Human Rights Watch, 96Humphrey, Hubert H., 11Hunt, Paul, 108Hurd, Douglas, 293Hurley, Michael, 104






Index 483

Hustinx, Peter, 179

ICCPR. See International Covenant on Civiland Political Rights

Identity cards, 30–31IEEPA. See International Emergency Economic

Powers ActImmigration and Customs Enforcement

financial counterterrorism, role in, 158,159–160

Operation Cornerstone, 159–160Immigration and Naturalization Service, 174Inaccurate information obtained through

surveillancecriminal prosecutions, use in, 267danger of, 266–267extent of, 267third-party collection of information,

problems with, 267Indefinite detention

costs of, 111foreign policy, impact on, 120–121“ghost detainees,”103Guantanamo Bay, at (See Guantanamo Bay)innocent victims, problem of, 114–115Northern Ireland, in (See Northern Ireland)psychological effects of, 115rewards, problems with, 114–115United Kingdom, in

independent inquiries, 113Islamist threat in United Kingdom and

(See Islamist threat in United Kingdom)judicial branch authority re, 113legislative branch authority re, 112–113overview, 34

United States, inCIA, role of, 103–104extent of, 103extraterritorial locations of, 103–104judicial branch authority re, 111–112legislative branch authority re, 111–112overview, 34–35

Independent Broadcasting Authority, 293, 294Information Awareness Office, 184–185Information Awareness Prototype System, 258Information Security Oversight Office, 321,

342Ingram, Adam, 139, 140–141Inman, Bobby R., 301Insight Smart Discovery, 257Institute of Medicine, 332INS v. Chadha, 149Intelligence and Security Committee, 263, 337

Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year2004 (US), 241

Intelligence Oversight Board, 265Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention

Act of 2004 (US), 262Intelligence Services Act 1994 (UK)

complaint procedures, 197electronic surveillance under, 201oversight function, 197overview, 187, 195surveillance oversight under, 263

Intelligence Services Commissioner, 197, 198,199

Inter-American Development Bank, 157Interception of communications

control orders, as alternative to, 65–66ECHR and (See European Convention on

Human Rights (ECHR))Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets

Act, under, 221–222pen registers, 231–232trap and trace devices, 231–232United Kingdom, in

admissibility of evidence,recommendation re, 354

Customs and Excise, by, 188, 189, 194Government Communications

Headquarters, by, 195Halford case, 195–196, 202Hewitt and Harman case, 192–193historical background, 187–190Intelligence Services Act 1994, under, 195Interception of Communications Act

1985, under (See Interception ofCommunications Act 1985)

Malone case, 190–192Metropolitan Police, by, 188, 189MI5, by, 188–189, 195MI6, by, 195National Crime Squad, 194National Criminal Intelligence Service,

194RIPA, under (See Regulation of

Investigatory Powers Act 2000)Security Service Acts 1989/1996, under

(See Security Service Acts 1989/1996)warrant requests, 188–190

United States, indomestic organizations, of, 222FISA, under, 231–232historical background, 10–11Katz v. United States, 220–221national security and, 221, 222






484 Index

Interception of Communications Act 1985(UK)

complaint procedures, 197ECHR and, 192Halford case and, 195introduction of, 192overview, 187reporting process, weaknesses of, 197

Interception of CommunicationsCommissioner, 197–198, 199

Internal Revenue Servicefinancial counterterrorism, role in, 158surveillance by, 228

International Committee of the Red Cross,103, 106, 115

International Covenant on Civil and PoliticalRights (ICCPR)

extraordinary rendition and, 105–106Islamist threat in United Kingdom, torture

and, 62Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogation

in, 52International Emergency Economic Powers

Act (US)declaration of emergency under, 148executive branches, deference to, 175Executive Orders under, 148financial counterterrorism under

executive authority, broadening of,160–161

freezing of assets, 148–149overview, 123, 148

International law, United States view of, 358International Monetary Fund, 157, 333, 346Internet

National Security Letters, use on Internetservice providers, 237–238, 239–240

surveillance, effect on, 185Interrogation. See Coercive interrogationIntrusive surveillance, 202–203Inventions and patents, information re,

298–301Invention Secrecy Act (US), 298, 299, 330Investigative Data Warehouse, 238Investigatory Powers Commissioner for

Northern Ireland, 198Investigatory Powers Tribunal, 197, 199Iqbal, Asif, 90, 119IRA. See Irish Republican ArmyIraq War

Abu Ghraib (See Abu Ghraib)coercive interrogation in

confusion re standards, 100

Convention Against Torture, applicabilityof, 99, 110

Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 76,98–99, 110

revision of standards, 98, 99–100specific techniques, analysis of legality of,

99“ghost detainees,”103

Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56, 115Irish Northern Aid Committee (Noraid),

128Irish Republican Army

Continuity IRA, 128Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish

Republican Army)Real IRA, 128, 138, 346Sinn Fein (See Sinn Fein)

Irish Republican Publicity Bureau, 274Irvine, Lord, 70Isamuddin, Riduan, 165Isikoff, Michael, 119Islamist threat in United Kingdom

control orders andconcessions by government, 65criticism of, 63, 64ECHR and, 63–64intercept evidence as alternative, 65–66overview, 63practical effect of, 64press, reaction of, 64–65

indefinite detention andalternatives to, 59ATCSA, under, 58criticism of, 58derogation from ECHR, 58discrimination against noncitizens,

60ECHR and, 59, 61European jurisprudence and, 59Law Lords on, 59–61liberty and, 60–61overview, 34Privy Counsellor Review Committee on,

58–59separation of powers and, 60state of emergency and, 59–60

overview, 57–58torture and

determination of, 63ECHR and, 61evidence obtained by, use of, 61generally, 61–63ICCPR and, 62






Index 485

United Nations Charter and, 62Universal Declaration of Human Rights

and, 62

Jackson, Robert H., 19, 220, 281, 282Jefferson, Thomas, 276Jellicoe, Lord, 338Jenkins, Roy, 36, 57, 314Johnson, Lyndon, 11, 220, 221Johnson v. Eisentrager, 83–84, 89Joint Intelligence Task Force Combating

Terrorism, 245Joint terrorism task forces, 158Jones, Anthony, 102Judicial branches

AEDPA, role under, 149–150assertion of authority by, 20authority to check executive branches, limits

on, 335coercive interrogation, authority re

United Kingdom, in, 113–114United States, in, 112, 113–114

financial counterterrorism and, 149–150indefinite detention, authority re

United Kingdom, in, 113United States, in, 112

intelligence issues, deference to executivebranches, 24–25

intrusion of executive branches into,353–354, 356

judicial reviewUnited Kingdom, in, 20–21United States, in, 21–22

national security issues, deference toexecutive branches

United Kingdom, in, 24United States, in, 23–24

oversight function, 25Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, role

under, 67–68remedies and counterterrorism, 22–23scholarly reasons for limitations on

authority, 25special courts, 25standing and counterterrorism, 22surveillance, judicial review of

United Kingdom, in, 264–265United States, in, 264, 265

Jumale, Ali, 176–177Jury trials, recommendation re, 355–356Justice Department

data mining, 257executive detention and, 312

financial counterterrorism and, 158Inspector General, oversight of National

Security Letters by, 242–243, 339National Security Letters, use of, 241Office of Information and Privacy, 342Operation Green Quest, 159Privacy Act and, 229Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype

Environment, 257surveillance by, 184, 243surveillance oversight by, 265Terrorist Financing Unit, 158

Kaplan, Samuel, 296Karzai, Hamid, 78Katz v. United States, 220–221Kavanagh, Trevor, 294Keenan, Sean, 38–39, 40Kelly, Clarence, 229Kelly, Oliver, 41Kelly, Sue, 165Kennedy, Anthony, 22Kennedy, Baroness, 69Kennedy, Edward M., 252, 254, 270Kennedy, Jane, 143Kennedy, Robert, 11Kern, Paul, 103Kerry, John, 244Keystroke programs

Carnivore, 250Fourth Amendment and, 251Magic Lantern, 250–251

Khan, Alif, 96Khan, Imran, 118Khan, Irene, 117Khan, Sultan, 201–202Kiareldeen, Hany, 173Kielman, Joseph, 259King, Martin Luther, Jr., 11, 225, 227King, Neil, 250King’s Cross bombing, 215, 337Klass v. Republic of Germany, 191Knowledge-based speech

conventional weapons, information re,302–306

distinguishing between threatsineffectiveness of restrictions, 352limited nature of terrorist threat, effect of,

351–352narrowly drawn restrictions, use of, 351,

352–353overview, 350–351, 353secrecy orders, use of, 353






486 Index

Knowledge-based speech (cont.)ECHR and, 298microbiology, information re, 296–298,

309–310, 330–332, 351nuclear weapons, information re, 301–302,

330overview, 274, 298, 311patents and inventions, information re,

298–301secrecy, effect on security, 332United Kingdom, in

ATCSA, under, 310Cavendish case, 308DA-Notices, 307D-Notice system, 298, 307–308Export Control Act 2002, 298, 310post-9/11 developments, 309“Spycatcher” case, 308Voluntary Vetting Scheme, 298, 308–309weapons exports and, 310–311

United States, inAtomic Energy Act of 1954, under, 298,

301, 330Homeland Security Department and, 297Invention Secrecy Act, under, 298, 299,

330NSA and, 300–301secrecy orders, 298–301, 353USA PATRIOT Act, under, 297, 352

weapons of mass destruction, informationre, 302–306

Korematsu v. United States, 268Koresh, David, 26KPMG International, 348Ku Klux Klan, 225, 282

“Lancet” experiment, 53Latin America, impact of financial

counterterrorism in, 181Law Lords. See generally Judicial branches;

specific LordLaw Society of Northern Ireland, 140Leahy, Patrick J., 101, 250, 252Lee, Wen Ho, 14Leggatt, Andrew, 205Legislative branches

breadth of counterterrorism in, 12check on executive power, as, 11civil liberties, impact of counterterrorism on,

16coercive interrogation, authority re


criminal law, intrusion of counterterrorisminto, 15–16

culture of restraintimportance of, 336–337inquiries, role of, 337–338

formal inquiry into terrorism, lack of,13–14

importance of, 335incorporation of previously rejected

provisions, 12–13indefinite detention, authority re


nongermaneness of counterterrorism, 14omnibus nature of counterterrorism in, 12oversight function


patriotism, appeals to, 13public sentiment and, 12–13recommendations re, 335–336re-empowering of, 336secretive nature of terrorism and, 12speed of enactment of counterterrorism in,

11–12, 13spiral nature of counterterrorism, 15sunset provisions (See Sunset provisions)surveillance oversight by


temporary counterterrorism provisionssunset provisions, 14United Kingdom, in, 14–15United States, in, 15

Lehnert, Mike, 91–92Lehrer, Jim, 9Leigh, Mike, 67Lester, Lord, 67, 328Levi, Edward, 229Levinson, Daryl, 19Lexis-Nexis, 185Libel Act 1792 (UK), 291Libraries

FBI, surveillance by, 228National Security Letters, use of, 237–238,

240, 243Library Connection Inc., 240Lieberman, Joseph, 352Lincoln, Abraham, 276Litterick, Tom, 36Lloyd, Lord

civil liberties, on, 32, 113, 359control orders, on, 63






Index 487

financial counterterrorism and, 138Guantanamo Bay, on, 108port and border controls, on, 213, 214Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 69

Loyalist Volunteer Force, 128Lucas, Steve, 73

Maastricht Treaty, 6MacDonald, Ian, 61, 64Macdonald, Ken, 8Madison, James, 19, 334Magic Lantern, 250–251Magna Carta, 35, 48Major, John, 343Malcolm X, 225Mallalieu, Baroness, 69Mallon, Geraldine, 145Malone, James, 190–192Mansfield, Guy, 67Marchetti, Victor, 319–320Marine Watch, 252Mar-Jac Poultry, 175Marrero, Victor, 239Marshall-Andrews, Robert, 63Masri, Khaled al-, 105, 111Massari, Muhammed al-, 295Matin, Abdul, 115Maudling, Reginald, 42, 130May, Lord, 309Mayer, Jane, 104Mazloom, Fazel, 74McCain, John, 110McCarthy, Eugene, 227McClellan, Scott, 106, 119McCowan, Anthony, 327McDonnell, James, 56–57McElduff, James, 38–39, 40McKellen, Ian, 67McNamara, Kevin, 49Media and freedom of speech

importance of, 275terrorist organizations, use by, 274, 275

Media ban and Northern Ireland, 293–294Megarry, Robert, 191–192Menezes, Jean Charles de, 28Metropolitan Police, interception of

communications by, 188, 189, 190MI5. See Directorate of Military Intelligence

Section 5Microbiology, information re, 296–298,

309–310, 330–332, 351Mikva, Abner, 227Military commissions, 86–88

Military Commissions Act (US)executive branch authority under, 112habeas corpus under, 21–22, 88–89Hamdan v. Rumsfeld under, 88–89jurisdiction under, 88–89

Miller, GeoffreyAbu Ghraib, role at, 101Guantanamo Bay and

coercive interrogation, on, 90indefinite detention, on, 73

Milligan, Ex parte, 87Minority groups, effect of counterterrorism on

money laundering and, 348–349overview, 26–27, 116surveillance and, 271United Kingdom, in

Catholics, 116exculpation, difficulty of, 116–117Muslims, 116police, concerns of, 117port and border controls, 213radicalization of, 116stigmatization, 117

United States, inchilling effect, 117–118Executive Order 13,224, 167–168extraterritorial acts, 118international perception, 120Muslims, 117–118Qur’an desecration, 118–120radicalization of, 119

Miscarriage of justice and counterterrorism,27–28

MKULTRA, 270Mohammed, Faiz, 91Money laundering and financial

counterterrorismdrug trafficking and, 136minority groups, targeting of, 348–349terrorism distinguished

amounts of money involved, 346differences between, 345–346investigations, effect on, 346–347overview, 345, 349–350Suspicious Activity Reports, 347–349

United Kingdom, Suspicious ActivityReports in, 347–348, 349

United States, inaccounts, power to close, 152Anti-Drug Abuse Act, under, 151, 152Bank Secrecy Act, under, 151Housing and Community Development

Act, under, 151, 152






488 Index

Money laundering (cont.)overview, 151pre-9/11 trends, 152–153Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978,

under, 151–152seizure of assets, 152Suspicious Activity Reports, 151, 347–349USA PATRIOT Act, under, 161

Money Laundering and Financial CrimesStrategy Act of 1998 (US), 151

Money Laundering Regulations (UK), 145Moore, William John, 41Morison, Samuel, 322Morland, Howard, 302Mouyad, Ali Hassan al-, 109Mr. Scruff, 67Mueller, Robert, 14, 242Muhammad, Elijah, 225Musharraf, Pervez, 118–119Mutairi, Nasser Nijer Naser al-, 119MZM, 247

Nada, Youssef, 171, 179Nasrddin, Ahmed Idris, 179National Academy of Engineering, 332National Academy of Sciences, 309, 331, 332National Association for the Advancement of

Colored People, 225, 227National Audit Office, 263–264National Council of Civil Liberties, 192–193National Council of Resistance v. State, 150National Counterterrorism Center, 262National Crime Squad, 194, 214National Criminal Intelligence Service, 194,

210, 214, 348, 349National Geographic, 215National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, 184,

244, 248, 265National Imagery and Mapping Agency, 343National Institute of Allergy and Infectious

Diseases, 331–332National Laboratories, 259National Park Service, 217National Reconnaissance Office, 244, 265,

343National Rifle Association, 270National Science Foundation, 300National Security Act of 1947 (US), 340National Security Agency

financial counterterrorism and, 147FOIA exception, 342–343interception of communications by, 222–223knowledge-based speech and, 300–301Operation SHAMROCK, 223

overview, 244Project MINARET, 223–224surveillance by, 184surveillance oversight by, 265Terrorist Surveillance Program (TSP), 22,

244–245, 340–341National Security Council

al Qaeda, investigation of, 154financial counterterrorism and, 147, 178

National Security Letterscriminal law and

gag orders, criminal penalties forviolating, 240–241

intrusion into, 238, 243Doe v. Ashcroft, 239–240email, use on, 237–238expansion of targets, 241–242FBI, use by, 238, 241financial counterterrorism, use in, 164–165Inspector General, oversight by, 242–243,

339Internet service providers, use on, 237–238,

239–240judicial review, lack of, 238–239Justice Department, use by, 241libraries, use on, 237–238, 240, 243oversight of, 238–239, 242–243overview, 236–237preliminary inquiries, use in, 241retention of information obtained through,

238revisiting use of, 339

National Technical Assistance Center, 205National Unemployed Workers’ Movement,

288National Witness Protection Program, 146Nation of Islam, 225Necessity defense, 98Negroponte, John, 258Newcomb, Richard, 155New York Stock Exchange, 333New York Times, 321Nicholls, Lord, 24, 609/11 Commission. See September 11

CommissionNixon, Richard

interception of communications by, 11Privacy Act and, 229surveillance by, 228

No Fly List, 254–255Nolan, Lord, 201Nondisclosure agreements, 318–320Noonan, Robert W., 246–247Noraid (Irish Northern Aid Committee), 128






Index 489

Northern Alliance, 75Northern Bank robbery, 124–126Northern Command Intelligence Units, 244,

246Northern Ireland

bias in courts, 43“Bloody Sunday,”38Casement Park trials, 215coercive interrogation in

Adams case, 56–57advantages of, 51–52authorization, lack of, 51complaints re, 56–57criticism of, 52–54ECHR and, 51Geneva Conventions, applicability of,

50–51, 52, 53guidelines, lack of, 51historical background, 49–50ICCPR and, 52inquiries into, 50Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–56military rules re, 50–51moral issues re, 51overview, 34, 48rejection of, 54restrictions proposed, 52Universal Declaration of Human Rights

and, 51, 52criminals and terrorists, distinguishing,

345designation of unlawful organizations in

Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act1922–43, under, 313

generally, 313–314Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 314Regulation 14, 313Regulation 24, 313Regulation 24A, 313, 314Regulation 24B, 313

Detention of Terrorists Order, 42Diplock Courts (See Diplock Courts)direct rule in, 42–43financial counterterrorism in

change in emphasis re, 129–130cultural norms re, 129historical background, 129low priority of, 129Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 130–131Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 130, 131racketeering law, 134–135

Financial Investigations (Northern Ireland)Order (See Financial Investigations(Northern Ireland) Order

Geneva Conventions, applicability ofcoercive interrogation in, 50–51, 52,

53generally, 31, 34

habeas corpus inappeal, lack of right to, 40arrest, validity of, 40–41damages, 41jurisdictional issues, 39–40In re Keenan and another, 38–39, 40Kelly v. Faulkner and others, 41In re McElduff, 38–39, 40

historical background, 36indefinite detention in

end of, 47–48historical background, 36–37Ireland v. United Kingdom, 54–561971–72, during, 37–38overview, 34problems with, 43psychological effects of, 115violence resulting from, 38, 42–43

juries, problems with, 43–44media ban and, 293–294military, legality of actions, 41–42Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order

1996, 139–140Provisional IRA (See Provisional Irish

Republican Army)RIPA and, 198security versus freedom paradigm and, 5sedition and

Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act1922–43, under, 291

generally, 291–292Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 292–293Regulation 4, 291Regulation 8, 291Regulation 26, 291Regulation 26A, 292

Supergrass trials, 173, 253torture in, 49treason and, 284unlawful assembly in

Civil Authorities (Special Powers) Act1922–43, under, 286–287

expansion of restrictions, 287Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 287political nature of restrictions, 287






490 Index

Northern Ireland (cont.)public support for restrictions, 287Regulation 4, 286Regulation 38, 287

war model versus criminal law model in, 10Northern Ireland Act 1972 (UK), 42Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association,

129Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act

1973 (UK)criminal charges, 132designation of unlawful organizations under,

314Detention of Terrorists Order and, 42Diplock Courts and, 44ECHR and, 55financial counterterrorism under, 130–131forfeiture of assets under, 131–132reporting requirements, 14reports by judiciary under, 265temporary provisions, 15unlawful assembly under, 287

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act1987 (UK), 134

Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act1991 (UK), 134, 136

Notebook I2, 257NSA. See National Security AgencyNuanced approach to counterterrorism, 334Nuclear weapons, information re, 301–302,

330

The Observer, 324, 325O’Connor, Sandra Day, 84Octopus, 257Office of Foreign Assets Control

financial counterterrorism and, 147, 167,175, 180

property rights and, 174Suspicious Activity Reports and, 348

Office of Information and Privacy, 342Office of Management and Budget, 335Official Secrets Act 1911 (UK), 325, 326Official Secrets Act 1989 (UK)

closing of records under, 328D-Notice system and, 308ECHR and, 328R. v. Shayler and, 328–330

Oklahoma City bombing, 149, 234Omagh bombing, 317Omand, David, 107–108Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act

(US), 221–222Omnibus nature of counterterrorism, 12

O’Neill, Paul, 160, 167Onslow, Earl of, 64Operation Cornerstone, 159–160Operation Demetrius, 312Operation Eagle Eyes, 245, 253Operation Green Quest, 159Orange Volunteers, 128Organized crime and financial

counterterrorismFinancial Investigations (Northern Ireland)

Order (See Financial Investigations(Northern Ireland) Order)

generally, 139Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order

1996, 139–140Organized Crime Task Force, 139, 358Orwell, George, 182–183Osmotherly Rules, 323Oversight

Intelligence Services Act 1994, under,197

judicial branches, 25legislative branches, 16–20National Security Letters, 238–239,

242–243, 339RIPA, under, 197Security Services Acts 1989/1996, under,

197surveillance, of. See Surveillance oversight

Oxley, Michael, 165

Packard, Vance, 183Paine, Thomas, 290Paisley, Ian, 5, 44, 339Paisley, Ian, Jr., 125Palestinian Liberation Organization, 312Palestinian Relief and Development Fund,

176Palmer, A. Mitchell, 218, 279Panel on Scientific Communication and

National Security, 332Paracha, Uzair, 165Parker, Lord, 50–52Parker Committee, 113Parliament. See generally Legislative branchesParliamentary Intelligence and Security

Committee, 198Parsons, John, 217Patent and Trademark Office, 299, 353Patents and inventions, information re,

298–301Patent secrecy orders, 298–301, 353Pathfinder, 257Patriotism, appeals to, 13






Index 491

Pearson, Ian, 144Peck v. United Kingdom, 216–217Pen registers, 231–232“Pentagon Papers” case, 321–322Pentiti trials, 253People’s Mohjahedin Organization v. United

States, 312Perino, Dana, 165Petition of Right 1628 (UK), 35Pettiti, Louis-Edmund, 192Philbin, Patrick F., 73Picard, Michel, 109Pildes, Richard, 19Pluchinsky, Dennis, 273–274POCA. See Proceeds of Crime Act 2002Poindexter, John, 257–258Police Act 1997 (UK), 194, 197, 201Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (UK),

194, 202Political speech

United Kingdom, inECHR and, 283, 296glorification of terrorism, 294–296media ban and Northern Ireland, 293–294overview, 283, 296restrictions on, 276sedition (See Sedition)treason (See Treason)unlawful assembly (See Unlawful

assembly)United States, in

advocacy versus conduct, 280, 282–283Alien and Sedition Acts of 1978, under,

276, 277anti-communism and, 280–281applicability of First Amendment to

states, 280“bad tendency” test, 277–278Brandenburg case, 282–283Civil War, during, 276–277“clear and present danger” test, 278Committee on Public Information, 277Communist Control Act of 1954, under,

281cultural norms, 283Debs v. United States, 279Dennis v. United States, 281, 282Espionage Act of 1917, under, 277–279Frohwerk v. United States, 278–279Gitlow v. New York, 280judicial norms, 283loyalty programs, 281–282post-Word War I cases, 279protection of, 276

Red Scare, during, 279–280Schenck v. United States, 278, 279,

282Sedition Act of 1918, under, 278Smith Act, under, 280, 281Subversive Activities Control Act, 280Sugarman v. United States, 279Whitney v. California, 280, 282

Ponting, Clive, 327Port and border controls

ATCSA, under, 214“carding,”213code of practice, 214Customs and Excise, role of, 213, 214minorities, targeting of, 213overview, 213questioning under, 213–214Terrorism Act 2000, under, 213

Posner, Eric, 4, 25Posner, Richard, 4, 24, 28Post Office Act 1908 (UK), 187Post Office Act 1953 (UK), 187Post Office (Offenses) Act 1837 (UK), 187Powell, Colin

Geneva Conventions, on applicability of, 80,81–82

Guantanamo Bay, on indefinite detention at,89

historical background, 80torture, on, 100

Powell, Lewis F., Jr., 222President. See generally Executive branches;

specific PresidentPresident’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory

Board, 265Prevention of Terrorism Act 1989 (UK)

financial counterterrorism under, 133forfeiture of assets under, 133–134

Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 (UK)approval of, 71control orders

concessions by government, 70–71criminal law, extension to, 16restrictions on, 70

criminal law, intrusion into, 71future amendments, promise of, 68, 71government support of, 66, 69–70House of Commons, debate in, 66–67House of Lords, debate in, 68–69judiciary, role of, 67–68Parliament, final debate in, 70popular opposition to, 67press, reaction of, 67sunset provisions, lack of, 71






492 Index

Prevention of Terrorism (TemporaryProvisions) Act 1974 (UK)

debate re, 13defense of, 5designation of unlawful organizations under,

314–315enactment of, 13financial counterterrorism under, 130, 131forfeiture of assets under, 131, 132reporting requirements, 14reports by judiciary under, 265sedition under, 292–293sunset provisions and, 338

Prime Minister. See generally Executivebranches; specific Prime Minister

Prior restraint and national securityinformation, 321–322

Prisoners of warAbu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)al Qaeda as, 81Geneva Conventions (See Geneva

Conventions)Taliban as, 81

Privacycounterterrorism, effect of, 25–26data protection (See Data protection)Defense Department surveillance, impact of,

248financial counterterrorism, impact of, 169financial institutions and, 169–170overview, 206private sector and, 185–186surveillance and, 269–270

Privacy Act (US), 229Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board,

19Privileged speech

United Kingdom, inbreach of confidence, 324–325civil service rules, 323closing of records (See Closing of records)deference to executive branch, 330Osmotherly Rules, 323“Spycatcher” case, 323–325United States compared, 317, 322–323

United States, inclassified information, 320, 321nondisclosure agreements, 318–320outside scope of employment, 317–318“Pentagon Papers” case, 321–322prior restraint and national security

information, 321–322within scope of employment, 318

sensitive but not classified information,320–321

United Kingdom compared, 317, 322–323Privy Counsellor Review Committee, 58–59Probable cause

FISA and, 230–231, 232, 233–234interception of communications, required

for, 221–222Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (UK)

drug trafficking and, 137financial counterterrorism under

Assets Recovery Agency, 143–145assumptions re proceeds, 143civil law, use of, 142–143

judicial authority under, 143Proceeds of Crime (Northern Ireland) Order

1996 (UK), 139–140The Progressive, 301–302, 330Progressive Unionist Party, 274Project BLUEBIRD/ARTICHOKE, 270Project CHATTER, 270Project Strikeback, 257Property rights

due process and, 174financial counterterrorism, impact of, 170,

174Protection from Harassment Act (UK),

289Provisional Irish Republican Army

budget for, 346communication and, 274funding of

amounts needed, 128diversification of, 127foreign sources of, 127–128Noraid, 128Northern Bank robbery and, 124–126overview, 123–124United States, from, 128unlawful sources of, 124, 126–127

indefinite detention and, 38media ban and, 293

Psychological surveillance, 186, 270–271Public Accounts Committee, 263–264Publicity, role in counterterrorism, 358–359Public Order Act 1936 (UK), 287–288Public Order Act 1986 (UK), 288–289Public sentiment and counterterrorism, 12–13

Qahtani, Mohamed al-, 74, 96–97Qatada, Abu, 295Quantum Leap, 257Qur’an desecration, 118–120






Index 493

Race Relations Act 1965 (UK), 289Racial profiling. See Minority groups, effect of

counterterrorism onRacketeer Influenced and Corrupt

Organizations Act (US), 315–316Racketeering law and financial

counterterrorism, 134–135Ramsey, Charles, 217Rasul, Shafiq, 90Rasul v. Bush, 83–84Reagan, Ronald

classified information under, 320rendition, on, 104

Real Irish Republican Army, 128, 138, 346Red Hand Defenders, 128Red Scare, 279–280Reed, Stanley, 11Rees, Merlyn, 47, 327Refugee Convention of 1951, 106Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000

(UK)admissibility of evidence under, 200–201authorization for surveillance, obtaining,

202benefits of, 199complaint procedures, 197covert human intelligence sources, 204criticism of, 206data protection under, 209–210directed surveillance, 203–204ECHR and, 195, 197, 198encrypted data under, 205inspections under, 199Intelligence Services Commissioner, 197,

198, 199Interception of Communications

Commissioner, 197–198, 199interception of communications under

inspections, 199oversight function, 197overview, 201, 202

introduction of, 196intrusive surveillance, 202–203Investigatory Powers Tribunal, 197, 199R. v. Khan and, 201–202national security, secrecy re, 198–199Northern Ireland and, 198oversight function, 197, 204overview, 187powers, expansion of, 196–197protections, expansion of, 200reporting process, weaknesses of, 197–198restrictions on intercepts, 199–200

terrorism, secrecy re, 198–199USA PATRIOT Act compared, 196warrants

authorization of, 200content versus pattern of behavior,

205–206Remedies and counterterrorism, 22–23Rendition. See Extraordinary renditionReno, Janet, 250, 342Reporting requirements

citizen reporting programs (See Citizenreporting programs)

cumulative nature of counterterrorism and,341

detail required, 341financial counterterrorism in United

Kingdom, 142importance of, 340Interception of Communications Act 1985,

under, 197Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions)

Act 1973, under, 14persons to whom reports made, 340–341Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary

Provisions) Act 1974, under, 14public disclosure, 340–341Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act

2000, under, 197–198Terrorism Act 2000, under, 142TSP, 340–341

Republican Sinn Fein, 293Restoration of Order in Ireland Acts 1920

(UK), 15, 313Rhuhel, Ahmed, 90Rice, Condoleezza

coercive interrogation, on, 106–107, 108Qur’an desecration, on, 119

Rideh, Mahmoud Abu, 115Ridge, Tom, 256Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978 (US),

151–152, 169, 241RIPA. See Regulation of Investigatory Powers

Act 2000Robertson, James, 88Rodger, Lord, 61Rome Treaty of 1957, 206Roosevelt, Franklin D., 219Ross, James, 91Ross, William, 141Roth, Kenneth, 109Rowley, Colleen, 14Royal Society, 309Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), 37, 135, 286






494 Index

Rule of law, erosion of, 356–357Rumsfeld, Donald

Abu Ghraib, on, 120coercive interrogation, revision of standards,

97–98, 99–100data mining and, 259Guantanamo Bay and

coercive interrogation, on, 96indefinite detention, on, 72, 74, 75, 80,

82, 90Qur’an desecration, on, 119–120

Rusbridger, Alan, 284

Safe Harbor, 209Safire, William, 270Saint Louis University, 331Sanchez, Ricardo, 101, 102Saudi Arabia

al Qaeda, sources of funding of, 154freezing of assets, unbalanced inclusion on

lists, 357–358Save the Children, 180Scannell, Rick, 61Scarfo; United States v., 251Schenck v. United States, 278, 279, 282Scheuer, Michael, 104Schmidt Report, 96, 97Schumer, Charles E., 252Scotsman Publications Ltd.; Lord Advocate v.,

308Scott, Richard, 310Searches

delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236financial counterterrorism and, 174FISA, warrantless searches under, 231“sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236USA PATRIOT Act, warrantless searches

under, 233–234Secrecy orders, 298–301, 353Secret evidence. See Financial counterterrorismSecret Intelligence Service, 210Secretive nature of terrorism and

counterterrorism, 12Secret Service, 160Secure Collaborative Operational Prototype

Environment, 257Secure Flight, 256Security Service, 210Security Service Acts 1989/1996 (UK)

complaint procedures, 197, 199ECHR and, 192, 194, 195MI5 under, 194oversight function, 197

overview, 187, 195warrants, obtaining, 194–195

Sediq, Mohammed, 92Sedition

Northern Ireland and (See Northern Ireland)United Kingdom, in

Blackstone on, 290common law, under, 290defined, 290films, banning of, 291–292political speech, 290–291seditious conspiracy, 291United States compared, 291

United States, in (See Political speech)Sedition Act of 1918 (US), 278Select Committee on Northern Ireland Affairs,

358Sensenbrenner, James, 1, 13, 241, 242, 270,

338Sensitive but not classified information,

320–321Separation of powers

executive powers and, 11Guantanamo Bay, and indefinite detention

at, 72Islamist threat in United Kingdom, and

indefinite detention, 60surveillance oversight, effect on, 265

September 11 Commissionfinancial counterterrorism, on, 174, 178freezing of assets, on, 176funding of terrorist organizations, on, 153Muslim charities, on targeting of, 180surveillance oversight, reform efforts, 262

Serious Organized Crime Agency, 146SHARE (Systematic Homeland Approach to

Reducing Exploitation), 159–160Sharkey, Brian, 258Shayler, David Michael, 328–330Shay’s Rebellion, 26Shibh, Ramzi bin al-, 75Shift in power among branches of government,

6–7Shillington, Graham, 37Short-term approach to counterterrorism,

dangers of, 359–360Simon, Bob, 175Simon, Lord, 17Sinn Fein

designation of unlawful organizations and,314

elections and, 126forfeiture of assets and, 131






Index 495

funding of, 126media ban and, 293, 294

Siri, Yasser al-, 295Sixth Amendment, 172Smith, Howard W., 280Smith, Stuart, 198Smith, Thomas, 49Smith Act, 280, 281“Sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236Snepp, Frank, 319Snow, John, 165Socialist Workers Party (US), 225–227Society for General Microbiology, 309–310Sofaer, Abraham, 94, 110Souter, David, 84Southern Christian Leadership Council, 225,

227Special courts, 25Special Immigration Appeals Commission, 58Specially Designated Terrorist List, 123, 148,

166, 177Special Powers Act. See Civil Authorities

(Special Powers) Act 1922–43Specter, Arlen, 21, 164, 262Speech, freedom of

AEDPA, under, 150–151censorship and terrorism, 273–274charitable contributions and, 168–169communication by terrorist groups, 274costs of restrictions on, 332designation of unlawful organizations, effect

ofdomestic organizations, 312foreign organizations, 312–313Northern Ireland, in (See Northern

Ireland)United Kingdom, in, 313, 314–315

evidence rules, effect ofUnited Kingdom, in, 316–317United States, in, 315–316

executive branch anddeference to, 330expansion of authority, 275–276

executive detention, effect ofUnited Kingdom, in, 312United States, in, 311–312

financial counterterrorism and, 150–151knowledge-based speech (See

Knowledge-based speech)media and

importance of, 275terrorist organizations, use by, 274, 275

political speech (See Political speech)

privileged speech (See Privileged speech)restrictions on, unintended results of, 30secondary effects of counterterrorism on,

311, 317security and, 29–30sedition (See Sedition)states, applicability of First Amendment to,

280Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244United Kingdom versus United States, 275watch lists and, 256

Speed of enactment of counterterrorism,11–12, 13

Spiral nature of counterterrorism, 15“Spycatcher” case, 308, 323–325, 328Standing Advisory Committee on Human

Rights, 129Standing and counterterrorism, 22Star Chamber, 49Stevens, Cat, 255Stevens, John, 66Stevens, John Paul, 22, 83–84, 86–88, 267Stevenson, Adlai, III, 227Stewart, Potter, 221Steyn, Lord, 89Stone, Geoffrey, 282, 283Stone, Harlan Fiske, 218, 224, 229Straw, Jack, 89, 138, 344Student Exchange Visitor Information System,

297Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee,

225Students for a Democratic Society, 225Subpoenas

National Security Letters (See NationalSecurity Letters)

USA PATRIOT Act, requirement eliminatedunder, 169

Subversive Activities Control Act (US), 280Subversive Activities Control Board, 280Successes of counterterrorism, 333Sugarman v. United States, 279Sunday Times, 324Sunset provisions

problems with, 338, 339recommendation against, 339–340renewal debates, nature of, 338–339secrecy, impact of, 339temporary counterterrorism provisions, as,

14Supergrass trials, 173, 253Supreme Court. See generally Judicial

branches; specific Justice






496 Index

Surveillancecitizen reporting programs (See Citizen

reporting programs)closed-circuit television (See Closed-circuit

television, surveillance by)computers, effect of, 185, 186costs of

acontextual data merger, danger of, 267deviant behavior, use of information to

suppress, 268–269dissent, use of information to suppress,

268economic activity, impact on, 271–272excessive amount of information, danger

of, 267–268expansion beyond terrorism, danger of,

269Fourth Amendment, avoiding, 269individualized suspicion, abandonment of,

269law enforcement, impact on, 270minority groups, targeting of, 271overview, 266, 272political purposes, use of information for,

268privacy, impact on, 269–270stigmatization, danger of, 271

covert human intelligence sources, 204data mining (See Data mining)data protection (See Data protection)directed surveillance, 203–204, 216electronic surveillance (See Interception of

communications)financial counterterrorism, use in, 164–165Fourth Amendment and

avoidance of, 269executive authority and, 220

hidden nature of benefits versus visiblenature of costs, 186

inaccurate informationcriminal prosecutions, use in, 267danger of, 266–267extent of, 267third-party collection of information,

problems with, 267interception of communications (See

Interception of communications)Internet, effect of, 185intrusive surveillance, 202–203oversight of (See Surveillance oversight)psychological surveillance, 186, 270–271telephones, effect of, 185United Kingdom, in

closed culture of, 183, 184

ECHR, impact of, 183–184executive branch oversight, 265–266FISA compared, 232historical background, 183inter-branch disputes, 183judicial review, 264–265legislative oversight, 263–264port and border controls (See Port and

border controls)public surveillance, 212RIPA, under (See Regulation of

Investigatory Powers Act 2000)statutory authority, 187

United States, inclosed-circuit television, 217–218Defense Department (See Defense

Department)Defense Intelligence Agency, 184, 244,

245, 248executive branch oversight, 265FBI (See Federal Bureau of Investigation)FISA, under (See Foreign Intelligence

Surveillance Act of 1978)historical background, 184judicial review, 264, 265legislative oversight, 261–263overview, 243private sector and, 185–186USA PATRIOT Act, under (See USA

PATRIOT Act)watch lists (See Watch lists)wiretapping (See Interception of

communications)Surveillance oversight

United Kingdom, inECHR and, 264–265executive branch oversight, 265–266FISA compared, 265judicial review of, 264–265legislative oversight, weakness of,

263–264Public Accounts Committee, 263–264reports by judiciary, 265weaknesses of, 263

United States, inCongressional inaction and, 262deference to executive branch and, 262executive branch oversight, 265FISA Court, 263–264funding of, 263Intelligence Oversight Board, 265judicial review of, 264, 265lack of emphasis on oversight post-9/11,

261






Index 497

legislative oversight, 261–263political considerations, 261–262President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory

Board, 265reform efforts, 262–263separation of powers, effect of, 265strengths of, 261weaknesses of, 261

Suspicious Activity Reports, 151, 161, 347–349Swift banking incident, 164–165, 179

Taguba, Antonio, 101, 102Taguba Report, 103, 321Taliban

enemy combatants, as, 78Geneva Conventions, applicability of, 78,

80, 81, 82prisoners of war, as, 81

TALON program, 245–246Taylor, Anna Diggs, 244Taylor, Jan, 215Technology and Privacy Advisory Committee,

258–259Telephones

surveillance, effect on, 185Terrorist Surveillance Program, 244–245wiretapping (See Interception of

communications)Teller, Edward, 301Temporary counterterrorism provisions

sunset provisions, 14United Kingdom, in, 14–15United States, in, 15

Temporary Provisions Act 1974. SeePrevention of Terrorism (TemporaryProvisions) Act 1974

Tenet, George, 104, 105Terrorism Act 2000 (UK)

financial counterterrorism under, 138–139,170–171

open warrants under, 142port and border controls under, 213reporting requirements, 142reports by judiciary under, 265witness protection programs and, 354

Terrorism Information and Prevention System(TIPS), 251–252

Terrorism Information Awareness, 258Terrorist Financing Operations Section, 158Terrorist Financing Unit, 158Terrorist Surveillance Program (TSP), 22,

244–245, 340–341Thatcher, Margaret

Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005, on, 69

“Spycatcher” case and, 324war model versus criminal law model, on, 10Zircon affair and, 327

Thomas, Lord, 69, 70Thompson, George, 307Thompson, Larry, 159, 174Threat and Local Observation Notice

(TALON) program, 245–246TIPS (Terrorism Information and Prevention

System), 251–252Tisdall, Sarah, 326–327Torture

Abu Ghraib, at (See Abu Ghraib)admissibility of evidence obtained through

Convention Against Torture and, 113ECHR and, 113Guantanamo Bay, 92–93

Detainee Treatment Act, amendments toprohibit

adoption of, 110–111opposition to, 110–111support for, 110

Guantanamo Bay, at (See Guantanamo Bay)Northern Ireland, in, 49United Kingdom, in

common law, under, 48historical rejection of, 48–49Islamist threat in United Kingdom and

(See Islamist threat in United Kingdom)Magna Carta and, 48national security and, 49Star Chamber, 49

Torture Victims Protection Act (US), 111Total Information Awareness, 22, 184, 268Tourism, effect of counterterrorism on, 28–29Tower, John, 228Trading with the Enemy Act (US), 147–149Traditional pattern of counterterrorism, 2Trager, David, 111Transparency and accountability in

counterterrorismimportance of, 341overview, 341United Kingdom, in, 343–345United States, in

classified information and, 343Freedom of Information Act, under (See

Freedom of Information Act)Transportation Department, 184Transportation Security Administration

citizen reporting programs, 252No Fly List and, 254, 255Secure Flight and, 256

Trap and trace devices, 231–232






498 Index

Treasoncommon law, under, 283defined, 283expansion of treasonable offenses, 283–284Northern Ireland and, 284republican government, advocacy of,

284–285Treason Act 1351 (UK), 283Treason Act 1795 (UK), 284Treason Felony Act (UK), 284Treasury Department

Executive Office for Terrorist Financing andFinancial Crimes, 159

Financial Action Task Force, 159financial counterterrorism, role in, 159Office of Foreign Assets Control, 348surveillance by, 184, 228, 243

Truman, Harry S.interception of communications by, 11knowledge-based speech and, 299loyalty programs under, 281steel mills, seizure of, 359

Truong; United States v., 234Trustco Bank, N.A., 349Twenty-First Century Department of Justice

Appropriation Authorization Act, 250Twining, William, 44Tyrie, Andrew, 107

Udeen, Jamal, 90Ulster Defence Association, 128, 274, 293, 346Ulster Democratic Party, 274Ulster Freedom Fighters, 128Ulster Volunteer Force, 128, 274, 314“Unabomber,”274Un-American Activities Committee, 281Uncertainty in counterterrorism, 334UN Committee Against Torture, 58UN Convention on the Suppression of

Financing of Terrorism, 349Uniform Code of Military Justice, 20, 98United Kingdom. See specific topicUnited Nations Charter, 62United States. See specific topicUniversal Declaration of Human Rights

Islamist threat in United Kingdom, tortureand, 62

Northern Ireland, and coercive interrogationin, 51, 52

Unlawful assemblydisorderly behavior and, 289domestic restrictions, 287ECHR and, 289–290

hate speech and, 289historical background, 287–288Human Rights Act 2000, under, 289insults and, 289necessity doctrine, 285–286Northern Ireland and (See Northern Ireland)Public Order Act 1936, under, 287–288Public Order Act 1986, under, 288–289Regulation 9A, 287Regulation 20, 288United States compared, 285

Unlawful combatants. See Enemy combatantsUN Relief and Works Agency, 180USA Freedom Corps, 254USA PATRIOT Act

amendments to, 2Congressional debate, 1–2criminal law, intrusion into, 16, 233–234data protection under, ATCSA compared,

210–211delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236enactment of, 2expansion of executive powers under, 10financial counterterrorism under

currency transaction reports, 161–162customer identification measures, 161executive authority under IEEPA,

broadening of, 160–161extraterritorial jurisdiction, 163–164financial institutions, regulation of,

161–163, 169–170forfeiture of assets, 163, 170freezing of assets, 163money laundering programs, 161National Security Letters, use of, 164–165offshore banking and, 162–163overview, 123, 147, 160searches of records, 162–163surveillance, use of, 164–165Suspicious Activity Reports, 161, 347Swift banking incident, 164–165

habeas corpus, suspension of, 1incorporation of previously rejected

provisions, 13interception of communications under, RIPA

compared, 196introduction, 1knowledge-based speech and, 297, 352nonuse of provisions, 334permanent provisions of, 2privacy concerns and, 26resolutions against, 269“sneak and peek” search warrants, 235–236






Index 499

speed of enactment, 11student visas under, 297subpoena requirement, elimination of, 169sunset provisions in, 2, 339surveillance under

business records, obtaining, 233, 234–235criminal law, intrusion into, 233–234emergency powers, 235financial counterterrorism, use in,

164–165FISA Court objections, 233National Security Letters (See National

Security Letters)overview, 233“significant purpose” standard, 233Truong case and, 234warrantless searches, 233–234

USA PATRIOT Improvement Act, 2US Social Science Research Council, 118Uzair, Abu, 295

Varhola, Michael, 247Verity K2 Enterprise, 257Vermeule, Adrian, 4, 25Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 79,

137Viking Penguin, 324Vinson, Fred, 11, 281Voluntary Tender Act of 1917 (US), 298Voluntary Vetting Scheme, 298, 308–309

Wadi al-Aqiq, 156Walker, Clive, 212, 213Walker, Mary L., 98Walker, Vaughn, 245War Crimes Act (US), 76, 79, 80, 81War model versus criminal law model of

counterterrorismgenerally, 7–10Northern Ireland, in, 10problems with approaches, 9, 10range of executive powers sought,

differences in, 9source of authority of executive power,

differences in, 9United Kingdom, in, 7–9United States, in, 8, 10, 356–357

War Powers Resolution (US), 71Warrants

delayed-notice search warrants, 235–236FISA, warrantless searches under, 231interception of communications, warrant

requests, 188–190

open warrants and financialcounterterrorism, 142

RIPA, underauthorization of, 200content versus pattern of behavior,

205–206Security Service Acts 1989/1996, under,

194–195“sneak and peek” search warrants,

235–236surveillance warrants, 265–266, 335Terrorism Act 2000, open warrants under,

142USA PATRIOT Act, warrantless searches

under, 234Warren, Charles, 277Washington Post, 321Watch lists

CAPS program, 255expansion of, 256freedom of speech and, 256historical background, 254Homeland Security Department, 256No Fly List, 254–255private companies developing, 255–256problems with, 256Secure Flight, 256

Waxman, Henry A., 262Weapons of mass destruction, information re,

302–306Weaver, Randy, 26Wechsler, William, 154, 155Western Goals Foundation, 253Westin, Alan, 183, 271White, Byron, 221White, Stephen, 355Whitelaw, William, 5, 10, 42, 43, 44White Oak Technologies, 247Whitman, Bryan, 119Whitney v. California, 280, 282Wilberforce, Lord, 17Wildhaber, Luzius, 212Williams, Lord, 284Wilson, Harold, 323Wilson, Woodrow, 277Winfield, Gwyn, 65Wiretapping. See Interception of

communicationsWitness protection programs

National Witness Protection Program,146

strengthening of, recommendation re,354–355






500 Index

WMD Commission, 262Wolfowitz, Paul, 84, 245, 247World Bank, 157, 333World Health Organization, 297Wright, Peter, 193–194, 323–324, 325Wyden, Ron, 258, 262

Yee, James, 255Yoo, John

customary international law, on, 79data mining, on, 260

Geneva Conventions, on, 76–78Guantanamo Bay, and indefinite detention

at, 71, 73Terrorist Surveillance Program and, 244

Zada, Shah, 115Zawahiri, Ayman Muhammad, 104Zayed, Muhammad Moshen Yahya, 109Zery, Muhammad, 106Zircon affair, 327–328Zubaydah, Abu, 75






Documents

Marketing Fragment 6 x 10.5 - Cambridge University Pressassets.cambridge.org/97805218/44444/index/9780521844444... · 2008-04-28 · data protection under avoiding detection under,