Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
Mass Animal
Mortality Plan
Iowa DNR 2019
2
MASS ANIMAL MORTALITY PLAN IOWA DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Updated in 2019 from the 2006 Foreign Animal Disease Plan
Contents I. Executive Summary .................................................................................................................................... 5
II. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 6
a. Purpose ................................................................................................................................................. 6
b. Scope ..................................................................................................................................................... 6
c. Authority ............................................................................................................................................... 6
d. DNR Staff Roles ..................................................................................................................................... 7
e. Other Plans ............................................................................................................................................ 7
III. Planning Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 9
a. Overview ............................................................................................................................................... 9
b. Assumptions .......................................................................................................................................... 9
IV. Training .................................................................................................................................................. 11
a. Required Training for DNR Staff .......................................................................................................... 11
b. Training Activities ................................................................................................................................ 12
V. Communications and Coordination ........................................................................................................ 14
a. Local Activation ................................................................................................................................... 14
b. Statewide Response (state lead) ......................................................................................................... 14
c. Statewide or Regional Response (federal lead) .................................................................................. 14
VI. DATA RESOURCES .................................................................................................................................. 15
a. Non‐Disease Outbreak ........................................................................................................................ 15
b. Disease Outbreak ................................................................................................................................ 15
VII. PLAN ACTIVATION ................................................................................................................................. 16
Disease Outbreak ................................................................................................................................ 16
Governor’s Disaster Proclamation ...................................................................................................... 16
VIII. OPERATIONS ........................................................................................................................................ 17
a. Wildlife Consideration ......................................................................................................................... 17
b. Wastewater Containment ................................................................................................................... 19
c. Carcass Disposal .................................................................................................................................. 19
3
Composting ......................................................................................................................................... 21
Burial ................................................................................................................................................... 23
Incineration ......................................................................................................................................... 26
Landfill ................................................................................................................................................. 26
Rendering ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Alkaline Hydrolysis .............................................................................................................................. 26
Approval Process for Other Methods ................................................................................................. 27
d. BioSecurity .......................................................................................................................................... 27
e. Non‐Carcass Waste Collection and Disposal ....................................................................................... 27
Appendices .................................................................................................................................................. 29
Appendix A – Wildlife Risk Assessment .................................................................................................. 29
Appendix B – Non‐Disease Requirements .............................................................................................. 29
Appendix C – Animal Diseases ................................................................................................................ 29
Appendix D – Quick Action Guides ......................................................................................................... 29
Appendix E – Resources .......................................................................................................................... 29
Appendix A – Wildlife Risk Assessment ...................................................................................................... 30
Appendix B – Non‐Disease Requirements .................................................................................................. 34
1. Fire/Natural Disasters ......................................................................................................................... 34
2. Infrastructure Failures ......................................................................................................................... 34
Appendix C – Animal Diseases .................................................................................................................... 35
1. African Swine Fever ‐ Virus ................................................................................................................. 37
2. Anthrax – Bacteria ............................................................................................................................... 37
3. Avian Influenza ‐ Virus ........................................................................................................................ 38
4. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) ‐ Prion .............................................................................. 38
5. Brucellosis ‐ Bacteria ........................................................................................................................... 39
6. Chronic Wasting Disease ‐ Prion ......................................................................................................... 39
7. Classical swine fever ‐ Virus ................................................................................................................ 40
8. Duck Plague ‐ Virus.............................................................................................................................. 40
9. Equine infectious anemia – Vector transmitted Virus ........................................................................ 41
10. Foot and Mouth Disease ‐ Virus ........................................................................................................ 42
11. Newcastle Disease ‐ Virus ................................................................................................................. 43
12. Paratuberculosis (Johne’s Disease) ‐ Bacteria ................................................................................... 43
13. Pseudorabies ‐ Virus .......................................................................................................................... 44
4
14. Rift Valley Fever – Vector transmitted Virus ..................................................................................... 45
15. Schmallenberg Virus – Vector transmitted Virus .............................................................................. 45
16. Scrapie ‐ Prion ................................................................................................................................... 46
17. Bovine Tuberculosis ‐ Bacteria .......................................................................................................... 46
18. Tularemia ‐ Bacteria .......................................................................................................................... 47
19. Vesicular stomatitis – Vector transmitted Virus ............................................................................... 47
20. West Nile Virus – Vector transmitted Virus ...................................................................................... 48
Appendix D – Quick Guides ......................................................................................................................... 50
Poultry ..................................................................................................................................................... 50
Swine ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Cattle ....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Appendix E – Glossary ................................................................................................................................. 63
1. Acronyms and Abbreviations .............................................................................................................. 63
2. Terms .................................................................................................................................................. 63
3. Definitions ........................................................................................................................................... 63
4. Resources/Links to Additional Information ........................................................................................ 65
Key Partner Agencies: ......................................................................................................................... 65
General Foreign Animal Disease Outbreak info .................................................................................. 65
Disease Links ....................................................................................................................................... 65
Wildlife Field Safety ............................................................................................................................ 65
5
I. Executive Summary
Iowa consistently ranks in the top 10 in most livestock and poultry categories, and is number one in hog
and egg production. The number of farm animals in Iowa makes it imperative that the Iowa Department
of Natural Resources (DNR) be prepared to assist producers and our agency partners during a large‐scale
animal event. In 2003 the DNR developed its first comprehensive Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) plan as a
result of the 2001 Foot‐and‐Mouth Disease outbreak in England. Since then, the FAD plan has expanded
to include other diseases. It has proved useful during non‐disease‐related events like floods, tornados,
and heating, ventilation and air conditioning system failures.
The DNR’s Mass Animal Mortality Plan replaces the FAD plan, giving staff the flexibility to respond to a
variety of disease and non‐disease related mass animal mortality events. The plan is written generically,
focusing on basic response methodologies. Event‐specific information is contained in appendices. This
flexibility allows the plan to be scaled to address incidents impacting livestock, poultry and wildlife in
Iowa. All operations and activities undertaken by DNR staff in response to a mass animal mortality event
will be conducted using the incident command, unified command and national incident management
system as needed.
This plan complements other state operational plans and is based on the general plan set forth in Annex
W of the Iowa Emergency Plan (2003) and Emergency Support Function‐11 (ESF‐11) of the Iowa
Emergency Response Plan (2015). Intentional introductions of a foreign animal disease is considered a
terrorist event and will involve federal law enforcement officials.
The occurrence of an animal disease in Iowa could have devastating socioeconomic consequences to the
state, and it may take years to recover from such an incident. Likewise a non‐disease mass animal
mortality at a facility may devastate the economy of a local community. To mount an effective response
to a foreign animal disease, producers, associations, researchers, regulators and emergency responders
must stay abreast of developments, and plan and exercise together. The state of Iowa recommends all
livestock or poultry operations prepare a catastrophic mortality disposal plan.
6
II. Introduction
a. Purpose
To identify, coordinate, and assign Iowa Department of Natural Resources (DNR) activities necessary to
respond to a catastrophic mass animal mortality event in Iowa.
b. Scope
This plan:
This plan is activated when a large number of animals of a single species or multiple species in a
defined geographical area die off or is at elevated risk of mass mortalities;
Is activated for surveillance and detection, containment, control or disposal of animals impacted
by a mass mortality event;
Describes available resources and actions DNR will take to meet the goals of surveillance and
detection, containment, control or disposal of animals impacted or potentially impacted by a
mass mortality event, and;
Is designed to work in concert with other state emergency plans as appropriate.
c. Authority
The following administrative rules (IAC) and state law (Iowa Code) provide the legal authority for DNR
(and other agencies) to proceed in an emergency situation. Find out more or read the specific
references on the Iowa Legislature’s website.
Iowa Code Chapter 29C grants extraordinary powers to the Governor through a Proclamation of Disaster
in Iowa.
561 IAC Rule 10.4 (17A, 455A)Criteria for Waiver or Variance, allows waiving or variance from
appropriate rules based on criteria set forth in this plan.
567 IAC Rule 21.2 (455B) – Rules pertaining to applications for variances from applicable Air
Quality rules and standards.
567 IAC Chapter 65 (459, 459B) Provides the DNR the authority to regulate animal feeding
operations.
567 IAC Rule 100.4 (455B) Specific requirements for burial of dead farm animals.
567 IAC Chapter 101 (455B, 455D) Rules pertaining to waste flow control (the movement of
waste between landfills in different comprehensive solid waste planning areas).
567 IAC Rule 105.6 (455B, 455D) Specific requirements for composting of dead farm animals.
567 IAC Chapter 113 (455B) Specific requirements for operation of a sanitary landfill in Iowa.
7
d. DNR Staff Roles
Any DNR staff may be asked to participate in a mass mortality event as needed and appropriate.
Potential tasks for specific staff are indicated below.
Law Enforcement & Parks Bureau – Conservation Officers and Park Rangers are trained law
enforcement officers with statewide jurisdiction. As such, they may be tasked with a variety of law
enforcement‐related activities including assisting in enforcing quarantine zones, standstill orders, or
road closures. They may accompany other DNR staff if there is a potential for an aggravated or
dangerous encounter with the public.
Law Enforcement, Parks, Fisheries & Wildlife Bureaus – Biologists and Technicians from these bureaus
will conduct wildlife surveillance where wild animals may become infected, and have the potential to
transmit the disease to domestic livestock and poultry. Law Enforcement staff may also be tasked with
enforcement related tasks including enforcing standstill orders and quarantine zones. If wildlife control
measures are necessary, these staff will coordinate and take necessary actions.
Field Services and Compliance Bureau (field staff) – Environmental Specialists from field offices will
represent DNR in the field during a mass mortality event. They coordinate with central office program
staff as necessary to ensure the best possible outcome. If the State Emergency Operations Center
(SEOC) is activated, field staff will coordinate activities with DNR staff at the SEOC to ensure
communication needs and priorities are met. Field staff will oversee and assist other agencies with all
methods of mortality disposal, assist with disposal of wastewater generated during the event, assist
with securing appropriate water sources, and assist with permitting requirements. Field staff from
Emergency Response and staff from field offices (if staffing needs require) will assist with coordinating
DNR operations from the SEOC.
Communications staff – Information Specialists may be asked to work at the Joint Information Center at
the SEOC to help ensure a consistent message is prepared and disseminated to Iowans. If the SEOC has
not been activated, communications staff will work with field staff and management to ensure Iowans
receive timely and accurate information concerning the mass mortality event.
Air Quality Bureau – Staff from Air Quality may be tasked with air permit approvals, air dispersion
modeling, or processing variance applications if incineration is chosen as a disposal method.
Land Quality Bureau – Geographical Information System (GIS) analysts will prepare and transmit GIS
tools and products to the appropriate regional command centers and field offices. Staff in the solid
waste section will assist field staff in evaluating and coordinating disposal options. Environmental
Services Division staff may also assist field staff with data collection and field verification of burial
locations.
Water Quality Bureau – Staff from the Water Quality Bureau may be tasked with determining
wastewater disposal options, locating adequate water resources and protecting the state’s water
resources.
e. Other Plans
This plan replaces previous DNR plans developed to address Foreign Animal Disease and the Wildlife
Foot–and‐Mouth Disease Response Plan. This plan is intended to complement ESF‐11 of the Iowa
Emergency Response Plan and any plans developed by the Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land
8
Stewardship (IDALS) or U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) for animal disease response. This plan is
also intended to complement DNR’s existing wildlife disease management plans.
9
III. Planning Considerations
a. Overview
This plan is designed to address a variety of mass animal mortality events. Mass animal mortalities can
occur as the result of foreign and domestic animal diseases, catastrophic natural disasters or failures in
the production environment. Because of the wide variety of potential events, this plan is designed to be
scalable from local field office activation to full DNR/multi‐agency activation. While no plan can predict
all contingencies, and the natural environment and production processes can change over time, this
plan is intended to address common issues and list methodologies to deal with the issues.
b. Assumptions
Assumptions used in the development of this plan vary with the scale and nature of the mass animal
mortality event. Responding to mass mortalities in Iowa can significantly impact a local economy, public
health and safety, and Iowa’s natural resources.
Disease‐Related Mass Animal Mortality Event
Response to an animal disease will be coordinated through IDALS or USDA depending on the
disease and its severity.
An animal disease affecting domestic livestock including, but not limited to, cattle, hogs, sheep,
goats and poultry, will require containment actions potentially including depopulation and
disposal. Local, state and federal staff and resources will be required.
Large amounts of specialty machinery, supplies and materials may be required to respond to an
outbreak of disease. DNR staff may be working around euthanasia equipment or chemicals,
decontamination systems or heavy equipment needed for carcass disposal.
Biosecurity and virus elimination procedures can be extensive and will follow guidelines
established by IDALS/USDA based on the disease.
An outbreak may directly affect wild animals by causing clinical disease or death. In some cases
wildlife may be reservoirs or disseminators of diseases.
Wildlife‐related control measures may include surveillance of susceptible wildlife populations,
depopulation of susceptible wildlife from selected areas, postponement or closure of hunting
seasons in affected areas, prohibition of movement of wildlife or wildlife products, and
restriction of access to certain geographic areas.
Non‐Disease Related Mass Animal Mortality Event (in addition to those previously listed)
Response to a non‐disease related mass mortality event will be coordinated by the agency with
local jurisdiction based on the type of event, impacted animal type, and animal use. For
example, the fire department would respond to a facility fire and would be incident commander
until the initial response phase is complete. DNR staff would coordinate with fire officials while
the fire department is the lead.
10
Access to impacted animals may be limited or delayed by site conditions, animal ownership
status, or the event itself. For example at a contract farm the site owner may be different than
the animal owner. This can lead to a delay in response efforts while liability is determined.
Response to a mass animal mortality may also depend on the condition of the animals, the
event leading to the mass mortality event and available resources.
Natural Disaster Related Mass Animal Mortality Event (in addition to those previously listed)
Access to the site may not be possible until the natural disaster has ended. For example, flood
waters may need to recede before carcasses can be safely accessed.
Resources during a natural disaster are often in short supply. For example, carbon source
material may not be readily available for composting after an ice storm.
Conditions during or immediately after a natural disaster may limit disposal options. For
example, frozen ground can make burial difficult.
11
IV. Training
The success or failure of any plan rests on two parts:
The flexibility and adaptability of the plan and
Experience and training of the staff who respond to the event.
DNR staff consist of professionals and experts in many fields. DNR staff training will consist of two parts:
General response training in the Incident Command System (ICS), National Incident
Management System (NIMS), and related trainings are available online from the Federal
Emergency Management Agency or in class at the Law Enforcement Academy.
Training on specific tasks laid out in the plan, e.g., wildlife tissue sampling or compost windrow
construction.
a. Required Training for DNR Staff
All DNR staff involved in responding to a mass mortality event should have received ICS 100 ‐ Basic
Incident Command and ICS 700 ‐ National Incident Management System training. The training is
available online through FEMA. (See Table IV.a ‐ Training Requirements for DNR Staff Responding to a
Mass Animal Mortality.) Staff in leadership roles or performing specific tasks may require additional
incident command training. ICS training will take place when a staff member is assigned to a response
role unless the assignment takes place at the time of response. At the time of a response staff
temporarily assigned to a role will receive basic training needed to accomplish the tasks they are given.
Refresher courses are not planned but may be required depending on frequency of use.
DNR staff in a response role will participate in training relevant to their role in implementing this plan
and participate in planned internal and multi‐agency exercises according to the schedule in Table IV.b –
Exercise Schedule.
Table IV‐a. Training Requirements for DNR Staff Responding to a Mass Animal Mortality
Trainee Types
Level of Training Required
ICS 100 ICS 200 ICS 300 ICS 400 ICS 700 WebEOC* Response Role **
Field Staff R R O O R R* R
Program Area Staff
R O O O R R* R
Leadership*** R R O O R R* R
R – Required, O – Optional, ICS – Incident Command System training course
* WebEOC training is required for staff serving at the State Emergency Operations Center physically or virtually. ** Training is specific to assigned staff duties. ** Depending on the role taken by leadership, Incident Command System (ICS) training level – 300 and ICS – 400
may be required.
12
b. Training Activities
Workshops
Workshops usually focus on training and development of a particular aspect of the plan, such as
compost windrow construction. During a workshop, attendees are often organized by functional groups
or tasks to facilitate interaction and discussion. Results of workshops are often used to improve portions
of the plan.
Tabletop Exercises
Tabletop exercises involve staff in an informal setting to discuss simulated situations. This type of
exercise is intended to encourage participants to discuss issues regarding a hypothetical situation. It can
be used to assess plans, policies and procedures; or to assess the types of systems needed to guide the
prevention of, response to and recovery from the defined event. Participants are encouraged to discuss
issues in depth and develop decisions through slow‐paced problem solving, rather than rapid,
spontaneous decision‐making that occurs under actual or simulated emergency conditions.
There are two categories of tabletop exercises: basic and advanced. In a basic exercise, the scene set by
the scenario materials remains constant. The scene describes a simulated event or emergency incident,
and brings participants up to the present time. Players apply their knowledge and skills to a list of
problems presented by the leader/moderator. Problems are discussed as a group, and resolution is
generally agreed upon, and then summarized by the leader.
In an advanced tabletop exercise, play revolves around delivery of pre‐scripted messages to players that
alter the original scenario. The exercise leader/moderator usually introduces simulated problems one at
a time, in the form of a written message, telephone call, videotape, or other means. Participants discuss
the issues raised by the problem, using appropriate plans and procedures, to come to a resolution.
Full‐Scale Exercises
Full Scale Exercises (FSE) are typically the most complex and resource‐intensive type of exercise. They
can involve multiple agencies, organizations, and jurisdictions and validate many facets of preparedness.
FSEs often include many players operating under cooperative systems such as the Incident Command
System (ICS) or Unified Command.
In a FSE, events are projected through an exercise scenario with event updates that drive activity at the
operational level. FSEs are usually conducted in a real‐time, stressful environment that is intended to
mirror a real incident. Personnel and resources may be mobilized and deployed to the scene, where
actions are performed as if a real incident had occurred. The FSE simulates reality by presenting complex
and realistic problems that require critical thinking, rapid problem solving, and effective responses by
trained personnel. The level of support needed to conduct an FSE is greater than that needed for other
types of exercises. The exercise site for an FSE is usually large, and site logistics require close monitoring.
Safety issues, particularly regarding the use of props and special effects, must be monitored. Throughout
the duration of the exercise, many activities occur simultaneously.
13
Table IV‐b. Training Schedule by Type of Exercise*
Trainee Types Workshop Table Top Exercise Full Scale (role specific) Exercise
Field Staff Every other odd year Every other even year Every 5 years (will take the place of the corresponding training)
Program Area Staff
Every other odd year Every other even year Every 5 years (will take the place of the corresponding training)
Leadership Every other odd year Every other even year Every 5 years (will take the place of the corresponding training)
* An actual event and the associated After Action Report will take the place of any training or exercise required for that year.
14
V. Communications and Coordination
Communications are an important part of response to any event. Poor communication is also often
identified as a weakness during exercise and after action reports. For mass animal mortality events,
internal and external communications are critical to prevent misinformation, rumors and confusion
among DNR staff, our partner agencies and the public. The size of the activation determines the amount
and types of communication, and who is included in the communications.
a. Local Activation
During local activations, communications between the field and program staff are handled directly. The
lead field office staff on‐site coordinates with program staff by phone or e‐mail. Public communications
are coordinated with the DNR’s public information officer (PIO) or the bureau’s communication officer
as needed. Designated DNR staff will be informed of the event through the event notification group e‐
mail (ESD‐Notify). Field staff will communicate and coordinate activities with first responders and the
producer involved in the event.
b. Statewide Response (state lead)
During a statewide response, additional state agencies are likely involved. IDALS or Iowa Homeland
Security and Emergency Management (HSEMD) may activate the SEOC. The addition of other state
agencies to the response will require a more formal coordination of communication and information. In
many cases the DNR will not be the lead agency and communications with the public will be coordinated
by the lead agency and potentially a joint information center (JIC).
If the SEOC is activated, assigning tasks between agencies will be coordinated through direct
communication at SEOC or through the state’s virtual incident tracking tool, WebEOC. Any tasks
assigned to DNR will be communicated to the DNR’s SEOC liaison, who will assign it to the appropriate
staff or program area. In some cases, tasks may be communicated peer to peer, but the SEOC liaison
needs to be notified for proper coordination and tracking.
Information communicated to the public will be coordinated through the JIC. Either the lead agency for
the event or Iowa Homeland Security and Emergency Management (HSEMD) will coordinate the JIC to
ensure communicating a common message to the public. If the DNR is not the lead agency, DNR will
provide a PIO if the JIC requests one.
If the SEOC is not activated, communication will be direct between the lead agency and the DNR liaison
and/or staff involved in the response. The PIO of the lead agency will handle communications with the
public with assistance from the DNR PIO as requested.
c. Statewide or Regional Response (federal lead)
During a federally led regional or disease‐related response, the SEOC will be activated and a federal
Incident Management Team (IMT) will likely coordinate response activities. The IMT may be collocated
at the SEOC and may include a representative from the DNR. The IMT/SEOC will assign tasks for the DNR
liaison to coordinate. Communications with the public will be coordinated by the JIC. The DNR will
provide communications staff as requested during the response.
15
VI. DATA RESOURCES
a. Non‐Disease Outbreak
The DNR’s Geographic Information System (GIS) section developed an online mapping tool to assess
potential locations for burial sites. The tool can be used by facilities to develop emergency response
plans. The interactive Burial Zone Siting map breaks down the land area of Iowa into three zones based
on risk criteria. The three zones are: excluded from burial, burial allowed with precautions and burial
allowed with no known restrictions.
The Animal Feeding Operation (AFO) database has information on specific facilities. Information can
include the maximum number of animals housed at a facility, the footprint of a facility, ownership and
management of a facility and facility design.
The Source Water Mapping on‐line tool can be used to preplan response options or be used during a
response to help select disposal options. The tool indicates protected water resources and creates a
buffer around water system wells.
The DNR can collect additional data. See discussion under the Wildlife Considerations in section VIII
Operations
b. Disease Outbreak
During a disease outbreak, IDALS staff will gather data about the number, type and disposition of
animals from the owners of the infected herd/flock. This data will be entered into GIS tools/maps, and
used to track potentially infected herds and to plan for disposal. The DNR GIS section will assist other
GIS staff at HSEMD and IDALS to generate geographic tools. Using generated maps, DNR GIS staff will
identify potential burial zones and animal feeding operation locations. In addition, the GIS section will
provide other GIS tools as requested including land cover maps, topographic maps and aerial photos.
As the outbreak progresses to its conclusion, DNR GIS staff will support the response with custom maps
and reports as needed. If requested, DNR field staff may confirm information provided to the GIS section
and field conditions indicated in burial zone maps. DNR wildlife staff can provide wildlife monitoring
data to GIS staff as needed for a particular outbreak.
16
VII. PLAN ACTIVATION
The DNR Mass Animal Mortality Plan is activated by the DNR Director or director’s designee. For
disease‐related events, activation involves consultation with IDALS and HSEMD.
This plan can be activated under the following conditions:
Localized Event ‐ by the DNR Director or an appointed representative. When:
Significant numbers of animals are impacted by a mass mortality event that would violate
normal mortality disposal regulations or are beyond the capability of a site’s normal disposal
methods, and
Does not meet the requirements of other activation conditions.
Disease Outbreak ‐ By the DNR Director or an appointed representative in consultation with IDALS and
HSEMD when a significant number of animals are impacted or are potentially impacted by an animal
disease.
In response to an animal health emergency declared in an adjacent state or at the federal level.
Governor’s Disaster Proclamation ‐ In response to a Governor’s Proclamation of Disaster Emergency
resulting from an animal disease outbreak or natural disaster impacting or potentially impacting large
numbers of livestock or wildlife.
Monitoring‐Indicated Event ‐ Portions of this plan may also be activated when routine monitoring
indicates:
One of the International Animal Health Code diseases, as designated by the World Organisation for
Animal Health (OIE), is detected in the state or an adjacent state; or
A highly contagious disease is detected in the state or a migration pathway that crosses the state.
17
VIII. OPERATIONS
During declared disasters or animal disease outbreaks, the DNR will potentially be operating with local,
state and federal partners to respond to the event. In most cases, the partner agency will be the lead
agency and may request DNR to undertake tasks covered in this plan. DNR staff at the SEOC, Incident
Management Team (IMT), Field Command Post or Regional Command Center in coordination with
appropriate staff will evaluate the request to determine if DNR has the capability, training and
experience to accomplish the task and respond accordingly.
During events not related to disasters or disease, the DNR will work with local agencies and the
producer to appropriately respond to the event.
a. Wildlife Consideration
The DNR is responsible for managing and protecting the state’s natural resources. To ensure a vibrant
and healthy wildlife population, DNR has ongoing programs to monitor and manage wildlife. This section
of the plan is organized around three major goals outlined in Table VIII‐a.
Table VIII‐a. Goals for Wildlife Monitoring and Management during a Mass Animal Mortality
Goal 1
Surveillance and Detection To track and monitor wildlife health throughout Iowa and to rapidly detect diseases that could adversely affect wildlife in Iowa.
Goal 2
Containment
To reduce the risk of spreading wildlife disease once it is detected within Iowa's borders. Potential actions could include, but are not limited to, postponing or closing hunting seasons in affected areas, prohibiting movement of wildlife or wildlife products, and restricting access to certain geographic areas.
Goal 3
Depopulation
To eliminate the presence of a wildlife disease within Iowa's borders by taking actions which include, but are not limited to, depopulation of susceptible wildlife from selected areas and appropriate carcass disposal.
To accomplish these goals the DNR will take the following steps:
Monitoring
DNR staff monitor wildlife for the presence of several diseases each year. The monitoring program
adjusts as necessary for emerging diseases and changes in priorities. Monitoring by DNR staff will occur
in three phases.
Pre‐outbreak monitoring: this is DNR’s normal wildlife monitoring program designed to manage
wildlife and ensure a healthy wildlife population.
Response monitoring: once a disease outbreak has been identified within the wild or domestic
population, DNR will evaluate its monitoring program and adjust to best achieve response goals.
18
Post response monitoring: once the response to an outbreak has ended, DNR will continue to
monitor wildlife. The goal is to confirm the end of the outbreak and monitor for a recurrence. As
time passes, DNR will evaluate the risks of a recurrence and transition to a pre‐outbreak
monitoring strategy.
DNR staff coordinate its internal monitoring program with local, state and federal partners to ensure an
effective and efficient monitoring program. Monitoring information comes from samples collected from
road kills, hunter‐harvests and DNR‐collected wildlife samples. Data can also include sampling animal
feces, nesting/bedding material and other non‐animal samples. The wildlife‐monitoring program is
evaluated and adjusted as necessary each year.
If a disease is detected in a wildlife population that has the potential to impact domestic livestock, DNR
will contact IDALS. DNR staff will coordinate with IDALS staff to begin coordinated monitoring of the
area where the disease was detected. If appropriate, DNR will begin response activities.
Response monitoring will be based on the disease and species impacted and will be based on a plan
developed by DNR staff and partner agencies including IDALS, USDA, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
other agencies. Following the conclusion of a response, partners will develop a post‐response plan. The
plan will include triggers for escalation and reduction of the monitoring.
Containment and Control
The DNR, in cooperation with IDALS (as appropriate), will conduct a risk assessment (Appendix A). The assessment will be used to determine:
Prevalence of wildlife infection,
Probability of the disease spreading away from the affected area, and
Probability of the disease spreading to domestic livestock.
If risk assessment warrants containment or control actions, the DNR may take the following actions:
Order postponement or closure of hunting seasons to reduce movement of wildlife or wildlife
products in affected areas.
Restrict access to public lands in the affected area. This may include wildlife management areas,
preserves, and parks or state forests where public access may increase the risk of spreading the
disease.
Population Reduction
DNR may consider population reduction, if results of the risk assessment indicate a disease has significantly affected wildlife and the affected wildlife poses a risk to transmit disease to uninfected domestic livestock, wildlife in other geographical areas or other wildlife species.
After consulting the Governor and partner local, state and federal agencies, the DNR Director may implement a wildlife population reduction plan within the affected area. At a minimum, the plan will include:
Targeted geographical area,
Method of population reduction,
Plan to control movement of wildlife within the targeted area,
19
Wildlife population levels at which disease transmission is unlikely,
A plan for carcass disposal for the affected wildlife, and
Biosecurity procedures (established by IDALS/USDA).
b. Wastewater Containment
Liquid waste generated during a response to a mass animal mortality event can be a contaminant. The
waste may contain hazardous chemicals and disease, and be difficult to contain for proper disposal. The
DNR will assist facility owners, first responders and partner agencies in determining options for
containment, collection and disposal of response‐generated liquids.
Euthanasia‐Generated Liquids
There are several options for the responsible party or partner agency when commercial livestock
facilities need to be depopulated. For some options, such as foaming, the responsible party will need to
deal with excess waste liquids. If the responsible party chooses other options, chemicals used in the
euthanasia process, viable disease contaminants or other chemicals and pollutants may need special
treatment. It is recommended the facility contain liquid waste within the structure being depopulated
and avoid uncontrolled discharge of contaminated water from the site. DNR staff can help evaluate the
waste, advise on containment options and assist with determining appropriate disposal.
Cleaning and Disinfection
The method used to disinfect, clean, or remove viable disease contaminants can generate additional
liquid wastes. DNR staff can assist in evaluating the liquid waste and determining appropriate disposal
options. DNR staff may also make recommendations for the containment of any generated wastewater.
Biosecurity Liquids
During a disaster, a facility may need to treat or contain waste from cleaners and disinfectants normally
used in its biosecurity process. Facilities will need a designated biosecurity control point, which should
include a method to contain and collect wastewater. DNR staff can help evaluate the collection and
containment of wastewater and recommend disposal options.
c. Carcass Disposal
The DNR has regulatory oversight for carcass disposal during a non‐disease mass animal mortality event.
IDALS has oversight of carcass disposal if mortalities are disease related or disease is suspected.
However, to protect the environment, the disposal method must meet DNR requirements.
The following six methods of disposal may be considered in response to a mass animal mortality event:
composting, burial, incineration, landfill, rendering and alkaline hydrolysis. The DNR will evaluate
alternative methods of disposal on a case‐by‐case basis. The best option depends on event, site
conditions and preventing the spread of disease. USDA/IDALS have determined that disposal will occur
on‐site except in extreme circumstances.
20
Site Selection
Facilities must consider the location of residences and environmentally sensitive areas when selecting a
site for carcass composting or burial. See Table VIII‐a for the required separation distances for non‐
disease related mass mortalities. See Table VIII‐b for the separation distances required when mass
mortalities are disease related. See additional siting requirements according to specific disposal option.
Table VIII‐a. Separation Distances Required for Composting and Burials – Non‐Disease Related*
Object Requiring Separation Distance Minimum Distance Required from Compost
Windrows or Burial Sites in feet
Existing inhabited residences (except site owner or operator’s residence)
500
Public wells 200
Private wells 100
Adjacent Property lines 50
Flowing or intermittent streams, lakes, or ponds. 100
Tile line 200
Floodplain (100‐year) Wetlands, shoreline Outside
Utilities Avoid overhead utilities and aboveground utility infrastructure. Call Iowa One Call at 811 to exclude buried utilities.
* 567 IAC 100.4(2), 567 IAC 105.3, 567 IAC 105.6 and 561 IAC 10.4
21
Table VIII‐b. Separation Distances Required for Composting and Burials – Disease Outbreak*
Object Requiring Separation Distance
Minimum Distance Required from Compost Windrows in feet
Minimum Distance Required from Burial Sites in feet
Existing inhabited residences (except site owner or operator’s residence)
500 500
Public wells* 200 2,500
Private wells* 100 200
Adjacent Property lines 50 50
Flowing or intermittent streams, lakes, or ponds.
100 100
Tile line 200 200
Floodplain (100‐year), Wetlands, shoreline
Outside Outside
Utilities Avoid overhead utilities and aboveground utility infrastructure
Call Iowa One Call to exclude buried utilities
* 561 IAC 10.4
Composting
Composting speeds up the normal decay processes caused by naturally occurring bacteria and fungi. It can be cost and labor effective for animal disposal. Proper construction, materials selection and adequate temperatures ensure quick, complete decay. Proper construction helps reduce foul odors and prevents releasing contaminated liquids. When done correctly, composting carcasses can effectively eliminate some animal diseases.
Factors influencing effective composting
Moisture ‐ For optimum performance, maintain moisture content between 40 and 60 percent. Compost should be moist but not soggy. If you can squeeze moisture from a handful of compost, mix it with drier material.
Composting turkey carcasses.
22
Carbon Source – High levels of microbial activity require carbon. The right materials keep compost
porous allowing oxygen into the pile and permitting gases like ammoniawhich inhibits microbial
activityto escape. Materials listed below are particularly good for absorbing excess liquid released by decaying carcasses, an important factor in preventing undesirable environmental impacts.
Heat – Heat is important for successful composting. Reaching a specific temperature is required for disease‐related composting. To inactivate the disease, take temperatures in the compost pile at depths, spacing and frequency specified in the USDA/IDALS compost plan. Make sure internal temperatures reach required temperatures for the required amount of time.
Figure VIII‐a. Composting Requirements.
Materials needed for effective composting
Carbon Source Material (CSM) – corn silage, ground hay/straw, saw dust, ground corn stalks, corn stover, mulch, wood chips (< 1‐in size), poultry litter
Cover Material – corn silage, wood chips (< 2‐in size), ground hay/straw, ground corn stalks, corn stover, mulch
Plan on roughly 12 cubic yards of cover/base material per 1,000 lbs. of carcasses
23
Table VIII‐c. Windrow Construction Size Requirements (see Figure VIII‐a)
Poultry Swine Bovine
Base Layer Minimum 15 in Minimum 18 in Minimum 24 in
Compost Core 1:1 mix ratio with CSM*
9 in CSM between carcasses
12 in CSM between carcasses
Height Maximum 8 ft. Maximum 8 ft. Maximum 8 ft. (1 layer of carcasses)
Cover Minimum 12 in Minimum 18 in Minimum 18 in
Windrow Width Less than 15 ft. Less than 16‐18 ft. Less than 16‐18 ft.
Spacing of Windrows 2‐3 loader lengths 2‐3 loader lengths 2‐3 loader lengths
Length of windrow (total lbs.) / 250 = length
(total lbs.) / 250 = length
(# cattle) x 4 ft.‐length = windrow
* CSM – carbon source material
Burial
On‐site burial is an effective method to dispose of carcasses. When done correctly, it can be
environmentally safe, cost effective and prevent the spread of disease. Some diseases may remain
active so care should be exercised during disposal of diseased carcasses. Whenever possible, burial
should be done at the affected premise or adjacent property owned by the same owner. If owner’s
property is unsuitable for burial, an adjacent property could be used under agreement with the adjacent
property owner.
Factors affecting effective burial
Burial is most effectively accomplished under dry,
warm conditions. Wet, muddy and frozen ground
may require special equipment or extra care.
Burial site location and conditions must meet
DNR‐established criteria and site conditions. DNR
staff must verify site location and conditions.
Puncture the rumen or stomach of large carcasses
(cattle and larger hogs) to reduce gas production
in trench.
Site Selection Criteria
Exclude Utilities ‐ contact IOWA ONE CALL 811
to locate any buried utilities on proposed site.
Premises owner must also ensure field drainage
tile is located at least 200 feet from excavation.
Protect Wells and Well Source Water ‐ Ensure
private wells and public wells are a safe distance
Typical burial trench
24
from the excavation. Use DNR’s Source Water Mapping tool at
https://programs.iowadnr.gov/sourcewater/maps/index.html to begin site varification. Field verify
to confirm wells are a safe distance from the site.
Use Geographic Information System Maps ‐ Use DNR’s Burial Zone Siting Atlas at
http://programs.iowadnr.gov/maps/afo/burial.html to locate potential burial sites. A green or
yellow area might be usable, but DNR field staff must visit the site and approve its use before
burying. The following color codes indicate potential as a burial site:
Acceptable zone shaded in green ‐ no known restrictions for burial.
Cautionary zone shaded in yellow ‐ only limited burial recommended.
Exclusion zone shaded in red ‐ no burial recommended.
Figure VIII‐b. Burial Trench Design Requirements
Trench Construction
Base the size of trench on the size and number of animals to bury. Minimum trench design is based on
one bovine carcass (2 ft. of trench depth, 3 ft. of trench length, and 7 ft. of trench width (42 ft3)). Five
swine/sheep carcasses are equivalent to one bovine carcass.
25
Table VIII‐d: Burial Trench Size Requirements
Dimensions Poultry Swine/Sheep Bovine
Width (w) 7‐12 ft. 7‐14 ft. 7‐14 ft.
Depth (d) 5‐9 ft. 6‐9 ft. 6‐9 ft.
Length of trench needed
(Number of 2‐lb ducks x 0.01)/(w x d)
(Number of 3‐lb Chickens x 0.02)/(w x d)
(Number of 7‐lb Turkeys x 0.6)/(w x d)
(Number of swine x 8.4)/ (w x d)
(Number of bovine x 42)/ (w x d)
For an estimate of trench length for different trench sizes and animal units, reference the quick guides in
Appendix D.
Construction Requirements (see Figure VIII‐b.)
Keep sides as vertical as possible. If stability is a problem, slope the sides to prevent cave‐in and ensure
equipment can safely place carcasses while maintaining minimum trench width. Distribute carcasses
evenly on the bottom of the trench.
Groundwater Separation. Maintain at least 2 feet between the trench bottom and groundwater. DNR
staff must verify on‐site groundwater separation before contractor can place carcasses in trench.
Surface Water Control. Construct berms to divert surface water around trenches if surface water runoff
would flow into trenches.
Trench Length and Setback Distances. Although trench length and setbacks will vary with site factors,
trenches must meet the following requirements:
Follow contour lines as closely as possible
Trench must be placed at least 50 (horizontal) feet from another trench
Must not include any sand seams or pockets. Stop digging if the trench intersects a sand seam or
pocket. Then backfill the last 10 feet of trench with non‐sandy soil. Compact backfill area as
much as possible. Dig a test pit every 10 feet beyond sandy area. Continue trenching after test
pits show soil is free of sand.
Meet all separation distances listed in Table VIII‐a and Table VIII‐b as appropriate.
Cover excavation
Cover carcasses with 2.5 to 3 feet of cover below ground level
Mound all excavated soil over the trench to avoid ponding water and allow for settling
Avoid compacting the cover soil
Seed the excavated area with shallow rooted cover crops such as oats, ryes, and clovers.
26
Incineration
Incineration can be an effective method for disposing of carcasses. Incineration is particularly effective
in inactivating many diseases, reducing the risk of spreading the disease. However, sizes and types of
equipment vary greatly as does their efficiency, setup time and air quality impacts. It pays to consider
capacity, fuel use and operating costs of available units. Specific separation distances from residences,
property lines, and other structures may also be required for incineration.
DNR staff will assist facilities and USDA/IDALS to evaluate incinerator effectiveness and may conduct air
dispersion modeling to determine air quality impacts. Consult with DNR air quality staff to obtain
required permits or variances before starting operation. Permit fees may apply.
Landfill
Landfill capacity and logistics limit disposing carcasses at sanitary landfills in Iowa. The areas where
livestock production is the greatest is where landfill capacity is the most limited. DNR recommends
other disposal options be considered before landfilling non‐disease‐related carcasses.
While disease‐ infected carcasses can be sent to a landfill, the landfill must approve their acceptance.
Disposal must also meet landfill disposal criteria established by DNR, adhere to strict biosecurity
measures at the farm and landfill, and be approved for movement off‐site by IDALS. If landfilling is a
preferred disposal management method, DNR recommends facilities begin pre‐planning with local
landfill agencies to discuss logistics and requirements.
Rendering
If an event is disease related, DNR allows disposal at a rendering plant provided the rendering facility
and USDA/IDALS approve. Use of a rendering facility for disposal depends on several factors:
Distance from the carcass site to the rendering facility.
Condition of the carcasses and ease of loading for transportation.
Presence of animal disease (may preclude rendering facilities from taking carcasses).
Number of carcasses and available capacity of the rendering facility.
Alkaline Hydrolysis
Alkaline hydrolysis, or tissue digestion, uses alkali at elevated temperature to convert animal carcasses
to a sterile liquid solution of amino acids, sugars and soaps. The process is used most often at research
and university facilities and is limited in capacity and availability. The process is effective in eliminating
prion‐related diseases. Prion‐related diseases are resistant to enzymes and chemicals that normally
break down proteins, as well as resistant to heat and normal disinfection procedures.
Alkaline hydrolysis digestion is utilized because the high temperature and alkaline solution breaks down
animal protein and produces a sterile mass, which can be safely used as compost or disposed of at a
public landfill. The process will also generate significant amounts of liquid waste that will require proper
disposal. The capacity limitations for the process are overridden by the necessity to ensure a biosecure
end product, which poses no known health risks to animals or humans.
27
Alkaline hydrolysis digestion systems can be fixed or portable depending on availability in a given area.
Biosecurity at the loading and unloading sites along with IDALS/USDA approval is required to transport
carcasses.
Approval Process for Other Methods
As science and technology continue to advance and new diseases present themselves the DNR may be
asked to evaluate disposal options and methodologies to best respond to an event. DNR will consult
other local, state and federal agencies, as appropriate, prior to accepting a disposal method. The criteria
used for evaluating methodologies will also evolve over time but will include:
Effective elimination of carcass tissues.
Effective inactivation of subject disease or the prevention of disease spread.
Protection of air, soil and water resources from introduction of potential contamination or
pollutants from the methodology, the carcasses, or the effects of the methodology on the carcass.
Methodologies must not violate local, state, or federal regulations unless those regulations are
waived as part of a normal response to a disaster event.
The DNR is always open to more effective and efficient methods to deal with mass animal mortality
events.
d. BioSecurity
DNR staff will follow biosecurity requirements established by the facility when responding to a non‐
disease related event. USDA and/or IDALS will establish biosecurity requirements at an event resulting
from disease.
DNR staff will assist with establishing appropriate biosecurity based on the
recommendations/requirements of USDA/IDALS. DNR staff will also assist with disposal requirements
and options for biosecurity‐related waste.
e. Non‐Carcass Waste Collection and Disposal
With assistance from solid waste and wastewater staff, DNR field office staff will assist the facility with
non‐disease related solid and liquid waste disposal after a mass animal mortality response. Collection of
liquid waste may not be necessary if the waste does not constitute a pollutant based on its chemical
makeup, quantity or other factors. All liquid wastes deemed to be a pollutant should be contained for
treatment and/or disposal.
Uncontaminated animal waste can be disposed of according to normal handling and disposal
procedures. If normal procedures are not available due to the event consult with DNR staff to determine
best available options.
DNR staff will assist USDA/IDALS staff with disease‐related waste handling and disposal to reduce the
risk of disease spread. Waste associated with biosecurity efforts will be collected according to the
appropriate biosecurity plan. USDA/IDALS staff will determine if liquid waste contains disease and
determine appropriate requirements to inactivate the disease. USDA/IDALS staff will determine if solid
28
waste is contaminated or can be effectively decontaminated. DNR staff will assist USDA/IDALS staff with
determining the proper handling and disposal of waste collected during a disease outbreak.
Organic solid waste and animal waste impacted by disease can be disposed of by several methods. Often
these materials have a beneficial use that is viable (e.g., infected feed being used to feed animals
scheduled for depopulation). Materials can be added to carcasses to enhance composting. DNR and
USDA/IDALS staff will evaluate options based on the transmission risk of the particular disease.
29
Appendices
Appendix A – Wildlife Risk Assessment
Appendix B – Non‐Disease Requirements
Appendix C – Animal Diseases
Appendix D – Quick Action Guides
Appendix E – Resources
30
Appendix A – Wildlife Risk Assessment
Personnel in the command center or the field should use this decision key to help make decisions on the
risks of wildlife species spreading the disease.
1. Is there a possibility of the disease occurring in wildlife?
In making this decision, consider known relationships between the disease and wildlife
species, and distribution of wildlife within the vicinity of the disease outbreak.
Yes. Go to 2
No. Go to 5
Do not know. Go to 3
2. Has a presumptive diagnosis of the disease been made in wildlife?
Yes. Go to 8
No. Go to 5
3. Determine the distribution and abundance of susceptible wildlife hosts.
Determine the distribution and abundance of potential wildlife host species on the basis of
local and other existing knowledge, and, where deemed necessary, a reconnaissance of the
area using an aerial or ground survey. Based on survey results (numbers of wild animals,
contact with domestic animals, etc.) is wildlife likely to pose a risk?
Yes. Go to 4
No. Go to 5
4. Do we know if wildlife and/or domestic animals are infected?
Disease thought to be present only in domestic animals. Go to 5
Disease thought to be present in domestic animals, status of wildlife unclear. Go to 5
Disease thought to be present in both wildlife and domestic animals. Go to 5
Disease thought to be present in wildlife, with the status of domestic animals unclear.
Go to 6
Disease thought to be present only in wildlife. Go to 6
5. Should we ignore wildlife?
Yes. The perceived/real consequences of inaction are of little importance. Go to 13
No. Wildlife cannot be ignored. Go to 6
31
6. Sample wildlife for the presence of the disease agent.
The time involved in this process may be prolonged until adequate data is obtained. This
step is very dependent on circumstances and the consequences of getting it wrong.
Consult experts to consider/initiate the following:
a detailed population survey; and/or
disease sampling.
If disease is detected in wildlife, go to 8
If no disease is detected in wildlife, go to 7
In some situations consider conducting operational procedures concurrently with disease
sampling.
7. Relevance of wildlife.
Where there is inadequate data:
If disease control in domestic animals does not proceed as quickly as expected
consider increasing the intensity and range of testing of wildlife. Go to 6
It may be necessary to delay taking into account data collection. Go to 6
Consider whether to control and contain wildlife as a precautionary measure. Go to 9
Where there is reliable data and:
No disease is detected in wildlife during sampling. Go to 5
Disease is detected in wildlife during sampling. Go to 8
8. Select appropriate control and/or containment strategies.
Disease has been detected in wildlife. Select the appropriate methods to contain and
control wildlife and/or the disease.
No targeted action against wildlife. Go to 9
Non‐lethal disease control measures (including vaccination). Go to 10
Lethal disease control measures for wildlife, and containment. Go to 11
Modify control and containment methods depending on outcomes/assessment.
Disease is no longer detected in susceptible hosts. Go to 12
9. Continue to monitor wildlife.
Continue to monitor wildlife for the presence of disease during and after domestic animal
operations.
If there is continuing or increasing concern over disease in wildlife. Go to 8
If there is a decrease in, or no concern over, disease in wildlife. Go to 12
32
10. Non‐lethal disease control measures for wildlife.
Implement appropriate methods, including vaccination and non‐lethal population control
methods.
Disease is still detected in susceptible hosts. Go to 9
Disease is no longer detected in susceptible hosts. Go to 12
11. Lethal disease control measures for wildlife, and containment.
Implement appropriate methods to control and contain wildlife. Modify control and
containment methods depending on outcome assessment.
Disease is no longer detected in susceptible hosts. Go to 12
Susceptible hosts eradicated. It may be necessary to exclude wildlife from the wildlife
control area until any remaining virus etc. is inactivated. Go to 12
Wildlife reduced below disease threshold and disease no longer detected. Go to 12
Wildlife disease control operations fail to prevent expansion of outbreak and disease
declared endemic. Go to 14
12. Monitor for residual disease.
Disease detected. Go to 5
Disease undetected. Go to 14
13. No action to be taken against wildlife.
Periodically review the situation.
Developing concern. Go to 5
No concern. Go to 14
Factors to consider in making this decision:
no wildlife species present is important in the maintenance and transmission of the
disease; and
wildlife, even if infected, are unlikely to be a source of infection for domestic animals
and/or people; and
any disease in wildlife will not persist after infection has been eliminated from domestic
animals; and
disease control in domestic animals (if commenced) is proceeding as expected; and
action to test for the presence of disease in wildlife or to control wildlife is likely to have
adverse consequences, for example:
o spread disease by dispersing wildlife; or
o lead to wildlife reinfecting domestic animals; or
o greatly slow down disease control or other operations.
33
14. Cease operations – no further action.
The disease has been declared:
endemic; or
eradicated; or
unresolved.
34
Appendix B – Non‐Disease Requirements
Disposal of mass animal mortalities that do not involve animal diseases are driven more by the quantity,
condition, and accessibility of the carcasses. This appendix focuses on incidents that result from the two
main causes of non‐disease mass animal mortalities, disasters (including fire and natural or man‐made
disasters) and infrastructure failures (including heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems). Each type of incident can pose its own problems.
1. Fire/Natural Disasters
Mass animal mortalities resulting from fires and natural disasters can be problematic to manage.
Carcasses are often in poor condition, comingled with other debris, or inaccessible in a timely manner.
These issues often limit the disposal options producers can chose from.
Rendering facilities often do not accept carcasses in poor condition. Carcasses co‐mingled with non‐
organic debris (metal, hazardous materials, sediments) will be difficult to compost and may require
landfilling or burial. Incineration may be possible depending on co‐mingled material and potential
emissions. Consultation with air quality staff will be required prior to incineration.
2. Infrastructure Failures
Infrastructure consists of systems designed to maintain the life and health of livestock located at a
facility. When these systems fail a mass animal mortality event can occur. Systems include: feed
handling and distribution systems; watering systems; HVAC systems; and waste handling systems. A
failure of one of these systems to operate properly can lead to an event. The most common cause of
failure is an electrical failure or outage leading to an HVAC shut down.
An infrastructure failure generally leaves the carcasses intact and in relatively good condition for
disposal. They are generally easy to access. The condition of carcasses will deteriorate over time which
will limit disposal options. Early efforts should be directed towards rendering as a beneficial use of the
carcasses. If rendering is not an option other options can be explored based on site conditions and
available resources.
Staff should follow the facility’s bio‐security requirements when responding to an event at the facility.
This is especially true at facilities where a limited number of buildings at the facility are impacted while
others are not.
Once animal carcasses are dealt with cleanup and facility recovery can take place. Generally non‐carcass
waste generated is limited and can be managed using normal processes. DNR staff may provide
technical and regulatory assistance to the producer to insure waste generated is properly dealt with and
infrastructure system are more secure.
35
Appendix C – Animal Diseases
Animal diseases vary greatly and the effectiveness of a disposal method to inactivate a disease will also
vary. In this appendix we will include information on several diseases currently of concern. Keep in mind
knowledge of diseases is always changing and information in this appendix is included as a guide.
Specific disease information should be updated and confirmed with relevant experts including IDALS and
USDA staff.
Table C‐1 lists diseases currently of concern and indicates which disposal options are appropriate for disease inactivation or control in the carcass.
Use Table C1 as a tool to evaluate which disposal option to use.
NOTE: It’s important to consider
Cost of the method,
Risk of spreading disease during transport and handling,
Availability of equipment and materials, and
Final carcass disposition.
36
Table C‐1. Disposal Options based on Disease
Disease
Disease
Type
Composting
Burial
Incineration
Landfill
Rendering*
* Alkaline
Hydrolysis
African Swine Fever* V A A P A A A
Anthrax B P P A A P A
Avian Influenza V A A P A A A
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) Pr P P A P N A
Brucellosis B A A P A A A
Chronic Wasting Disease Pr P P N P N A
Classical swine fever V A A P A A A
Duck Plague V A A P A A A
Equine infectious anemia* V A A P A A A
Foot and Mouth Disease V A A P A A A
Newcastle Disease V A A P A A A
Paratuberculosis (Johne’s Disease) B A A P A A A
Pseudorabies V A A P A A A
Rift Valley Fever* V A A P A A A
Schmallenberg Virus* V A A P A A A
Scrapie Pr P P N P N A
Tuberculosis B P A P A A A
Tularemia* B A A P A A A
Vesicular stomatitis* V A A P A A A
West Nile virus* V A A P A A A
Disease Types: B – Bacteria, Pr – Prion, V – Virus
Disposal Options:
A – Appropriate ‐ Event specific conditions must be taken into consideration
P – Potentially Appropriate – Disposal option can be used if event and disease specific conditions allow.
N – Not Appropriate – Disposal option not recommended for this disease
* Virus or Bacteria transmitted by a vector (insect or fomite ‐ including clothes, feed, equipment) ** Rendering may also require special disposal of rendering end product.
37
Disease‐specific information is summarized from the following sources:
USGS National Wildlife Health Center, Field Manual of Wildlife Diseases.
USDA APHIS Animal Disease Information website
ISU Center for Food Safety and Public Health Animal Disease Information website
OIE World Organization for Animal Health
1. African Swine Fever ‐ Virus
Description: African Swine Fever (ASF) virus is a DNA virus. It is the only known DNA arbovirus. ASF is a
contagious viral disease that affects pigs of all ages, inducing a hemorrhagic fever. It can appear in a
variety of forms ranging from peracute, acute, subacute, to chronic and unapparent. It is most often
recognized in the acute form with an associated lethality of up to 100 percent. Today, the disease is
considered endemic in sub‐Saharan Africa, the Italian Mediterranean island of Sardinia, Asia and parts of
the Caucasus and Eastern Europe. The extremely high potential for transboundary spread of ASF was
demonstrated by its arrival in the Caucasus in 2007 and its progressive advance through the Russian
Federation into Eastern Europe, where it now seems established.
ASF is stable at low temperatures and a wide pH range from 4 to 12. The virus can be inactivated at
temperatures above 140 F for more than 20 minutes. Inactivated by sodium hydroxide, hypochlorites,
chlorine, formalin, ortho‐phenylphenol and iodine compounds at various concentrations.
The virus can survive for long periods in blood, feces and tissue; especially infected, uncooked or under‐
cooked pork products and can survive one year in bone marrow.
Transmission: Swine can become infected through:
Direct
o Contact between sick and healthy animals
Indirect
o Feeding on contaminated garbage (virus can be viable for 3‐6 months in uncooked pork
products)
o Biological vectors – soft ticks
o Fomites including premises, vehicles, equipment and clothing
o Within tick vectors. ASF can be transmitted within a tick population
Incubation Period: Incubation period for ASF is 4‐19 days.
Mortality: Peracute and acute forms are highly virulent approaching 100% mortality. Subacute form is
moderately virulent varying from 30‐70% mortality and chronic form has a low mortality rate.
2. Anthrax – Bacteria
Description: Anthrax is a bacterial disease. These bacteria release highly resistant spores, which
contaminate the environment and help to spread the disease. Anthrax causes sudden death in cattle,
sheep and goats, and can severely affect humans. Anthrax has also been used as a biological weapon.
38
Cattle, sheep, and goats are most at risk for anthrax. Other animals, including horses, pigs, dogs, cats,
and wildlife can also get anthrax.
Transmission: Most animals get anthrax orally through soil contaminated with anthrax spores while
grazing. The organism is very hardy, resistant to most disinfectants and can survive for long periods in
the environment. Carnivores can get the disease by eating animals infected with anthrax.
Incubation Period: The incubation period varies from 1 to 20 days. In herbivores, infections become
apparent after 3 to 7 days. The incubation period in pigs is usually 1 to 2 weeks.
Mortality: The mortality rate for anthrax varies with the species. Clinical infections in ruminants and
horses are usually fatal; pigs often recover. In carnivores, mortality is also relatively low.
3. Avian Influenza ‐ Virus
Description: Avian influenza is a viral disease that can affect bird species throughout the world. The
disease can vary from mild to severe, depending on the virus strain involved. The most severe strain,
called highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), is caused by viruses with H5 or H7 surface proteins.
Avian influenza primarily affects wild and domestic bird species.
Transmission: Avian influenza is spread by direct contact with the fecal matter or respiratory secretions
of infected birds. The virus can live for a long time in the environment and can also be spread by objects
or fomites (e.g., shoes, clothing, equipment) that have been contaminated with the virus. Mammals may
be exposed by ingestion of infected birds. Avian influenza viruses survive best in the environment at low
temperatures, and some studies suggest that they are more persistent in fresh or brackish water than
salt water. In laboratory tests, some viruses may survive for several weeks to several months or more in
distilled water or sterilized environmental water, especially under cold conditions. Most human cases
result from close contact with sick birds.
Incubation Period: The incubation period for avian influenza is 3‐ 7 days.
Mortality: Waterfowl can carry the disease without becoming sick, however domestic poultry are very
susceptible to the disease and can die in large numbers. Some strains of the virus can affect mammals,
such as pigs, cats, horses, dogs and ferrets.
4. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) ‐ Prion
Description: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (also called “mad cow disease” or BSE) is a fatal
neurodegenerative disease, caused by a prion that mainly affects cattle. Other ruminant species, cats
(feline spongiform encephalopathy), non‐human primates and humans (variant Creutzfeldt‐Jakob
disease) are occasionally affected. BSE is a relatively new disease that was first reported in the United
Kingdom in the 1980s.
Decontamination of prion‐contaminated tissues, surfaces, and environments is difficult. These agents
are highly resistant to most disinfectants, heat, ultraviolet radiation, and ionizing radiation, particularly
when they are protected in organic material. A combination of chemical and physical decontamination
can be more effective than either procedure alone; chemical disinfection should be carried out first,
then the items should be rinsed and autoclaved. Even the harshest combination of chemical and
physical disinfection is not guaranteed to destroy all prions. For this reason, disposable equipment and
instruments may be recommended instead of disinfection during some medical procedures.
39
Transmission: It is spread by ingestion; animals or humans become infected when they eat prion‐
containing tissues from an infected animal. Cooking and standard disinfection procedures do not
destroy this agent.
Mortality: Infected animals or people do not become ill for years; however, the disease is always
progressive and fatal once the clinical signs develop.
Incubation Period: The incubation period for classical BSE is estimated to be 2 to 8 years in cattle.
Classical BSE is seen most often in four‐ to five‐year‐old cattle, particularly dairy animals.
5. Brucellosis ‐ Bacteria
Description: Brucellosis is a bacterial disease and an important zoonosis and a significant cause of
reproductive losses in animals. Brucellosis affects cattle, small ruminants, pigs and dogs. Brucellosis is
also found in wildlife populations including feral pigs, bison, elk and European hares. Most human cases
are caused by occupational exposure to infected animals or the ingestion of unpasteurized dairy
products.
Brucella species are readily killed by most commonly available disinfectants, however, organic matter
and low temperatures decrease the efficacy of disinfectants. Autoclaving can be used to destroy Brucella
species on contaminated equipment. These organisms can also be inactivated by dry heat (160‐170°C
for at least 1 hour). Boiling for 10 minutes is usually effective for liquids. Brucella species can also be
inactivated by gamma irradiation (e.g., in colostrum) and pasteurization.
Transmission: Brucellosis is usually transmitted between animals by contact with the placenta, fetus,
fetal fluids and vaginal discharges from an infected animal. Animals are infectious after either an
abortion or full term delivery.
Incubation Period: The incubation period varies with the species and stage of gestation at infection. In
cattle, reproductive losses typically occur during the second half of the pregnancy; thus, the incubation
period is longer when animals are infected early in gestation.
Mortality: Abortions, placentitis, epididymitis and orchitis are the most common consequences,
although other syndromes are also reported. The main impact is economic; deaths are rare except in the
fetus and neonate.
6. Chronic Wasting Disease ‐ Prion
Description: Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a prion that
affects cervids including deer, elk, moose and reindeer. CWD originated in a small geographic area in
northeastern Colorado and southeastern Wyoming. Today this disease is now found in wild and/or
farmed cervids in many other states in the U.S., and in parts of Canada. Thousands of captive or wild
deer and elk have been killed in the U.S. and Canada in control efforts.
There are concerns about potential for CWD to affect other species, including humans. Cooking does not
destroy prions, and ingestion of another prion, the agent that causes bovine spongiform
encephalopathy (BSE), has been linked to a fatal human neurological disease. CWD prions have been
found in muscle (meat), as well as other tissues of cervids, and could enter the food supply. The
evidence so far suggests that CWD does not affect humans, livestock or wild predators of cervids;
nevertheless, the possibility that it could be zoonotic has not been ruled out.
40
Incineration is commonly used for carcasses, but two studies found that composting may reduce or
eliminate CWD and other prions in tissues, while another suggested that soil microorganisms might
degrade prions in buried carcasses.
Transmission: It is one of the most difficult prion diseases to control: CWD prions are transmitted from
animal to animal, and they can also be spread from contaminated environments for up to two years or
more.
Incubation Period: The minimum incubation period is thought to be approximately 16 months, and the
average incubation period is probably 2 to 4 years.
Mortality: This disease is always fatal once the clinical signs appear, and most or all of a herd can
eventually become infected.
7. Classical swine fever ‐ Virus
Description: Classical swine fever is a highly contagious and economically significant viral disease of pigs.
The severity of the illness varies with the strain of the virus, the age of the pig, and the immune status of
the herd. Acute infections, which are caused by highly virulent isolates and have a high mortality rate in
naive herds, are likely to be diagnosed rapidly. However, infections with less virulent isolates can be
more difficult to recognize, particularly in older pigs. The range of clinical signs and similarity to other
diseases can make classical swine fever challenging to diagnose.
Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) can be inactivated with sodium hypochlorite, phenolic compounds,
detergents, organic solvents, quaternary ammonium compounds and aldehydes. It is also sensitive to
drying, heat and ultraviolet light. This virus is reported to be destroyed by heating for a minute or less at
90‐100ºC or 5 minutes at 70°C. In meat, CSFV is susceptible to a temperature of 65.5ºC or higher,
maintained for 30 minutes. It is stable at pH 5‐10, but inactivated by pH ≤ 3 or pH > 10.
Transmission: Pigs are mainly thought to become infected by the oral or oronasal routes. CSFV may also
enter the body via other mucus membranes (including genital transmission in semen), and skin
abrasions. CSFV can persist in blood and tissues after death and is readily spread by feeding uncooked
swill that contains tissues from infected pigs. Aerosol transmission has been demonstrated
experimentally with some strains. It is most likely to occur between mechanically ventilated buildings in
close proximity, when there are large concentrations of animals.
Incubation Period: Incubation period for Classical Swine Fever is 2‐14 days.
Mortality: Highly virulent strains of CSFV, which were prevalent at one time, cause outbreaks with
morbidity and mortality rates that can approach 100%.
8. Duck Plague ‐ Virus
Description: Duck plague is caused by a herpesvirus. Infection often results in an acute, contagious, and
fatal disease. As with many other herpesviruses, duck plague virus can establish inapparent infections in
birds that survive exposure to it, a state referred to as latency. During latency, the virus cannot be
detected by standard methods for virus isolation. Destruction of infected flocks, including eggs, is
recommended whenever possible because infected birds that survive are likely to become carriers and
can initiate subsequent outbreaks.
41
Duck plague virus is hardy, and can remain viable for weeks under certain environmental conditions.
Duck plague virus is instantly inactivated at pH 3 and below and at pH 11 and above. Therefore, rigorous
decontamination of infected waters and grounds and burning or decontamination of physical structures,
litter, and other materials at outbreak sites should be carried out to the extent practical. Carcass
collection should be thorough and incineration used for disposal. Personnel and equipment used at
outbreak sites should be de‐contaminated before leaving the site to prevent mechanical spread of the
virus to other waterfowl areas; chlorine bleach and phenol base disinfectants are suitable for this.
Transmission: Duck plague outbreaks are thought to be caused when birds that carry the virus shed it
through fecal or oral discharge, thus releasing the virus into food and water with which susceptible birds
may have contact. Bird‐to‐bird contact and contact with virus that has contaminated the environment
perpetuate an outbreak. Scavenging and decomposition of carcasses of infected birds also contaminate
the environment by releasing viruses from tissues and body fluids. Virus transmission through the egg
has been reported, but the role of the egg in the disease cycle remains to be resolved.
Incubation Period: The incubation period between virus exposure and death is generally 3–7 days in
domestic ducks, and experimental studies have found that it is as long as 14 days in wild waterfowl.
Mortality: Mortality varies with susceptibility of the flock and can range from 5% to 50% or more.
9. Equine infectious anemia – Vector transmitted Virus
Description: Equine infectious anemia (EIA) is a retroviral disease of equids that may be characterized by
acute and/or chronic recurring clinical signs including fever, anemia, edema and cachexia in some
animals. Many horses have very mild or inapparent signs on first exposure, and carry this virus
subclinically. The owners of these animals are unlikely to realize that they are infected unless serological
testing is done. All infected horses, including those that are subclinical, become carriers and are
infectious for life. Infected animals must either be destroyed or remain permanently isolated from other
equids to prevent transmission. High levels of viremia have also been reported during the early stages of
the infection in mules. Significantly lower titers have been reported in donkeys inoculated with certain
horse‐adapted strains. Enveloped viruses such as EIAV are readily destroyed by most common
disinfectants. This virus does not persist in insects, which are mechanical vectors.
Transmission: Equine infectious anemia virus is transmitted mechanically on the mouthparts of biting
insects and sharing of needles between horse during routine care. In horses, this virus persists in blood
leukocytes for life, and also occurs in plasma during febrile episodes. Symptomatic horses are more
likely to transmit the disease than animals with inapparent infections; after visiting an subclinical carrier,
only one out of every 6 million flies is likely to become a vector.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is a week to 45 days or longer. Some horses remain subclinical
until they are stressed.
Mortality: Epizootics with high morbidity and mortality rates have been reported, but deaths are
otherwise uncommon in naturally infected horses. Experimental inoculation with a high viral dose can
result in mortality rates as high as 80%.
42
10. Foot and Mouth Disease ‐ Virus
Description: Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that primarily affects
cloven‐hooved livestock and wildlife. Foot and mouth disease was once found worldwide; however, it
has been eradicated from some regions including all of North America and western Europe. Where it is
endemic, this disease is a major constraint to the international livestock trade. Unless strict precautions
are followed, FMD can be readily re‐introduced into disease‐free regions via animals or animal products.
Once introduced, the virus can spread rapidly, particularly if livestock densities are high or detection is
delayed. Outbreaks can severely disrupt livestock production, result in embargoes by trade partners,
and require significant resources to control.
There is limited information on the survival of FMDV in the environment, but most studies suggest that
it remains viable for three months or less. In very cold climates, survival up to six months may be
possible. The presence of organic material, as well as protection from sunlight, also promote longer
survival. FMDV is sensitive to pH, and it is inactivated at pH below 6.0 or above 9.0. This virus can persist
in meat and other animal products when the pH remains above 6.0, but it is inactivated by acidification
of muscles during rigor mortis. Because acidification does not occur to this extent in the bones and
glands, FMDV may persist in these tissues.
Various disinfectants are effective against FMDV. The disinfectant concentration and time needed can
differ with the surface type and other factors. Measures taken to control an FMD outbreak include
quarantines and movement restrictions, euthanasia of affected and exposed animals, and cleaning and
disinfection of affected premises, equipment and vehicles. Additional actions may include euthanasia of
animals at risk of being infected and/or vaccination.
Infected carcasses must be disposed of safely by incineration, rendering, burial or other techniques.
Transmission: FMDV can be found in all secretions and excretions from acutely infected animals,
including expired air, saliva, milk, urine, feces and semen, as well as in the fluid from FMD‐associated
vesicles, and in amniotic fluid and aborted fetuses in sheep. The amount of virus shed by each route can
be influenced by the host species and viral strain. Pigs produce large amounts of aerosolized virus, and
the presence of large herds of infected swine may increase the risk of airborne spread.
Incubation Period: The incubation period for FMD can vary with the species of animal, the dose of virus,
the viral strain and the route of inoculation. It is reported to be one to 12 days in sheep, with most
infections appearing in 2‐8 days; 2 to 14 days in cattle; and usually 2 days or more in pigs (with some
experiments reporting clinical signs in as little as 18‐24 hours). Other reported incubation periods are 4
days in wild boar, 2 days in feral pigs, 2‐3 days in elk, 2‐14 days in Bactrian camels, and possibly up to 21
days in water buffalo infected by direct contact.
Mortality: Although adult animals generally recover, the morbidity rate is very high in naïve populations,
and significant pain and distress occur in some species. High mortality rates can sometimes occur in
young animals or in some wildlife populations. In lambs, reported mortality rates range from 5% to 94%.
Mortality has also been reported to reach 80% in some groups of calves, and 100% in suckling piglets
(with lower rates in older piglets).
43
11. Newcastle Disease ‐ Virus
Description: Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious and often severe disease found worldwide
that affects birds including domestic poultry. It is caused by a virus in the family of paramyxoviruses. The
disease appears in three forms: lentogenic (mild), mesogenic (moderate) and velogenic (very virulent,
also called exotic Newcastle disease). The lentogenic strains are very widespread, but cause few disease
outbreaks.
Newcastle disease viruses can survive for several weeks in the environment, especially in cool weather.
The virus is present in all parts of the carcass of an infected bird. The disease is very contagious.
When the disease appears in a previously disease free area, a stamping out policy is practiced in most
countries. This includes: strict isolation or quarantine of outbreaks; humane destruction of all infected
and exposed birds; thorough cleaning and disinfection of premises; proper carcass disposal; pest control
in flocks; depopulation followed by 21 days without poultry before restocking; avoidance of contact with
birds of unknown health status; control of access to poultry farms.
Transmission: ND is transmitted most often by direct contact with diseased or carrier birds. Infected
birds may shed the virus in their feces, contaminating the environment. Transmission can then occur by
direct contact with feces and respiratory discharges or by contaminated food, water, equipment, and
human clothing.
Incubation Period: The disease has a rapid onset with clinical signs appearing between two and twelve
days after exposure, and spreads rapidly through the flock.
Mortality: When the virus is introduced into a susceptible flock, virtually all the birds will be infected
within two to six days. Mortality rates are variable but can reach 100%.
12. Paratuberculosis (Johne’s Disease) ‐ Bacteria
Description: Paratuberculosis is a chronic mycobacterial disease characterized by irreversible wasting,
diarrhea and death from cachexia in ruminants. Infection generally occurs early in life, and many
infected animals become chronic carriers. Unless testing is done, paratuberculosis can exist undetected
in a herd for years. Only a few carriers develop overt disease, usually after several years, and the clinical
signs can be confused with other diseases. Paratuberculosis also causes production losses in
subclinicalally infected animals. Subclinical carriers are estimated to produce 15‐16% less milk, with
losses of 1,300‐2,800 pounds of milk per lactation. There is no effective treatment. Unless measures are
taken to control or eradicate the organism, the prevalence of infection gradually increases in the herd
and greater numbers of animals become clinically ill.
In an endemic herd, only a minority of the animals develops clinical signs; most animals either eliminate
the infection or become subclinical carriers. In a newly infected herd, the infection usually spreads for
years before the first clinical signs appear. If no preventative measures are taken, the number of
infected animals in the herd gradually rises, young animals are exposed to increasing doses of bacteria,
and clinical cases appear – first in older animals and later, as the exposure level increases, also in
younger animals. In herds where the organism is widespread, clinical signs can be seen in second‐ and
first‐calf cows, and even springers or bred heifers. The percentage of subclinical carriers that develop
overt disease is unknown.
44
Transmission: In ruminants, paratuberculosis is mainly transmitted by the fecal–oral route. Infected
animals can shed large numbers of organisms in the feces; this shedding can begin before the onset of
clinical signs. Subclinical carriers may shed the bacteria intermittently. M. avium subsp.
paratuberculosis has also been isolated from colostrum, milk, udder, and the male and female
reproductive tracts. Transmission can occur on fomites, and insects may act as mechanical vectors.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is usually months or years; periods ranging from 4 months to
15 years have been reported. Calves generally become infected soon after birth but rarely show clinical
signs before they are two years old.
Mortality: The mortality rate is approximately 1% in most herds, but up to 50% of the animals may be
subclinical infected, resulting in losses in production. Once clinical signs appear, paratuberculosis is
progressive and affected animals eventually die.
13. Pseudorabies ‐ Virus
Description: Aujeszky’s disease (pseudorabies) is a highly contagious, economically significant disease of
pigs. Other species may be infected when they come in contact with infected pigs, resulting in a
universally fatal CNS disease. Aujeszky’s disease can result in trade restrictions from regions where it is
endemic. Eradication programs are underway or have been successful in many countries. In the United
States, all states are now considered to be free of the virus in domesticated swine, and a surveillance
program is ongoing. The presence of the virus in feral pigs remains a concern. Aujeszky’s disease is most
common in pigs. Feral swine tend to become infected with attenuated strains as adults, and neither
illness nor deaths are usually seen.
Disinfection is important in controlling the spread of Aujeszky’s disease. ADV is susceptible to ortho‐
phenylphenols and quaternary ammonium compounds. It is also inactivated by sunlight, drying, and
high temperatures.
Transmission: Aujeszky’s disease virus is usually transmitted between pigs by the respiratory or oral
routes. During acute infections, the virus is present for more than two weeks in the tonsillar epithelium,
milk, urine, and vaginal and preputial secretions. Aujeszky’s disease is usually spread directly between
animals by nose‐to‐nose transmission; however, the virus can remain infectious for as long as seven
hours in the air, if the relative humidity is at least 55%, and it may travel up to two kilometers as an
aerosol. It can also be transmitted on fomites and in carcasses. Under favorable conditions, ADV can
survive for several days in contaminated bedding and water. Venereal transmission is possible, and may
be the most important method of spread in wild pigs. Piglets can be infected transplacentally.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is usually 2 to 4 days in suckling pigs, and 3 to 6 days in
weaned or adult pigs.
Mortality: This viral infection causes central nervous system (CNS) signs and high mortality rates in
young animals, and respiratory illness in older pigs. The mortality rate decreases with increasing age; it
may be as low as 1 to 2% in grower and finisher pigs, 5‐ 10% in weaner pigs, up to 50% (or higher) in
nursery pigs, and as high as 100% in animals less than a week old. Approximately 20% or fewer sows
abort. Sporadic cases occur in other species in close contact with pigs. In these species, Aujeszky’s
disease is always fatal.
45
14. Rift Valley Fever – Vector transmitted Virus
Description: Rift Valley fever is a viral disease spread primarily by mosquitoes, which can affect both
humans and animals causing high mortality in young animals and/or abortions in adults. Sheep, cattle,
and goats are the most severely affected. Other animals such as water buffalo, camels, monkeys,
rodents, cats, dogs, and horses can also be infected. Rift Valley fever occurs throughout most of Africa,
and has been reported in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. The disease has not occurred in the United
States.
Transmission: Rift Valley fever is spread to animals through the bite of an infected mosquito, and
possibly ticks and biting midges. Many human cases are caused by occupational exposure to blood and
tissues from infected animals, but mosquito‐borne transmission can also occur.
Incubation Period: The incubation period in sheep, goats and cattle is thought to be approximately 1‐3
days, based on laboratory experiments. Young ruminants and puppies can develop clinical signs as early
as 12 hours after inoculation.
Mortality: The case fatality rate can be very high in young animals, with fatalities decreasing in older age
groups. The mortality rate may reach 70% to 100% in newborn lambs and kids, while mortality in calves,
and older lambs and kids, varies from 10% to 70%. Overall, the mortality rate is estimated to be 10‐30%
in adult sheep and < 10% in adult cattle. Mortality rates were 81% in experimentally infected young
kittens (≤ 2 weeks of age), and 50‐100% in young puppies (≤ 1 week of age), but no adult cats or dogs 2
weeks of age or older died.
15. Schmallenberg Virus – Vector transmitted Virus
Description: The virus is thought to be distributed by flying insects such as midges and possibly
mosquitos. Infection with the virus causes transient disease in adult cattle, sheep and goats, resulting in
production losses; but has also been associated with a high percentage of fetal malformations,
abortions, dystocias and death of infected pregnant animals. No treatments or vaccines are currently
available, and testing is currently limited in nature. The “Schmallenberg virus” (SBV) is an enveloped,
negative‐sense, segmented, single‐stranded RNA virus. The Schmallenberg virus is a member of the
Simbu serogroup viruses, which includes Shamonda, Akabane, and Aino viruses. The Simbu viruses
which are most related to SBV are Sathuperi and Douglas virus. Infectivity is lost (or significantly
reduced) at 50–60°C for at least 30 minutes. The virus is susceptible to common disinfectants (1%
sodium hypochlorite, 2% glutaraldehyde, 70% ethanol, formaldehyde).
Transmission: Transmission in animals is by insect vectors and then vertically in utero.
Incubation Period: In experimental challenge trials, three calves inoculated intravenously or
subcutaneously with blood that was Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis positive for SBV became
infected and had positive PCR results 2‐5 days post‐inoculation. The viremic stage in cattle seems to be
short, as viral detection was negative in all three infected animals six days after inoculation, and clinical
signs subsided within a few days (Hoffmann et al. 2012). In other experimental infection tests cattle and
sheep showed no clinical signs or mild clinical signs at 3 to 5 days post‐inoculation with an incubation
period of between 1 and 4 days and viraemia lasting for 1 to 5 days.
Mortality: Associated with a high percentage of fetal malformations, abortions, dystocias and death of
infected pregnant animals.
46
16. Scrapie ‐ Prion
Description: Scrapie is a neurodegenerative disease, caused by a prion that affects sheep and
occasionally goats. Scrapie is a member of the transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), a
group of neurodegenerative disorders caused by unconventional disease agents. These agents are
resistant to the treatments that ordinarily destroy bacteria, spores, viruses and fungi. In sheep, the
animal’s genotype strongly influences the incidence of disease. The presence of this disease can result in
trade sanctions, and many countries are conducting control or eradication programs.
As a result of scrapie surveillance, an atypical form of this disease has recently been detected in many
countries in Europe, as well as in the United States. This novel form of scrapie, which was first reported
from Norway in 1998, is called Nor98. Nor98 scrapie can occur in sheep that are genetically resistant to
classical scrapie. The tissue distribution of the Nor98 prion differs from that of the classical prion
protein, and some testing protocols must be modified to detect this form. Other atypical forms of
scrapie have also been found in some countries.
Transmission: Infected animals carry the scrapie prion for life, and can transmit the agent even if they
remain subclinical. Most animals become infected from their dam, either at or soon after birth. In
confined lambing areas, the disease can also spread to the offspring of uninfected sheep. Uninfected
adult ewes may be infected from this source, although they are more resistant. Vertical transmission in
utero might be possible, but current evidence suggests that transmission mainly occurs after birth. This
prion has also been isolated from an experimentally contaminated soil sample after three years.
Transmission via contaminated fomites such as knives is theoretically possible, and transmission has
been reported in a contaminated vaccine.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is usually 2 to 5 years in sheep; cases are rare in sheep less
than a year old.
Mortality: Genetically susceptible sheep do not become ill for several years; however, scrapie is
progressive and fatal once the clinical signs develop. Typically, scrapie results in production losses and
an annual mortality rate of 3‐5% in a flock; in severely affected flocks, the annual mortality rate can
reach 20%.
17. Bovine Tuberculosis ‐ Bacteria
Description: Bovine tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic bacterial disease of cattle that occasionally affects
other species of mammals. This disease is a significant zoonosis that can spread to humans, typically by
the inhalation of aerosols or the ingestion of unpasteurized milk. It is caused by three specific types of
bacteria that are part of the Mycobacterium group: Mycobacterium bovis, M. avium, and M.
tuberculosis. Bovine TB, caused by M. bovis, can be transmitted from livestock to humans and other
animals.
In developed countries, eradication programs have reduced or eliminated tuberculosis in cattle, and
human disease is now rare; however, reservoirs in wildlife can make complete eradication difficult.
Bovine tuberculosis is still common in less developed countries, and severe economic losses can occur
from livestock deaths, chronic disease and trade restrictions. In some situations, this disease may also
be a serious threat to endangered species.
47
Transmission: Bovine Tuberculosis can be transmitted by the inhalation of aerosols, by ingestion, or
through breaks in the skin. Cattle shed bovine tuberculosis in respiratory secretions, feces and milk, and
sometimes in the urine, vaginal secretions or semen.
Incubation Period: The clinical signs of bovine tuberculosis usually take months to develop in cattle.
Infections can also remain dormant for years and reactivate during periods of stress or in old age.
Similarly, severe disease can develop in some deer within a few months of infection, while other deer do
not become symptomatic for years.
Mortality: The severity of the disease varies with the dose of infectious organisms and individual
immunity. Infected animals may remain subclinical, become ill only after stress or in old age, or develop
a chronic, debilitating fatal disease. In developed countries, most reactors are detected during routine
testing and mortality from tuberculosis is rare.
18. Tularemia ‐ Bacteria
Description: Tularemia is a zoonotic bacterial disease that can affect many mammals. It is most
prevalent among wild animals, but clinical cases occur regularly in cats, and outbreaks have been
reported among sheep, captive prairie dogs and ranched mink. Tularemia is considered to be a potential
bioterrorism agent.
This organism is found in the blood and tissues of infected animals, and it can survive for long periods on
fomites including food and water. Aquatic animals may develop tularemia after being immersed in
contaminated water, and some human outbreaks have been linked to drinking from natural springs and
wells. Carnivores can be infected by ingesting carcasses, and cannibalism seemed to be the primary
route of transmission during an outbreak in captive prairie dogs. Susceptibility varies among
domesticated animals. Epizootics of tularemia were once common among range sheep in Idaho,
Montana and Wyoming, and occasional outbreaks can still occur. The morbidity rate/ abortion rate in
this species can be as high as 50%.
Transmission: F. tularensis can be transmitted by ingestion, inhalation, arthropod–borne transfer, or
direct contact with mucous membranes and broken skin.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is 1 to 10 days.
Mortality: A variety of syndromes can be seen, but fatal septicemia is common in some animal species.
In humans, the disease varies from a localized illness to fulminant, life‐threatening pneumonia or
septicemia. Mortality rates up to 10‐15% are seen in untreated lambs, but adult sheep do not usually
develop systemic signs. Cats seem to be relatively susceptible to tularemia. Sick cats often have severe
clinical signs, and the mortality rate is high if the disease is not treated early. Tularemia is relatively
common and highly fatal in some species of wild animals.
19. Vesicular stomatitis – Vector transmitted Virus
Description: Vesicular stomatitis is an important vector borne viral disease of livestock in the Americas.
These outbreaks end after freezing temperatures kill the insect vectors that transmit vesicular
stomatitis; however, the introduced viruses may overwinter for a year or two, re‐emerging in the spring.
It can affect ruminants, horses and pigs, causing vesicles, erosions and ulcers on the mouth, feet and
udder. Vesicular stomatitis viruses are endemic from southern Mexico to northern South America, but
48
regularly spread north and south from these regions, causing outbreaks and epidemics. While these
viruses are no longer endemic in the U.S., they are introduced periodically into the southwestern states,
and can sometimes spread farther north.
Vesicular stomatitis is clinically indistinguishable from several other vesicular diseases of livestock
including foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD). Prompt diagnosis is important not only for containing vesicular
stomatitis outbreaks, which can restrict international trade, but also in preventing major livestock
diseases such as FMD from spreading undetected. People who work with vesicular stomatitis viruses or
come in close contact with infected animals sometimes become infected and develop an influenza‐like
illness. The animal morbidity rate for vesicular stomatitis is highly variable, and ranges from 5% to more
than 90%.
Transmission: Insect vectors are thought to introduce vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) into populations of
domesticated animals. Sand flies (Lutzomyia sp.), blackflies (family Simuliidae) and Culicoides midges can
act as biological vectors. Sand flies seem to be important vectors in endemic areas, but have a limited
flight range and are not thought to spread the viruses long distances. Blackflies are believed to be
particularly important vectors in parts of the western U.S. Once animals develop lesions, however,
insects may become infected by feeding on viruses in these lesions or contaminated secretions. In
addition, infected blackflies can transmit VSV to other blackflies feeding at the same time on a host,
even if the host is not infected. Once it has been introduced into a herd, vesicular stomatitis can spread
from animal to animal by direct contact. Broken skin or mucous membranes may facilitate entry of the
virus. Infected animals shed VSV in vesicle material. Viruses from lesions in the mouth and on the muzzle
can contaminate saliva, and to a lesser extent, nasal secretions.
Incubation Period: The incubation period is usually 3‐7 days, but longer or shorter incubation periods
have been reported.
Mortality: Although deaths are rare, these lesions can result in pain, anorexia and secondary bacterial
mastitis, and some animals may lose their hooves after developing laminitis.
20. West Nile Virus – Vector transmitted Virus
Description: West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito‐borne virus that circulates among birds, but can also
affect other species, particularly humans and horses. Many WNV strains are thought to be maintained in
Africa. However, migrating birds carry these viruses to other continents each year, and some strains
have become established outside Africa. At one time, the distribution of WNV was limited to the Eastern
Hemisphere, and it was infrequently associated with serious illness. Clinical cases usually occurred
sporadically in humans and horses, or as relatively small epidemics in rural areas. Most human infections
were subclinical, and if clinical signs occurred, they were typically mild and flu‐like. Severe illnesses,
characterized by neurological signs, seemed to be uncommon in most outbreaks.
Birds appeared to be unaffected throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, possibly because they had
become resistant to the virus through repeated exposure. It is reported to be longer in transplant
patients than in people who are not immunocompromised. Among domesticated mammals, West Nile
outbreaks occur mainly in equids. Many infections in horses are subclinical. While seroprevalence rates
vary greatly between studies (and cross‐reactivity with other flaviviruses can be a concern), up to 90% of
horses are reported to be seropositive in some parts of Africa. During outbreaks, 10‐43% of infected
horses are estimated to develop neurological signs.
49
Transmission: West Nile virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes. Members of the genus Culex are
the main vectors worldwide, although other mosquito genera can also be infected. In North America
alone, there is evidence of infection in more than 60 mosquito species.
Incubation Period: The incubation period in horses is 3 to 15 days. Infections in other mammals are
uncommon, and the incubation period is unknown. Clinical cases are reported to occur in birds, on
average, approximately 5 days after experimental inoculation. The incubation period is approximately 2
to 14 days.
Mortality: The reported case fatality rate ranges from 23% to 57%. It is approximately 30‐40% in the
U.S., and was 30% during a lineage 2 outbreak in Hungary. Once a mammal develops neurological signs,
the case fatality rate seems to be high. Most clinically affected animals, which included sheep, alpacas,
reindeer, dogs, cats, wolves, deer and a bear, have died, although one alpaca with relatively mild
neurological signs recovered. Both rhinoceroses affected in a zoo and one of two seals also recovered.
50
Appendix D – Quick Guides
Poultry Quick Disease Response Guide
Swine Quick Disease Response Guide
Cattle Quick Disease Response Guide
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
Appendix E – Glossary
1. Acronyms and Abbreviations
Agencies
APHIS – Animal and Plant Health (part of USDA)
CFSPH – Iowa State University Center for Food Safety & Public Health
DNR – Iowa Department of Natural Resources
FEMA – Federal Emergency Management Agency
FOA ‐ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
HSEMD – Iowa Homeland Security and Emergency Management
IDALS – Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship
ISU – Iowa State University
OIE ‐ World Organization for Animal Health
USDA – United States Department of Agriculture
USGS ‐ United States Geological Survey
2. Terms
AFO – Animal Feeding Operation
CSM – Carbon Source Material
ESF – Emergency Support Function
FAD – Foreign Animal Disease
GIS – Geographic Information Center
IAC – Iowa Administrative Code
ICS – Incident Command System
IMT – Incident Management Team
JIC – Joint Information Center
PIO – Public Information Officer
NIMS – National Incident Management System
SEOC – State Emergency Operations Center
3. Definitions
Alkaline hydrolysis ‐ Alkaline hydrolysis of carcasses is a process by which heat and pressure dissolve
and sterilize animal carcasses in a strong solution of sodium or potassium hydroxide.
64
Biosecurity ‐ Biosecurity is a set of preventive measures designed to reduce the risk of transmission of
infectious diseases between crops, livestock and wildlife.
Burial Zone Siting map – Interactive GIS maps designed to aid livestock producers in determining if
burial of carcasses is appropriate at their site. The GIS maps are based on several factors that indicate
risk of contamination.
Carbon Source – organic material that can provide carbon to a biological decomposition process, e.g.,
corn silage, ground hay/straw, saw dust, ground corn stalks, corn stover, mulch, wood chips (< 1‐in size),
poultry litter.
Emergency Support Function (ESF) ‐ ESFs align categories of resources and provide strategic objectives
for their use. ESFs utilize standardized resource management concepts such as typing, inventorying, and
tracking to facilitate the dispatch, deployment, and recovery of resources before, during, and after an
incident.
Euthanasia ‐ the practice of intentionally ending a life to relieve pain and suffering or to prevent the
spread of disease.
Field Command Post ‐ A command center, either mobile or fixed, set up in a location convenient to the
accident site, to facilitate emergency response, especially, for example, accident assessment activities
such as direction of the field monitoring teams.
Full Scale Exercise (FSE) ‐ FSEs are typically the most complex and resource‐intensive type of exercise.
They involve multiple agencies, organizations, and jurisdictions and validate many facets of
preparedness. FSEs often include many players operating under cooperative systems such as the
Incident Command System (ICS) or Unified Command. In an FSE, events are projected through an
exercise scenario with event updates that drive activity at the operational level.
Incident Command System (ICS) – A system of incident management with a single individual with
ultimate authority
Incident Management Team (IMT) ‐ IMTs are a cadre of multi‐agency, multi‐jurisdictional professionals,
activated to support incident management at large or complex incidents, disasters or special events.
National Incident Management System (NIMS) ‐ A structure for management large‐scale or multi‐
jurisdictional incidents.
Office International Des Epizooties (OIE) ‐ The World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) is an
intergovernmental organization coordinating, supporting and promoting animal disease control.
Regional Command Center ‐ A command center, either mobile or fixed, set up in a central location to
facilitate large scale emergency response, especially, for example, natural disaster activities. Regional
command centers focus on overall response direction and resource procurement and allocation over a
large area.
Rendering ‐ Rendering is a process that converts waste animal tissue into stable, usable materials.
Rendering can refer to any processing of animal products into more useful materials, or, more narrowly,
to the rendering of whole animal fatty tissue into purified fats like lard or tallow.
Tabletop Exercise (TTX) ‐ A TTX is intended to generate discussion of various issues regarding a
hypothetical, simulated emergency. TTXs can be used to enhance general awareness, validate plans and
65
procedures, rehearse concepts, and/or assess the types of systems needed to guide the prevention of,
protection from, mitigation of, response to, and recovery from a defined incident.
Unified Command System (UCS) ‐ A system of incident management with multiple individuals with
shared ultimate authority
Workshop – Workshops are discussion‐based exercises used to familiarize players with, or develop new,
plans, policies, agreements, and procedures. Facilitators and/or presenters usually lead the discussion,
keeping participants on track towards meeting exercise objectives.
4. Resources/Links to Additional Information
Iowa DNR Disaster Assistance – DNR
Key Partner Agencies:
Center for Food Safety & Public Health – ISU
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Iowa Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship
Iowa Department of Public Health
National Wildlife Health Center
US Animal Health Association
USDA Disaster Webpage
World Organization for Animal Health
General Foreign Animal Disease Outbreak info
Center for Food Safety & Public Health – ISU ‐ Accurate information on transboundary animal
diseases and zoonotic diseases
Interactive Burial Zone Map – DNR maps designed to aid livestock producers in determining if
burial of carcasses is appropriate at their site.
Disease Links
Iowa DNR Chronic Wasting Disease Information – DNR
Iowa DNR Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Information – DNR
National Wildlife Health Center – USGS
Wildlife Diseases – DNR
Wildlife Field Safety
National Wildlife Health Center Field Manual ‐ USGS
Safe Practices to Avoid Zoonotic Disease from Wildlife ‐ National Park Service
