Meaning and Nature · Web viewThe word “government” has no generally accepted definition, despite the fact that everybody in a civilized society knows what it is

Political Parties And Party System

CHAPTER ONE

THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT

The word “government” has no generally accepted definition, despite the fact that everybody in a civilized society knows what it is.

Many authors’ and scholars have defined “government” in many ways according to their various conceptual and perceptual views toward the subject matter. In this case, the word “Government” appears not to have a specific or generally accepted definition.

According to Oji (1997), “Government” is essentially a machinery of the state set up primarily to facilitate the role of the state in society.

Olisa et al (1990:2) define Government as a body of people and institutions that make and execute the laws of a state, make and implement its policies, conduct its public affairs and maintain law and order within its territory.

Nnoli (1986:10) opined that Government is a system of rule-making roles.

For this reason, we are required to capture in details the picture of the subject matter in three dimensional perspectives which include:(i) Government as an institution of the state(ii) Government as an academic field of study(iii) Government as an art and process of governance

Government is that pivot that performs all the above functions and encompasses the totality of the powers of the state. Because it is an agency of the state, it serves as a forum for implementation, formulation and expression of the laws and policies of the state.

Again, Government does not exist only to serve or act as the dictates of state but also as an agent of the community meant to bestow and ensure good of life and basic infrastructural facilities.

(1) Government as an Institution of the StateGovernment in this extent entails the apparatus set up by the

state to provide free flow of day- to -day running of government. They ensure compliance with existing laws and order. The availability of the three organs of Government, the Executive, Legislative and Judiciary helps the state. The state as an entity cannot function well without government and the government cannot operate without the state.

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Fundamental Issues in Nigerian Politics, Government and Development Administration:

This government has divisional power such that Executive implements laws, the legislature makes laws and the judiciary interprets laws. These different organs of the state enable the actions of the state to be effectively and efficiently carried out.

(2) Government as an Academic Field of StudyThe study of Government as an academic field of study gives

guideline on how to acquire and consolidate state power. This is because it is a system, an art as well as a science.

Historically, the study of Government in this extent has enabled countries to solve some Government problems which was statistically proved that most countries suffer similar governmental problems and there are partial solution to the governmental conflict. The Governmentas an academic field of study has the following branches:(a) Public Administration: This is the branch of political Science

that deals with the training of high level administrators, and career bureaucrats that work in the public and civil service

(b) Political Philosophy or Theory: This branch deals with training of political thinkers and philosophers like Plato, “Thomas Hobbes, Aristotle, “Machiavelli etc.

(c) International Relations: This branch has to do with international intercourse, the relationship between one nation, state and another in the comity of nations or international arena. It entails training of diplomatic agents that work in the embassies, highly commissions, foreign services and ministries of External Affairs. High commission are found in the Commonwealth Nations comprising countries under formerly under British rule.

(d) Government as a teaching subject: This branch deals with producing teachers who teach government at post primary and tertiary levels

(e) Local Government: This is the third tier of government which deeds with the training of grassroots workers in various local government councils; this will enable the rural dwellers to have a feel of government in their council areas. Example of this workers are the chairmen, councilors, secretaries, accountants etc.

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(f) Comparative Politics: This deals with the working of various governments; analyzing their similarities and differences; for example, studying comparatively the politics between the British parliamentary system and United States of America’s presidential system of Government.

(3) Government as an Art and a Process of GovernanceHuman nature has been dynamic and complex. Based on this

dual qualities possessed by man, political scientists observed that governing human beings presents complex problem.

Before human beings can be governed at all, it must take a process and usually that process is through constitution in a democratic setting or through decree in a military setting.

However, those aspiring to rule must pass through certain process before they obtain power. The exercise of the power itself must be in accordance with the provision of the constitution. No government representative be he or she president, senator, Governor, chairman etc can do whatever he likes or put the laws into his hands especially in advanced democracy without following the process of the laid down laws in the constitution.

In either civilian or military regime, governing people requires care and tact, if the regime is to last. The people will surely rise, one way or the other, to oppose any regime that is careless, oppressive or cannot identify their feelings.

Finally, government, therefore, is not only a process but also an art which requires much skill, experience and sound common sense. A good governor must have the interest of his people and that of the entire country at heart. He should be able to understand what his people want and always be in position to take quick and effective decision.

Description of the role of Government in Human SocietyIn this respect, the performance of those roles, the fulfillment of

certain basic social obligations, the pursuit of certain basic social responsibilities with which Government elsewhere are associated with is also referred to as government. Some of these roles must have become apparent. We, however need to treat them more explicitly.

Nnoli (1986) and Olisa et al (1990) pointed out the following roles:

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1. System maintenance function2. Service Function3. Management of public enterprises

(i) System Maintenance function: The first function of Government is exercise of state power in the interest of the ruling coalition. In concrete term, this takes various forms, namely:

(a) Maintenance of law and order in the society(b) Protection of the society against foreign invasion and domestic

violence.(c) Protection of life and property of individual within the territory

of the state(d) Procurement as cheaply as possible of external resource

urgently and initially needed for activities in the country.

(ii) Service Function: The first appropriate goal of the Government is achievement of high level of production, in the interest of the ruling coalition in particular and whole society in general. Accordingly, Government undertakes activities directed at promotion of individual and in the composite sense, collective welfare and the fulfillment of other purpose of the state. Among such roles, we have the provision of roads and other infrastructural support base at the urban and rural area, water and electricity, provision of education and hospital or public health administration.

(iii) Management of Public Enterprises:Public enterprises are commercial activities established by

Government such as the Nigerian Railways corporation, the British Railway corporation, Telephone such as NITEL, Shipping Lines, Airways, Energy and Electricity generation like NEPA. Apart from the political and socio-economic significance of some of the corporations and agencies already mentioned above, there is no questioning the economic importance of the Central Bank, minting and security printing corporation, national defence corporation and so forth .

Nwanze (2005) opined that the role of Government in human society should be stated as follows:

(1) Maintenance of law and order(2) Provision of basic social amenities

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(3) Engages herself in international relations(4) Settlement of disputes(5) Formulation and implementation of policies(6) Protection of rights and interest of citizens(7) Promotion of Economic activities

(i) Maintenance of law and order: This is one of the most basic functions of Government because

without maintenance of law and order, man would have been in a state of nature, according to Thomas Hobbes who said that “man in the state of nature is Brutish, selfish against his fellow men. The society would have been in a state of sheer lawlessness without maintenance of law and order, in most counties including Nigeria the government uses police to ensure the performance of this function.

The governor, by this very function, checks the excesses of man’s ambition and protects the state from internal insurrection and external aggression, this guaranteeing security of lives and properties.

(ii) Provision of Basic Social Amenities: In the social contract theory of state one of the essence of

establishing a government is to do to the people what they cannot do or provide for themselves. It now becomes incumbent on Government to provide its citizens with basic social amenities like good accessible roads, hospital, stable electricity power supply, provision of good schools, payment of workers, such as salaries as and at when due. These Governments provide social amenities by using its powers to tax citizens in order to raise funds to provide the amenities in the public interest.

(iii) Engages herself in International Relation Since no nation-state is an island unto herself it becomes

expedient that nations believe in interdependence. From economic, social political inter-dependency and it is the function of any government to attract the relationship of another state through international relationship. Sometimes government signs treaty with another government for economic transaction and this is one of the major function of Government.(iv) Settlement of Disputes

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Through establishment of the constitution of the land and rule of law, government settles disputes between individuals and between individual and the state in a court of law.

(v) Formulation of PoliciesAnother basic function of government is the formulation of

policy. The policies made by government help the government in planning, directing, co-coordinating, and budgeting for the state and citizens. Some of the policies made in the past in Nigeria are, Universal Basic Education (UBF), Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP), Deregulation of downstream sector of the petroleum product etc.

(vi) Protection of the rights and interests of the citizensThe Government of a country protects the rights of its citizens through law court, police, and the constitution of the land.

(vii) Promotion of Economic ActivitiesThe Government promotes economic activities by building industries for its citizens and again helps in harnessing some vital resources like the extraction and refining of crude oil.

Basic Concept of Government1. Authority2. Power3. Influence4. Force and sovereignty 5. Legitimacy6. Democracy7. Capitalism8. Socialism9. Communism10. Political culture

i. Authority: According to Nwankwo (2002) authority could be described as the moral right to decide judgment, policies, issues and settle conflicts. The moral right mentioned above has to do with exercise of power. Therefore, authority is the right to direct and command peoples.

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Political authority is the right to exercise political power. It means the justified right to make binding decisions and obtain compliance from the public.

Types or Classes of Authorityi. Primordant Authority: This type of authority one enjoys or exercises being born into a royal family and can be excised or acquired as a result of age and sex. For instance, in some place such as in the traditional society, one can exercise authority because of one’s age say the eldest person in the society. This is rulership by gerontocracy.

A person can also exercise authority because of sex, in a place where only men are allowed to exercise authority.

(ii) Sacred Authority: This is the divine power authority. This led to the development of the theory of divine right of kings. During the olden days when most kings and emperors claimed that they had the divine right to rule. The Pope and most native priests wield among members of the society. This type of authority was exercised in Europe by Henry the Eighth when he claimed to the Pope that he got his right to rule from Jesus.

(iii) Personal or charismatic authority: This is the type of authority based on a person’s physical qualities (Personal charm). It is generally believed that some people possess special charms or physical attraction as well as other mystic or uncommon qualities that enable them to command the respect and confidence of other people. Such people wield authority based on their physical appearance or qualities, which are collectively, termed “charisma”.

(iv) Instrumental Authority: This is the type of authority based on possession of technical knowledge, skill, expertise and experience. It is also based on the achievement. This is the type of authority permanent secretaries (now Director General) and heads of parastatals wield in their respective offices.

(v) Legal Authority: This is type of authority based on the constitution and the law of the land. This type of authority is exercised by the judges of the law courts, heads of higher institutions, Governors

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and heads of state or government. This can be popularly called political authority.

(vi) Delegated Authority: This type of authority is confered to the subordinate by the superior officer to carry out a specific function.

(2) PowerThis is the ability to make someone to conform to your desire.

Power can be generally defined as the ability to act and secure conforming behaviour. In politics, power is very important and central. Everything about politics revolves around power. This is why politics has been defined as all activities directly related to the seizure of state power, consolidation of state power and the use of state power. Thus power can be classified into various forms:(i) Political power: This is the type of power that enables someone to make decisions that would be obeyed by the whole members of a given society. In this case, political power is the ability to make and carry out binding decisions affecting the whole society, public. This is the type of power a president or head of state can exercise over members of society.

(ii) Personal or private power: This type of power is based on the physical appearance and it depend on the person’s physical attractiveness, have and affection for others.

(iii) Expert or information power: This is power based on availability or possession of information or knowledge. Somebody is said to exercise this kind of power over the other, if the person makes another to conform to his desire or wishes because he has more information or knowledge than the person.

(iv) Normal Power: This is power based on morality. This power can be exercise by pope, Bishop, a Reverend father, a pastor and other ministers of church exercise over their congregation, it is so because they seen too be more moral, holier or more righteous than the followers.

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(v) Economic Power: This is power of wealth which can be exercised over someone because of the availability of wealth; Riches exercised this type of power over poor people.

(vi) Physical power: This is power based on physical strength. It is said to be exercise over someone who you is stronger or more energetic e.g. a boxer who beats another boxer to submission because he has an upper strength over the opposition boxer.

(3) InfluenceForce and Sovereignty: Force can be described as an action

when somebody compels to do something out of willingness or under duress. This is normally exercised by armed robbers in order to acquire what does not belong to them.

Sovereignty, on the other hand, according to Nwanze, could mean the complete power of a state or country to govern itself without any external intervention Oriaku and Nwangwu (1989) opined that sovereignty means the full and exclusive legal power to make and enforce laws for the people within a definite territory and under a definite jurisdiction.

Therefore, sovereignty simply means a governmental situation when a state or a nation has a complete or comprehensive legal power to formulate and implement national policies without external intervention, that is to say, independent nation

(4) Legitimacy: This could described as the ideology of acquiring political power through the manner stated in the constitution, lawful way and generally accepted procedure. It’s an approval of authority. The ruler always creates the impression that they are entitled to exercise power. This belief simply indicates a claim to legitimate.

Therefore anything contrary to this is illegitimate. Every military regime, which comes to power through the barrel of the gun is termed illegitimate.

(5) Democracy: democracy means a system of government in which the will of the majority of masses or citizens prevails. According to Abraham Lincoln, one time American president, democracy is the government of the people by the people and for the people.

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In modern governments, the practice of democracy is through representative government on the platform of election and on the basis of one man one vote.

This democracy started in Greek city states where every individual Athenians gathered in the public square like market to take certain decisions affecting the community. Today, everybody cannot gather in the metropolis such as Abuja to influence government decisions but rather it is government by elected representatives.

There are two types of democracy; these are:a. Direct Democracyb. Indirect Democracy

a. Direct Democracy is the type of democracy where every qualified adult citizen in a community or state participates in decision making directly without electing representative. Igbo traditional society practiced this type of Democracy.

b. Indirect Democracy: This is the type of democracy where the qualified adult citizens in a community or state elect members or representative into the parliament who take decision on their behalf. This is modern time democracy system

Principles of Democracya. Equality: This implies that everybody is born equal and has equal right to contribute to the development of the country.

b. Alternative choice: This is a precondition for democracy because people should be allowed to be members of party that suit their beliefs and ideology. One party system is not allowed in a democratic system of government, there must be two or more parties so that people will have alternative choice.

c. Regular Consultation: In a democratic system, government should not be isolated from the people rather they should be given opportunity to air and voice their opinion and discuss with elected representatives from time to time especially when the need arises

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d. Periodic Election: This implies that election should be conducted within a given period according to constitution of the country, like in Nigeria, the constitution stipulated four years. This will enable the electorate to exercise their franchise and test the candidacy of the incumbents. Where they are not up and doing they will be replace by other persons where they are competent they will continue another tenure.

e. Majoritarian Rule: This is the most important principles of democracy, because if any government operates contrary to this principle, it is said to be undemocratic. This Government gains legitimacy through planning programmes in the interest of majority of the people. In this case, the views of the majority must be held in high esteem.

(6) Capitalism:Capitalism could be described as a political cum

economic system in which the means of production and distribution is concentrated in the hands of individuals. It ensures Laissez faire (free trade) and free competition. It limits the government as the most effective way of increasing the wealth of nations, and abandons government interference in individual or group enterprises.

Capitalism emerged as a result of inadequacy of feudalism and consequent change to free enterprise today, most powerful nation state in the world practicing capitalism, for example Great Britain United State of America.

The Featuresi There is no governmental restriction or interference into the

systemii The production and distribution is anchored on private

ownershipiii There should be self interest within a frame work of law and

order.iv. It is competitive, profit oriented and every individual is

welcome in the system.v. It has two major classes exist in capitalist system:

bourgeoisie and proletarians

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(7) SocialismThis can be defined as a political belief and an ideology of the

government, which emphasizes that worker through the state control, means of production and distribution. This is contrary to capitalism by rejecting individualism, private ownership and private profits in favour of economic collectivism and governmental and group ownership of production and distribution.

According to Karl Marx and Lenin; socialism could mean a set of ideas, norms, goals beliefs and principles, which emphasize workers, or state control of political power and economic activities such as production and distribution of goods and services.

The countries that practice socialism are China, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Vietnam etc

Socialism can be categorized into two: (A) Maxian Socialism: This believes that for socialism to emerge,

it must come through violence and destruction of existing capitalist and democratic institution by the proletariats.

(B) Democratic Socialism: This believes in the use of political machinery of the state to achieve public goals and peacefully modifying the existing system.

(8) Communism:This can be defined as the final state of socialist development in

which the productive force have in base with the all around development of the individual.

In this level, there is elimination of capitalist institutions and the establishment of a collectivist society in which ultimately there is absence of classes and the state.

According to Karl Marx and Lenin, Communism is the state at which the immense gains of socialist efforts are to be enjoyed or realized in a communist state. This concept or ideology is where there will be free sharing of material goods and services.

(9) Political CultureThis refers to the people’s political attitude, values and ways of

life, feeling information possessed by the members of the political community G.A Almond and G.B Powell (1996) stated that the political culture is the pattern of individual attitude and orientations towards politics among the members of a political system.

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Different countries, and nations have different political cultures for instance, the political culture of average American is rendering services to the nation.

In this effect, we have three types of political culture and these include:(i) Parochial political culture(ii) Subject political culture(iii) Participatory political culture

Nation, State and Nation-StateThe term “Nation” originated from a Latin word “Natus” which

means a birth. A nation can be defined as group of people with common history, language, culture, custom, tradition, Similar ideology, trait and goals.

A nation emerges where a significant number of people in a community believe that they are selected by common lineage, customs and tradition and decided to come together and build up that consciousness

Nation, on the other hand is an association or a community of people united by common ties. This community of people associated with a particular territory usually speaking a single language, have the same political aspirations and consciousness of unity.

It is this consciousness of unity that is referred to as nationalism or a sense of nationality.A. Nation is characterized by the following: (i) History(ii) Culture(iii) Common language(iv) Geography/Territory

i. HistoryHistory in this extent is very important because of the same

nation should be able to trace their origin from a common root.History serves as an integrating factor for identification from

one generation to another.This common history and tradition is usually a culmination of

several years of sharing common feelings of victory, defeat, hurt, pride and love of fighting common war with a common cause and sharing

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political antecedent, thus creating national consciousness for example, the Igbo nation, Jewish nation, French Hausa,Chinese, Yorubas etc

ii. Culture: The people of the same nation should be of the same cultural traits or antecedent, their way of life should be used to distinguish or compare them to other people.This is usually evident or manifest in their customs and habits e.g. their marriage, customs, eating habits, religion, farming system and other ways of living and doing things.

Culture is a very important characteristic in nation hood because it is the sum total of people way of life.

iii. Common Language: The language of a nation is one of the major characteristics of a nation. People of the same nation should be easily identified for speaking one language. They should be able to communicate effectively, understand themselves and should be able to speak with one voice on an issue of mutual interest. This makes them feel a certain kinship with each other with the ability to exclude other people who cannot communicate in their language.

iv. Geography: Geographical territory is also one of the major characteristics of a nation, which serves as a reference to the location of people.

Moreover, modern development has proved that nations are seen existing in Diaspora (foreign land) e.g some Igbo nations lived in USA while some Yorubas lives in London and some Jews lives in American and they them American Jews.

It will be expedient to point out that the presence or absence of any of the factors or characteristic does not automatically indicate a nation. It is collective agreement or will of a people to come together and stay united and share a common goals that make a nation.

B. State: A state can be defined as a political organized body of people occupying a definite geographical territory with an organized power to secure obedience from its citizens and others. When we talk about state in this extent we do not mean a state or a component part of a country like Nigeria that practice federalism. That is state like Lagos state, Enugu state, Benin State, Imo State, Delta State etc. Examples of

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states we mean in this discussion are Nigeria, USA China Gambia, Poland, etc.

Moreover, one of the most basic concepts in government is state, because without the state there will not be an institution called Government. Many scholars have attempted to define the state in different way.Aristotle defined state as the most supreme and inclusive association whose purpose is attainment of good life.

According to Karl Deutsch, the state can be defined as an organization established for the enforcement of decisions or commands made practicable by existing habits of compliance among the populace.

In concluding the definition of state if will be expedient to mention that the state has different meanings depending on the context it is used. Udenta (1999:10) pointed out that statehood here is defined with regard to the following characteristics or attributes1 Population2. Territory3. Government4. Sovereignty

(1) Population: The population element is the first essential element of a state. According to Olisa et al (1990:1); the population of a state is made up of :(a) Citizens and subjects who are entitled to full civil rights and

liberties and who own allegiance to the state(b) Aliens or citizens and subjects of other states who reside within

the territory of the given state, who enjoy its production as well as certain civil benefits and who are required by the laws of the state in question to pay taxes and in some cases to perform various services.

2 Territory: A state must have a defined territorial boundary. This is an important element in international relations. This element does not and with just the physical landmass but includes the airspace and if not a land-locked state, and then the water extending to certain stipulated nautical miles, that is as stipulated by international laws, outside its coastline. The territorial boundary also include the plants and animals as well as the imponderable feature that make up the general

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topography of its land mass, the natural resources both above and below the surface of the land as well as those under the sea within its territorial waters.

3 Government: This is about the most distinguishing mark of statehood; a government which has the power and the will to maintain peace, order, and stability, and to perform the required service and fulfill the international obligations of the state. The Government of a state consists of the legislature, the executive and judiciary bodies as well as agencies and institutions designed and developed to achieve the aims of the state.

4 Sovereignty: This is one of the basic elements of statehood. To speak about sovereignty is to call to mind autonomy, independent. It implies authority over the population, territory and organizations within the territorial confirms of a state. . It calls to mind and seeks to present a sovereign state as an absolute, comprehensive and indivisible social force. But it is this sovereignty element which seems to involve all the first three elements - population, territory and government. This takes us to a new point

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CHAPTER TWO

ORGANS / ARMS OF GOVERNMENT

Organs of Government can be defined according to Anyaele (194;61) as the structural division of the powers of Government into different segments.An organ therefore is a structure that takes parts in fulfilling the general functions of a Government.

In modern times, in view of the many functions, a government is meant to perform and like in large establishment, functions of government are divided into three segment or branches. It is these segment we call organ of government. The main functions of these organ (Executive, legislature and Judiciary) are law making for legislature, implementation of law by Executive and interpretation of law for judiciary. We shall therefore analyses these organs one after another in details

The LegislatureThe legislature is the arm or organ of government made up of

elected persons, and whose main responsibility is to make laws for the nation.

In this case, at the local Government level, we have councilors, who make laws for the local Government and their laws are called bye laws while in the case of state Governance, the members of House of Assembly make the laws while in the Senate and House of Representatives at the national level where bicameral legislature is obtainable such as Nigeria. This is typical legislative process in a federal system of government, which is in operation in Nigeria

Functions of the Legislative1. Law making: Making of laws is one of the major functions of legislative which guide and guide the actions of a country. It does this by passing into laws bill sent by its members or the executive. It can also repeal, amend, add to existing laws2. Election and approval of appointments: The legislature has power to consider and where necessary approve appointments made by the executive.

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3. Constitution making and amendment: It is the duty of the legislature to draw up the constitution and it plays a major role in the procedure for amending the constitution.4. Budget approval: It is the duty of the legislature to consider and approve the national budget, prepared by the executive. Therefore, the legislature controls the running of the economy5. Power to remove the executive: In a presidential system of Government, the president can be impeached by the legislature if he fails to abide by the existing constitution but in a parliamentary system, the Prime Minister and his cabinet can be removed through a vote of no confidence by parliament.6. Political Education: Through debate and committee hearings, the legislature maintains with their constitution through newspapers, radio and television.7. Judicial functions: The legislature in some countries serves as the highest judicial authority or the last appeal court. In Britain for instance, the House of Lord serves this purpose.8. Training of future leaders: Membership of the legislature affords one the opportunities of having requisite knowledge and experience to use in running the country9. Approval of treaties: International treaties negotiated by the executive must be approved by the legislature before they are ratified by the executive.10 Representation and expression of the peoples’ interest: The legislature is a platform through which members of the public, through their elected representatives, express their opinion. The individual member of the public and groups makes known their opinion as well as their view on various national issues though their representative in the legislatures.

Types of LegislatureThe legislature can be classified into:Unicameral legislatureBicameral legislature(a) Unicameral Legislature: This refers to a situation in a country in which there is only one legislative house or chamber. Kenya, Greece, Israel and Gambia operate this type of legislative system

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Advantages of Unicameral Legislature1. It is more economical to operate than the bicameral type2. It is suited for small countries with homogeneous demographic

and cultural condition.3. Law making process is faster in the unicameral system of

government4. Elections into a unicameral system are simpler than that of the

bicameral legislature

Disadvantages of Unicameral Legislature1. It gives the executive arm the chance to influence unicameral

legislature2. The Unicameral legislature does not make adequate

representation in a large country.3. The relative case with which the executive could influence the

unicameral legislature provides a fertile ground for the emergence of an authoritarian head of the executive arms of government.

4. It does not permit adequate consideration of bills before they are passed into law

Bicameral LegislatureThis is the type of legislature with two legislative houses or

bodies . There is the lower and the upper house or chamber. Like Nigeria, we have house of representative and the senate house as at the national assembly.

The lower house or chamber is often made up of members directly elected on the basis of universal adult suffrage while the upper house consists of more experienced members, which sometime appointed into the house. Presenting in Nigerian and its, both house consist of elected member.

Merits of The Bicameral Legislature1. The duty of law making is made easier when it is shared between

two houses of parliament2. It prevents tyranny due to one chamber or house checks the

excesses of the other house or chamber3. The problem of hasty passing of bills is not allowed

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4. It makes adequate provision for minority and other interest groups in a large country

5. The period of time between the passage of each bill by both house, gives the public a good opportunity to air their opinion

Demerits of The Bicameral Legislature1 The process of passing bill by both houses delays legislation or

law making 2. A lot of money are wasted in the maintenance of the two

chambers which are in effect performing the same functions.3. The existence of the two legislative houses engenders rivalry

which some times leads to parliamentary crisis4. The members of second house could be undemocratic because the

member of house of lords are appointed.5. The upper house is made up of seasoned elderly people whose level of production is in a diminishing rate

The ExecutiveAsogwa (2005:73) described an executive arm of government as

an administrative system of Government which carry out policies and enforce law enacted by the legislature.

The chief executive is directly elected by the electorate through a universal suffrage; the officer under the chief executive of the president and the state governor.

More simply, Executive is the organ of government whose duty is to carry out government decision and enforce its laws. They are responsible for the implementation and execution of laws, policies and directive made by the legislatives organ of government.

The executive arm of government is headed by the prime minister in a (parliamentary system) and by the president in a presidential system of government.

Types of Executive1. Parliamentary Executive2. Presidential Executive3. Single Executive4. Collegial Executive

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Parliamentary Executive: This refers essentially to the prime minister in a cabinet system of government. He emerges as prime minister by virtue of his leadership of majority party in government Real executive powers are vested in the cabinet consisting of the prime minister and a number of ministers. The executive holds office as long as he commands majority in the parliament.

Presidential Executive: This is one who is both the head of state and head of government. He is elected by a majority of eligible voters across the country and an executive holds office for a fixed term, and can only be removed from office through a process of impeachment

Single Executive: This is one in which there is a chief executive to whom all other executive members such as ministers are subordinate. The president of Nigeria in the Second Republic and that of the US are good example of the single executive.

Collegial Executive: This is one in which the executive power is vested in a council or cabinets rather than single person. The British parliament is one of the examples of this system in which the prime minister as the head but equal to other ministers. Functions of Executive1. The main function of the executive arm of government is

implementation of policies and enforcement of laws enacted by the judiciary. They are often ambiguous and often not directed at any particular ministry; the executive interprets these policies for practical and meaningful implementation.

2. Administration of the civil service: civil service is the principal agent of the executive. They functions to ensure effective operation of the bureaucratic civil service by coordinating their specific duties to meet with the government needs and aspiration.

3. It appoints and removes top government officials in both the executive and the judicial arms of government. Some of this posts are judges, ministers, ambassadors and chief executives of parastatals

4. The executive prepares annual and budgets: to ensure judicious expenditure of government fund in priority areas chosen by the people.

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5. Bills are submitted by or through the executive to the legislature for consideration. Such bills, after due process, become law. Bills from the executive are usually articulated out of the several years of experience and often boarders on welfare of the citizen.

6. The executive through the powers granted to it by the constitution, may reduce the sentence passed on a convict, or delay the execution of the sentence.

7. Education: The various agents of the executive like ministries inform and educate the people on government activities. A large population of the society work under the executive. Relevant information and benefit from each ministry in addition to their being publicized by the media are also spread by these staff.

The Judiciary The Judiciary is another arm of government which is responsible for interpretation of laws and trial cases involving individual citizens, organization and state. It performs its function through the courts. It ensures obedience to the law and gives judgment as appropriate in respect of any case brought before it.

It is made up of magistrate, judges, and chief judges who preside over such courts as customary, magistrate and high courts as well as appeal and supreme courts. They also preside over tribunals and administrative courts. The judicial powers of the federation shall be vested in the courts established by the federation and the state and for themselves respectively.

Functions of the Judiciary1. Interpretation of the Laws: The most important function of the

judiciary is to interpret the laws. It is the duty of a court to decide cases based on the provision of the constitution and to be determined by its power of judicial review such as whether or not the law concerned was in conformity with the constitution.

2. Punishment of offenders: The judiciary has the duty of meting out law breakers with due punishment or sentences according to their offences.

3. Creation of New Laws: In the process of legislative interpretation, new laws are made. They are sometime called judge- made law or case law. Legislative laws meant to be executed by the executive are sometime vague.

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4. The Judiciary settles disputes between any parties’ individuals, organization and government whether they are civil or criminal cases.

5. Protection of Constitution: It is the duty of the judiciary to determine whether the constitution has been violated or not. This function is very important especially in written federal constitution. Any law that is unconstitutional that is not in accordance with the constitution will be declared illegal or null and void.

6. Demonstration of Rule of law: Rule of law is not an illusion. It may be abstract but it is real. It can be felt and its absence create quite a vacuum which no pretence or deceit can fill.

7. Defence of the country in External judicial disputes: International trade is a key element in international economic relation. It is a deliberate effort made because of interdependence of state.

8. Advises on matters relating to constitutional preparation and amendment

9. Protects individual and group right and liberties, by ordering the release of any persons detained unjustly.

The Independence of the JudiciaryAn independent judiciary is one which is free from the

interference of the two arms or organs of government. The judiciary should be free from other arms of government. Neither the executive nor the legislature should interfere with the courts or judges. Judges should free in interpreting the law, they should work without fear or favour and unless there is judiciary independence, it will not be able to pass judgment impartially.

Independence of judiciary gives the judges full powers to effectively treat cases before them without fear of favour. The governor can only act in pursuant of the power given to him by law. In accordance with British jurisprudence no member of the executive can interfere with the liberty or property of the British subject except on the condition that he can support the legality of the action before a court of justice.

The provision of the constitution protecting the independence of the judiciary is sufficient to guarantee checks on any undemocratic policies or obnoxious laws which the legislature might pass or the

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executive might be tempted to enforce. At all time including now some judges have lived up to the confidence reposed on them by the constitution and the people, when impartially decide cases without fear or favour. In 2003, some judges of electoral tribunals had preferred to delay judgment and rather retire instead of succumbing to pressure to give judgment that could bring their carrier to contempt or disrepute. The contribution of each of them under whatever excuse or reason goes down in the annuals of the democratic development of Nigeria which posterity will assess and also pass judgment on.

Why There Should be Independence of the Judiciary1 Where the judges are free from control by any arm of the

government, rights and liberty of the citizen will be better protected..

2. The Judicial independence protects the state from tyrannical control of either by the executive or legislature.

3. It ensures the protection of the constitution through objective interpretation whenever necessary.

4. Independence of the judiciary ensures that justice is dispensed fairly to all5. Judicial independence will ensure that only fully qualified judges

are appointed to the judiciary, free from political considerations.6. The independence of the judiciary will ensure that judges are not

victims in the hands of executive as a result of the proper judgment given by them.

How to Ensure Independence of the Judiciary(1) The judges or magistrate should not be appointed by the executive

or the legislature.(2) There should be judiciary immunity as is obtainable in almost

every country from persecution for anything they say in the performance of their duties.

(3) The judicial officers must be persons of high integrity in this way they will gain the confidence of the people.

4. Judicial officers should cry of security of tenure, and may only be removed on grounds of ill health or gross misconduct.

5. The principle of separation of powers with its in-built checks and balances should apply especially regarding the judiciary.

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6. The judge must not participate in partisan politics; they should not be members of any political party because this will enable them not to be influenced by political interest in the discharge of their duties.

7. Judicial officers should be well paid and their salaries should not be subject to executive or legislative control.

Relationship among the Organs The principles of checks and Balances among the three arms

of Government:In practice, it is common for every country that adopted

presidential system of government to allow function of government to stermingle. For example While it is the official function of the legislature to male laws, no bill becomes laws unless it obtains the assent of the president, although a bill which the president votes can still become law by the overriding two third vote of both House of National Assembly.

Asogwa (2005:204) opined that checks and balances can also be experienced in the appointment of Government functionaries like judges ministers and ambassadors. He makes the appointment that remains substantive until it obtains the Senate’s consent, by getting its two thirds majority vote.

In their respective or separate existence, each of the organs performs functions of the other for effective governance. The judiciary in the process of interpreting the laws of the constitution or parliamentary status makes new laws- judge made laws or case laws- similar laws are also made by the judges giving new meaning to existing laws. It also performs executive functions by withholding an order made by a member of the executive in the interest of justice.

The executive makes laws in the form of order, directive proclamation etc, for the same reasons ministries and professional constitution institute quasi courts and arbitrate between officials, and award penalties. They are Public Service Commission, Police Service Commission, Legal Practitioners Disciplinary Committee, etc.

We should understand the whole idea to mean that neither the legislative nor the judiciary should exercise the whole power of government alone, the individual organ’s exercise of its executive function should not exclude influence or control or incursion into its duties by the other organs should be appreciated. . The effectiveness of

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separation of powers as a weapon against interference with the liberty and freedom of the people has been in doubted. Davis has cautioned that if the doctrine of separation of power is intended as a weapon against tyranny, it could hardly operate.

The Rule of LawThe term “Rule of Law” was propounded by Prof. A.V. Dicey

1885 in his book, the Law of the Constitution” and entails that the law of a state is supreme. It does not offer special protection to an official be he a soldier, police even minister of state.

Nwankwo (1992:42) further stated that the rule of law is the idea not only that every citizen shall be equally bound by known and fair laws enforced by known and impartial judges. It does this by protecting each individual’s right against those of other individual, but also that the government itself equally be bound by these laws, so that the relationship between the government and every individual shall be controlled in the same way as those of individual with each other only in this way can the rights of the individual citizen be protected and asserted against tyranny on the part of the government.

The rule of law also means that the law is superior and generally acceptable as the only mode of determining and dispensing justice in a given state.

Before any country can thrive in democracy, it must observe the principles of rule of law as propound by Dicey for instance, in Nigeria in the past and current dispensation there is no rule of law.

Under rule of law, all men are subject to the same law and equal before the law. The law knows no body and it not a respecter of persons.

Principles of Rule of Law1 Equality before the law:

This entails that all citizen are equal before the law of the land. No person is above the law. The law that applied to the king or governor should apply to the governed, irrespective of his rank or position

2. Supremacy of Regular lawThis implies that no man should be published or made to suffer

breach of law unless established by a court of law. One should only be

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punished for breaking the laws when he is found guilty by a court devoid of impartial judgment.3. The Right to Personal Liberty of the Individual

This right has to do with fundamental human rights given to every individual in the society. These rights are often entrenched in the constitution of the country concerned which is of the country concerned which is either written or unwritten. These rights are often referred to as the in alienable right of the individual such rights include right to life, freedom or association, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of movement and to own properties

Conditions Necessary for the Rule of Law to Operate1 Every citizen must be certain that a breach of the law will

attract some punishment2. The law must be applicable to all concerned..3. The law must be made public4. There must be a system of punishment distinct from that of

distension5. An accused should be allowed to call witnesses and be defended

by a counsel of his choice6.There must be a system of detecting breaches

Limitations to the Operation of Rule of LawThe effective operation of rule of law in a society can be limited

by the following factors:The Head of state or presidential Immunity:The principles of rule of law stipulate that everybody is equal before the law but it does not exist in practice.

In most states of the world, the head of state or president or Queen is given some privileges that makes him or her seem to be above the law, this implies that such persons are either fully or partially free from any offence they may commit for instance the British constitution require that the Queen should “do no wrong” and therefore is above the law. This is true because she is a requiring and not r ruling monarch.

In the year 2000 in Nigeria during Oputa panel, the former head of state in the persons of General Ibrahim Babangida, Buhari and Abubakar refused to appear before the panel on invitation. And nothing was done to them because they have some immunity guiding them.

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2. Diplomatic Immunity: diplomatic are above the law of the country in which they are serving, example, the French Ambassador to Nigeria cannot be prosecuted in any of the Nigeria courts. Even no police can arrest or stop them. The police even with the search Warrant is not allowed to enter into the French embassy unless permitted by the ambassador,.

This is because the Ambassador and the staff are enjoying or covered by the diplomatic immunity.

3. Judicial Immunity: Judges are immune against prosecution when they make mistake in the dispensation of justice while presiding over a case Again judiciary is not completely independent in many countries. They are being controlled by the unseen hands.

4. Conviction by the ordinary court of law: The supremacy of law as a principle of rule of law is not obtainable in practice because many people accused of serious offences are kept in police or prison custody for months or years while awaiting trial. Such persons suffer severely to the detriment of their freedom, rights, business and family life. This is a deviation from rule of law because they are being punished when their guilt has not been proved by the law court. On the contrary, it is unwise to grant bail to persons accused of serious offences such as cultism, rape, murder, armed robbery and treason

5. The existence of administrative Tribunals having judicial powers is a limitation to the rule of law.In modern government the establishment of tribunal is on the

increase, in Nigeria, the example we have the armed robbery tribunal, the foreign exchange and the inland revenue court.

After the 2003 general election, electoral tribunal were set up to handle the case of those that were aggrieved during election in various state capital. And all these tribunals are negation of the workability of rule of law which demands that every offence and all people be tried in the ordinary court of the land

Separation of PowersThe theory of separation of powers was first put forward by an

eighteenth century. French political thinker called Baron de Montesquieu in his book the spirite of laws, published in 1748. the

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argued that, in order to protect the citizens from the tyranny of their rulers the three function of government should not be carried out by one and the same person or group of persons.Separation of powers therefore means the sharing of governmental powers among the three organs of the government, the Executive, the legislature and the judiciary. The reason for sharing of this power is to guarantee individual liberty and to prevent arbitrary rule, tyranny and oppression by the government

In this case, there should be a separation and independent organs of the government to perform each function Montesquieu further opined that if the group of men that make laws is the same group that implement and interprets the laws there is bound to be two much power in their hands that they would oppress and infringe on the rights of the citizen because of the notion that power corrupts absolute and absolute power corrupt absolutely”

In the presidential system of Government, there is complete separation of powers because members of the executive are not members of legislature and members of judiciary cannot be member of executive or legislature.

In the case of parliamentary system of Government or cabinet system there is incomplete separation of power or fusion of powers because members of the executive can also be members of legislature. But the principle of separation of power still works because of the theory of check and balances

The Separation of Powers in Parliamentary or Cabinet System of Government

In a cabinet or parliamentary government, there is incomplete partial or fusion of power. All the members of the executive are also member legislature. Thus there is fusion and not separation of powers. The executive has full control of the legislature under parliamentary system of government. Nearly most bills initiated by the executive are passed by the legislative. Bills not backed up by the executive are handy passed.

Often, majority of the members of the legislature do not belong to the executive. Such members can attack the actions of the executive during debate.

Moreover, if the executive should misuse powers of misrule. Parliament (legislature) will pass vote of no confidence in it and it will

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resign. These are powerful check and balances of the executive. The executive also control the action of legislature by their membership of their parliament.

The executive and legislature also check the judiciary for example it is the executive that recommends the appointment of the member of the judiciary to the bench. i.e magistrate and judges, secondly, the legislature ratifies approves the appointment of any judge. This is how separation of powers works in the parliamentary system of government The Separation of Powers in the Presidential System of Government

In the presidential system of government there is more separation of powers, than in cabinet or parliamentary systems. In the presidential system no member of executive can be a member of legislature at the same time and members of judiciary cannot be either the member of executive or legislature and vice versa.

Therefore, the president is not under legislature or parliament rather he is responsible to the electorate and the constitution of the land. The legislators are also elected into parliament. The judiciary is also independent of the two organs.

But in practice, in Nigerian, it does not obtain in full because the truth remains that the executive has power over the judiciary. The judges are being appointed by the president or chief executive and cannot control the action of the executive to avoid removal from office. The member of the legislature some law being controlled by the executive. This over bearing influence is not only obtainable in Nigeria but elsewhere in the world where presidential system is practiced.

Therefore, the separation of power works in the presidential system of government through institution of checks ad balances.

The Benefits of Separation of Powers It guarantees individual liberty It ensures effective working of rule of law It makes a government democratic and stable It prevents leaders from becoming tyrants It makes possible application of the principle of division of

labour and specialization in the exercise of government power. There is differences between the formal function and actual

practice.

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CHAPTER THREE

PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN NIGERIA

The Historical Development of Local Government in the Pre-Colonial, Nigeria

During the pre-colonial era, the geographical expression known as Nigeria today was not in existence. That notwithstanding, people lived in different areas of it and had a way of organizing themselves to enable them harness their human, material and financial resources to make a living.

Nworji (1996) observed that the geopolitical arrangement known today as Nigeria is the creation of the British government, who in a bid to satisfy their national economic interests at home embarked on forceful annexation of some territories and people of Africa with the primary purpose of exploiting and expatriating to Britain the vast human and material resources of Africa.

In the pre-colonial era, the traditional political setting was based on the instrumentalities of the various traditional authorities. During this era, it is important to note that the traditional authorities were not evenly established. Thus in some parts, there were more established and advanced structures that helped the native authorities to maintain order and stability in their areas.

As Agu (2006) stated it, prior to the advent of Europeans (Whitemen), there was nothing like Nigeria. What existed then was pockets of towns, villages, ethnic groups, etc. These various groups maintained social, economic, political and cultural differences and were autonomous.

Pre-Colonial and Colonial Administration in the Hausa/Fulani Tribes in Nigeria

Historical BackgroundThe Hausa people were by birth Nigerians, but the Fulani were

not. The Fulani migrated from Western Sudan in the 19 th century into the Hausaland. Before the Fulani conquered Hausaland, the Hausa were pagans and practiced decentralized system of government.

The Fulani in 1804 organized a jihad and under the leadership of Usman Dan Fodio conquered the whole of Hausaland. They replaced

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all the Hausa kings with Fulani emirs and converted all the Hausa people to Islam. The Fulanis settled and intermarried with the Hausa people after conquering them and this was how the name Hausa/Fulani came about.

Political AdministrationThe Fulani introduced centralized system of government after

conquering Hausaland. This gave rise to the Hausa/Fulani traditional or pre-colonial system being known as a centralized government. The Hausa/Fulani traditional society was feudalistic, hierarchical and oligarchic in nature. The Hausa/Fulani traditional society was an empire which was divided into several kingdoms or emirates with Sokoto and Gwandu as the administrative headquarters. The two administrative headquarters, namely, Sokoto and Gwanda were headed by Sultans known as the sultan of Sokoto and the Sultan of Gwandu respectively. Emirs headed the big emirates and the appointment of each emir were ratified or approved by either the Sultan of Sokoto or the Sultan of Gwandu. Each emir was expected to pay annual tribute or send a part of the tax collected to the Sultan. Any recalcitrant or disobedient emir could be deposed by the Sultan Emirs had executive, legislative and judicial powers according to Moslem laws. Emirs had principal officers that assisted them in the administration of the emirates. Some of the principal officers included Madawaki (the commander of the cavalry/army), Galadima (the administrator of the capital of the emirate), Sariki-fada, (the head of the palace workers/official), Waziri (the senior official and closest adviser of the emir, a kind of prime minister), Sarkinruwa (in charge of fishing in Rivers), Sariki Pawa (in charge of butchery); Dogari (the chief of the police); Manji (the official in-charge of the treasury) and Arkimi (in-charge of districts).

For effective administration of the emirate, the emir imposed the following taxes on the people or subjects-jangali (cattle tax) Haraji (General tax); and land tax. There was no democracy in the Hausa/Fulani traditional political system. The government was autocratic and an example of theocracy. Theocracy is a mixture of religion/politics (i.e. where the religious heads is also the political head at the same time).

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Judicial AdministrationThe judicial system was based on Sharia, a body of rules

dealing with civil and criminal matters based on the Koran. Offences were divided into minor and serious offences included marriage and divorce, custody of children, inheritance debt, slander etc. Minor offences were tried by Alkali, a trained judge who administered the Sharia law. Serious offences such as murder, theft, homicide, witchcraft etc, were tried in the emir’s court. The emir had the final say in judicial matters.Village heads also settled minor disputes and punished minor breaches of the Emir’s order. Religion:

The Emir is the religious leader of his people, whose duty is to ensure that the commandments of Allah were obeyed in his territory. This accounts for the great authority which was wielded by the Emirs and which made them suitable rulers even under the British protectorate.

The official religion was Islam and Koran was used as the official bible where all the teachings of religion were contained. Mohammed was seen as the founder of the religion. There were certain important teachings of Islam as contained in the Koran before the coming of colonial administration. These include:

(i) A good Moslem must fight a jidan at least once in his/her lifetime. If such a person dies in the process, he /she would go straight to heaven.

(ii) It’s mandatory of all Moslems to perform haji or pilgrimage to Mecca the holy land at least once in the person’s life time.

(iii) A good Moslem must not marry more than four wives

(iv) A good Moslem must abstain from drinking alcohol.

(v) A good Moslem must fast during Ramadan period.

The Yoruba Historical BackgroundOduduwa was the founder of the Yoruba kingdom. Oduduwa

had seven sons who later founded the first seven kingdoms of known as

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the Alafin of Oyo. Misunderstanding, jealousy and hatred made the first seven kingdoms of the Yoruba to split into fourteen new kingdoms and the central leadership to change from the Alafin of Oyo to Ooni of Ife.

Oyo kingdom was the most developed kingdom in the Yoruba traditional society and its administration was accepted as a model or representation of the Yorubaland. Generally, the Yoruba kingdoms were headed by the Oba who must be a descendant of the Oduduwa. If you are not a descendant of the oduduwa you cannot be allowed to be an Oba in Yorubaland. The Oba of the Oyo kingdom has a special name known as the ‘Alafin’.

Political AdministrationWe shall discuss the political administration of the traditional

Yoruba society with particular reference to Oyo kingdom.The political head of every Yoruba kingdom was the Oba but

that of the Oyo and Ife kingdoms went with the title ‘Alafin’ and ‘Ooni’ respectively.

The Alafin as the political head of the Oyo kingdom is assisted by the son called Aromo, who is not allowed to succeed him immediately he dies. Oyomesi is stronger than the Alafin and can overrule any decision made by the ‘Alafin’ which is not acceptable to it. Bashorun is the chief minister and head of Oyomesi. Ilari is the male and female hereditary chiefs and advisers of the Alafin. For effective government, the Alafin, relied on Bashorun, Oyomesi and Ilari for advice. Other important officials who assisted in the administration of Oyo kingdom were – Kakanfo (Army Commander) Oyo had a standing army, which was ready to commit suicide in case of serious defeat in battle; Eso, (officials who assisted in the Alafin’s court) palace Eunuchs (Domestic palace officials etc.)

In the Oyo kingdom, the provinces were headed by officials who had the title of ‘Chief’ or ‘Oba’. The towns, villages and wards were headed by the Bale. The ward was the smallest unit of administration in the traditional Yoruba land. The chiefs or Obas and the Bale are not appointed by the Alafin but should receive his blessings.

There are certain limitations to the checks and balances of the power of the Alafin. The limitations include:(i) If Alafin disagreed with Oyomesi and her Ilari, the opt open to him is to commit suicide.

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(ii) Oyomesi could authorize the Bashorun to send empty calabash to Alafin symbolizing rejection by the people then the Alafin is to commit suicide if this happens.

(iii) Disobedient army commander could revolt. This system of government in the traditional Yoruba society was partially centralized and highly democratic.

Judicial AdministrationCertain offences were regarded as serious offences. These

include murder, burglary, land case, witchcraft and profaning the deities and homicide. These kind of offences that attract capital punishment are usually tried in the Oba’s palace or court. The Oba’s court is constituted by the Oba himself and members of his cabinet or council of chiefs. It was these people that adjudicated over the serious offences and punish offenders.

Furthermore, minor offences such as family quarrels, exchange of abusive words owing of debt were handled from the family level where the parties involved feel satisfied with the justice they have obtained. This, however, did not go beyond the Oba’s court, which was the Supreme Court or the highest court in the land (Nwankwo, 1992).

The age grade usually referred to as the “Elegbe”, had the responsibility of implementing the decisions reached in the Oba’s court. For instance, if anybody is to be executed or imprisoned, it is their duty to carry out the order to the last letter.

These age-grades could also be seen as acting as a standing army for the Oba. This was how justice, equity and fair- play were maintained among the Yoruba before the advent of colonialism in Nigeria.

ReligionThe official religion was the traditional religion. The Oba was

to offer sacrifice from time to time or as the need arose. The essence of the sacrifice is to appease the Oduduwa the founder, ancestors and deities. The Oba usually performs the sacrifice through some priests. The performance of this sacrifice is very important because it is the source of the Oba’s power, legitimacy, and the basis of unity and solidarity of the Yoruba people. For instance, if the Oba fails to fulfill these religious obligations the deities, ancestors and the Oduduwa might be angry and will cause pestilence, epidemics, drought, famine and

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calamities among the Yoruba people. To prevent the gods from becoming angry, the Oba usually offer these sacrifices. Some part of the Yoruba kingdom like Kwara and some part of Oyo were conquered by the Jihadist of Usman Dan Folio and were forced or converted from the traditional way of worship to lslam. This was religious position of the Yoruba people before the advent of colonialism in Nigeria.

The Igbo Traditional Political SystemNri in the present Anambra state is regarded as the ancestral

home of the Igbo. In Nigeria the Igbo generally occupied the former Eastern Religion and a part of the former Mid Western region. The Igbo generally have no kings or Chiefs (i.e. “Igbo enwe-Eze”). However, few towns like Onitsha had what looked like a recognized chief. The towns like Onitsha had what looked like a recognized chief. The Igbo operated a democratic system of government. The highest democratic institution among the Igbo is the Oha-na-Eze (i.e. the Town Assembly). The Igbos had a decentralized system of government. The executive, legislative, and judicial power were vested in the Oha-na-Eze, the council of elders; the ofor title holders; the family; the Ozor title holders, the Age-grade, the Umuada and the ‘Ala’ or the Earth’s goddess represented by a chief priest.

Political AdministrationThe main political institutions among the Igbo were the Oha-na-

Eze (the town assembly, king or rulers, the council of elders or chiefs and the age- grades)

The Assembly of the whole town or village group is the highest platform for political decision and action. All adult males could attend and participate in the meetings was of the town assembly. In the town assembly, the title holders presided over affairs, deliberated over general decisions on a separate caucus consultation called ‘Igba Izu’ and finally announced final decisions which quite often won a general vocal approval of the people. Occasionally, the final decisions of the elders were rejected and fresh efforts were started towards winning common consensus.

The rulers where they existed were the most important persons in the town or village. He had judicial, legislative and executive powers, but did not act alone. He was advised by his chiefs who could remove him from office, if he did not rule in the public interest.

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The council of elders was made up of chiefs and elders in the town. For example the war chiefs, the religious chiefs, the market chiefs, the family or ward chiefs etc are all members of the council of elders. The functions of the council of the elders include – advising the king on day to day administration, removing the king if need be, regulating trade by fixing prices for essential commodities and deciding on days for religious ceremonies and carrying them out. Others are trying offenders and ensuring that the punishment imposed on them are carried out; organizing age groups and assigning duties o them and negotiating peace with neighbours as well as planning for and engaging in war. (Nwankwo, 1992).

The age grades were formed by males and in some cases female children born within a given age bracket. For example, children born between 1960 and 1965, could be grouped under one age-grade. Each age grade was usually organized under a leader and other officials. The leader normally was the oldest or strongest member. The age-grade were called upon to perform public services and duties such as clearing the bush path, repairing the king’s house and bridges, preparing the town centre for ceremonies, religious duties such as taking part in rituals and dances, war duties and civil duties e.g. performing ceremonial functions.

Judicial AdministrationThe family settled minor disputes within the family level.

Council of elders or ‘Amala’ handled major disputes. The final adjudication of cases was done by the duties. The age grade settled minor disputes among themselves. The Ala (earth goddess) played great role in judicial functions. For example offences such as homicide, murder and birth of abnormal children were crimes against the Ala. The chief also took part in judicial settlements. The whole village might constitute itself into a court for the purpose of settling disputes among the people (Nwankwo, 1992).

ReligionThe Igbo practised traditional religion. They had chief priest

who performed sacrifice from time to time to appease the gods. The Igbo had great respect for the deities and the departed ancestors. The chief priests were the link between the people and the deities, as well as the departed ancestors. The Igbo believed in reincarnation. Profaning

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of deities was a very serious offences among the Igbo. The religious life of the Igbo was surrounded by mysticisms and superstition.

Comparison of the Pre-colonial Political Systems of the Hausa /Fulani, Yoruba and Igbo:

The Hausa/Fulani had a highly centralized system of government; the Yoruba had a weak or partial centralized system of government while the Igbo had a decentralized system of government.

The Hausa/Fulani system was feudalistic and autocratic while that of the Yoruba and Igbo were democratic.

The relationship and social mobility in Hausa/Fulani system were based on clientage system while that of the Yoruba and Igbo were based on achievement, (Nwankwo, 1992).

The Hausa/Fulani and the Yoruba pre-colonial political systems had well recognized kings (i.e. Emirs and Obas), while the Igbo had no kings and, therefore, regarded as one of the acephalous societies. Acephalous societies refers to those societies which had a decentralized system of government or without chiefs and kings e.g. Bauchi, Plateau, Ibibios etc.

Colonial Administration in NigeriaThe Indirect Rule System (Native Authority System)

The term “Indirect Rule” was an aspect of the British administrative system or policy aimed at ruling and administering her colonies in West Africa through the Native Rulers called chiefs; while the British officials were to advise, guide and where necessary enforce colonial policies. In other words the traditional rulers were used to governing their own people directly to maintain law and order and to collect taxes but under the close supervision, direction and instruction of the British overlords or officials. The father of Indirect Rule in West Africa was Lord Frederick Lugard, and he was the architect of the policy in Nigeria.

Lord Fredrick Lugard was motivated to introduce Indirect Rule in Nigeria because of the success and the experience he had in operating the policy when he was in Tanganyika. In 1900, the British government revoked the charter given to the Royal Niger Company administer the territory in Nigeria. In 1861, the British government annexed the colony of Lagos and made it a Crown colony in 1862. In 1900, Lord Lugard became the governor of Northern Nigeria and introduced

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Indirect Rule in the area between 1903 and 1906. In 1906, the colony of Lagos and the protectorate of Southern Nigeria were merged under a single administrative system. The Northern and Southern protectorates of Nigeria were finally amalgamated in 1914 by Lord Fredrick Lugard who became the first Governor-General of the country.

Lagos as a ‘Crown colony’ meant that the administration of the area was now in the hands of a British-style civil service and was headed by an Executive council. In other words, Lagos became completely under the direct leadership of the British officials.

Features of Indirect Rule:(i) Traditional rulers were used.(ii) British officials supervised/controlled the activities of the

traditional rulers.(iii) There was no place for the African educated elites in the

administration (i.e. the educated elites were not adequately used in the administration)

(iv) Limited franchise.(v) Lack of adequate consultation of the people before the adoption

of the constitution.(vi) The governor had reserved power.(vii) No elected members on the executive council.(viii) The executive council was not responsible to the legislature(ix) The traditional rulers were poorly remunerated(x) The warrant chiefs were appointed among the Igbo to perform

the same functions as the paramount chiefs in the North and West

(xi) Amalgamation of Southern and Northern protectorates into a single administrative territory.

(xii) Indirect Rule was authoritarian and undemocratic(xiii) For administrative purpose, the country was divided into crown

colonies, protectorates and provinces.(xiv) There was customary courts based on the English and

traditional legal system units called Nigeria and headed by the Governor-General.

(xv) The British officials had power to appoint and depose chiefs.

Reasons for the emergence/Introduction of Indirect/Direct Rule in West Africa:

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Lord Luggard and other British officials considered a number of factors before adopting the system in their colonies in West Africa. Such factors considered include:(i) Lack of sufficient British officials(ii) Lack of funds (i.e. it was economical)(iii) British colonial policy on non-disruption of the existing

traditional and political institutions.(iv) Only a few British officials were willing to serve in West Africa(v) The establishment of traditional financial sources and support of

traditional chiefs.

Reasons Why Indirect Rule was Adopted in Nigeria (i) The vastness of the country or territory (i.e. Lugard found the

area too vast).(ii) Colonial administration lacked adequate funds to rule directly(iii) It lacked enough manpower to administer the colony(iv) There was existence of centralized administration in some parts

of the country e.g. North(v) There was existence of organized tax system in some part of the

country e.g. North(vi) Its success elsewhere e.g. east Africa and India, prompted its

adoption.

Reasons for the success of indirect rule in the north:(i) Because of the already existing basic traditional administrative

system which Lugard admired (i.e. the centralized system)(ii) Most of the traditional powers of emirs were not removed,

hence they had no cause to oppose the system(iii) Both the Hausa and Fulani had already been used to the system

of hierarchy of officials, so the system caused them no embarrassment.

(iv) The submissive nature of the northerners to their emirs(v) The dogmas and teachings of the Islamic religion which make

the worshippers and subjects perpetually subservient to the rulers i.e. subservient to leaders.

(vi) The preservation and respect for the culture of the northern people by the British colonial officials.

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Indirect Rule in the Yorubaland:Unlike the North, there was no absolute centralized authority

and systematic taxation in Yoruba land. The Oba had no absolute authority over his subjects because he was responsible to his senior chiefs in administering his kingdom. Again, if he tried to wield too much power (i.e. to rule) at the expense of the wishes and interests of his senior chiefs, he would be made to commit suicide.

The position of Oba as a leader without absolute power over his subjects coupled with the virtue of his position as spiritual head which could not allow him to appear publicly always made it difficult for him to be a successful head of the native administration.

Reasons Why Indirect Rule Did Not Succeed Fully in the WestIndirect rule was a partial failure in the west because of the

following reasons:(i) It made an Oba to become swollen headed by according him

with the little title ‘Sole Authority’ which made him power-drunk and neglected his obligations to the senior chiefs

(ii) Lugard did not do his home work well especially on the checks which the senior chiefs had over the Oba before introducing the system

(iii) It failed before it could disrupt the traditional political system already in the Yorubaland.

(iv) The disruption of social and political fabrics of Yoruba people was another reason.

Indirect Rule in the IgbolandTo make the system work in the Igboland and east in general,

warrant chiefs were appointed as Native Authorities in place of the non-existing traditional chiefs. The warrant chiefs never enjoyed the confidence and support of the subjects. So, in spite of the effort made indirect rule failed in Igboland and the East general.

Reasons Why Indirect Rule (Warrant Chief System) Failed in Igboland

Indirect rule failed among the Igbos and in the East because of the following reasons:(i) The Igbo had no centralized system of government

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(ii) The appointment of warrant chiefs to perform the functions of the paramount chiefs and emirs as it obtained in the west and north created confusion and instability in Igboland

(iii) The system of taxation was not known in the East and when the warrant chiefs tried to impose taxes, it thus resulted in riots e.g. Aba riot of 1929.

(iv) The early education which the Christian churches brought to the east helped to give the educated ones the weapons to fight against the Indirect Rule and the British colonial politics

The Merits of the Warrant Chief System include:(i) The warrant chief system helped in extending Western

civilization into the difficult hinterlands in so short a period(ii) The chiefs made bye-laws and enforced regulations aimed at

regulation economic of practices(iii) The native court system was used as an instrument for stamping

out such barbaric customs as poison, ordeals, sacrifice of human beings, twin-killing and ostracizing of twins along with their mothers.

(iv) The courts not only settled disputes, they also helped to steam cases outside their tradition.

Demerits of the Warrant Chief SystemThe disadvantages of the warrant chief system include:

(i) The wide powers conferred on the warrant chiefs were often not in consonance with the political system of the people of Eastern Nigeria.

(ii) They were not directly answerable to their people. They were political bosses rather than primus-interpares.

(iii) The strange bring together people of different cultures did not pave way for justice and unity.

(iv) The courts were often very far away from both the litigants and the chief.

(v) Their punishments were often stereotyped i.e. fines or imprisonment

(vi) The warrant chiefs, clerks, interpreters were often oppressive and extortionists

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Advantages of Indirect Rule System:The merits of the Indirect Rule system are:

(i) For the British, the system was very cheap to run. They were able to control vast territories at minimum cost

(ii) It protected the British administrators themselves from the native social revolt which might had erupted if they had imposed a direct rule.

(iii) For the country, as a whole, the system helped to preserve the existing native forms of government and ways of life, while at the same time purging the society of such evil practices as slavery, human sacrifice and the killing of twins

(iv) It trained Nigerians in the art of modern government(v) It regularized the payments of taxes.

Demerits of Indirect Rule System:(i) The greatest defect of the system was that it had that it had little

or no place for the educated elements who were not chiefs(ii) The experiment of appointing artificial rulers where none

traditionally existed, failed because it ran counter to the peoples custom. It also resulted in terrible abuses of power by such artificial chiefs

(iii) The native rulers were deprived of effective power to defend the interests of their people against the British overlord.

(iv) Above all, the system failed to prepare the people for modern representative government or to develop in them a new sense of natural identity as Nigerians or Ghanaians.

The Role Played by Chiefs in the British Colonial Administration in Nigeria:

i. They played a dominant role in the colonial native authority administration e.g. Indirect Rule.

ii. They liaised between the people and colonial administration e.g. by explaining government policies to the people

iii. They helped in the maintenance of law and order by the use of native authority police

iv. They settled minor disputes in matter relating to native laws and customs e.g. land and marriage

v. They played a part in the law making process as members of the House of Chiefs

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vi. They raised a labour force for British colonial administrationvii. They assisted in the recruitment of solders

Functions of the British Colonial Governor in West Africa(i) He was responsible for the day-to-day administration of the

colony(ii) He presided over the executive council(iii) He presided over the legislative council(iv) He appointed, promoted, dismissed and disciplined officers of

the government(v) As the representative of the Queen, he exercised the prerogative

of mercy(vi) He legislated by certification/approval(vii) He exercised the power of veto when necessary(viii) He legislated by proclamation for the protectorate(ix) He allocated crown land(x) He nominated some members of the legislative and executive

councils(xi) He formulated policies

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CHAPTER FOUR

POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEM

Political Party: In this modern times representative government has become

compatible with the complexity of the state. For people to be elected as representatives, there is need for a platform under which this can be done. This brings us to the indispensable need of political party. Therefore, when a number of people sharing a common political philosophy and advocating a distinct style at government organize themselves into a group or union for the purpose of promoting that philosophy and helping to determine how a state is to be governed, they are said to have formed a political party Adigwe, (1974:29)

According to Nnoli (2003:207) Political party is defined as a group of people who share a common conception at how and why state power should be organized and used. He noted that political parties are concerned with the expression of preference regarding the emergence, consolidation and use of state power, in other words, about politics and contesting control of the chief policy-making offices of government.

Edmund Burke cited in Adigwe sees a party as a body of men united for promoting, by their joint endeavours, the national interest upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed.

Okon Emunue of the University of Ibadan defines Political party as an organization of people, most of whom have similar ideas about the functions and nature of government, pursue the same ideology and organize themselves to obtain political power and to control government machinery with all its advantages an responsibilities and in the overall interest of the state. Nwankwo (1997:107) opined that a political party is an organized group of individual seeking to seize the power of government in order to enjoy the benefits to be derived from such control.

Looking at these scholarly definitions, certain points are salient. This include the fact that political party is a group of people who share the same political interest on agreed manner to conquer the power of the state and exercise such power for the benefit of the entire state. The desire to conquer and exercise the power of the state is what distinguishes political party from other group of individuals. The primary objective of political parties is to mobilize their members

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towards contesting, winning and exercising government power for the benefit of the entire state. Throwing more light on this, Nnoli noted that political parties differ from all other political groups in the society by the fact that they do not only seek to influence government policy, but they also under take or seek to under responsibilities for actually formulating and implementing government policy. This is willingness to take government responsibility sets the political party apart from such organizations as trade unions, professional associations and other interest group and pressure groups

Features of a Political PartyPolitical party as an organized group of individuals seeking to

control the machinery of the state has the following features:1) Membership: This includes card-carrying member and party

supporters.2) Constitution: This is the rules and regulations to which all

members adhere to3) Manifesto: This has to do with the programme of activity for

the people.4) Ideology: This has to do with the economic system the party

favours.5) Objective of the party: This is usually in the party’s

constitution. It has to do with the aims of the party which is normally to seize the power of the state and enthrone their programme in the state.

6) Resources: Both human and material elements can be regarded as the parties resources

7) Leadership: This is the people that run the affairs of the party to see that party objective is realized.

8) Symbol: This is what the party can be identified with. It is usually called party symbol. Party system without symbol is called zero party

Types Of Political Party1) Cadre or elite party: In this type of political party, membership is not for everybody. Membership is restricted to some people. There are usually special requirements to be met before one can join this type of party. These requirements can be economic, social or educational requirement. This type of party does not believe in population.

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2) Mass Party: This is a direct opposite of elite party. Here membership is thrown open to everybody. There is no special requirement to be met. Membership is thrown to anybody that is interested. This type of party belief that with their population during election victory will be theirs:3) Direct Party: In this type of party, members are allowed to pay monthly dues, fill registration or membership forms attend monthly or regular meetings members are allowed to register as individuals not throw another organization.4) Indirect Party: This is the type of party its membership is drawn from another group usually trade union. Example of this type is the labour party in Britain5) Ideological party: As the name implies, this type of party is usually interested in one ideology. Individual who are not interest in this ideology is not allowed to join the party. They pursue and defend this ideology very strongly. A typical example of this type is the Communist party that existed in defunct sorest union.6) Non-Ideological party: This is just opposite of ideological party. This party has no strong ideology to pursue or defend.

Organization of a Political PartyThis has to do with the structure of the party, Normally, parties are

structured in this format 1) The caucus2) The Brach4) The militia

In Nigeria, what is in existence is the caucus. The caucus is the most influential in the party. In is an informal group with the party. Membership of the caucus is not for every member of the party.

In Nigeria, political parties are structure along the federal character, but in a highly centralized manner.

Functions of a Political Party:Political parties perform the following functions:1) Political party educate the electorates on political issues2) Political party wins political power.3) Political party articulates and aggregates the interest aw the

people.4) Political party is an agent of political change in the state

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5) It is a platform through which people are elected into the political position in the state.

6.) Political party unites the people on major question affecting the state.

7) Political party promotes political and national integration especially where the party cut across tribal lines

How Political Parties Achieve their AimsPolitical parties with the aim of winning political power in the

state achieve this through the following.1 Through use of the mass-media2. By conducting rallies, campaigns and convention or congress;3. By the use party symbols, party flags, handbills, billboards etc4. By presenting their manifestoes to the people.5. By use of their offices or secretariats in local, state and federal

capital6. By use of their elected members or representatives.

Factors that can Undermine the Success of a Political Party1 Funds2 Quality of leadership3. Membership strength4. Public confidence occasioned by the party’s responsiveness to

the people.5. Effective political education of the people6. Effective Political Education of the people7. The effort of the opposition party8. Power of incumbency9 Existence of unhealthy faction with a party

Party SystemHaving understood what political party is, effort will be made

here to underscore the meaning of party system. As pointed out earlier the functions of political parties are performed more or less in all political systems that allow the operation of parties. What ultimately determine the ability of the party to perform these function, and what also determines the manner in which they are performed is the party system.

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According to Nnoli, whenever the phrase party system is used, three ideas seem to be implied. The first is the idea of the constitutional and legal regulation governing the formation, organization and functioning of political parties. The second is the balance of electoral support among political parties in a given political system. The third is the actual number of Political parties operating in the country.

A Party system in a simple term has to do with the number of political parties that is allowed to operate by the constitution in a political system. It can also mean the number of party in existence to which citizens of a state can join and perform their civic duties. Based on the above description, party system can be classified into:1 One party system2. Two party system3 Multi-party system

One Party System As the name implies, one party system is a type of party system where only one party is recognized by the constitution to operate and perform the functions at political party in a state. In this case, no other political party other than one recognized by the law is allowed or authorized to operate in the state. Nnoli noted that one party system is usually characterized by a constitutional provision that only one political party is recognized by the state. Example’s of one party system include the Chama cha Mapinduzi (CM), Zambia’s United National independence Party (UNIP), Kenya’s Kenya African National Union (Kamu)

One party system encourages national integration and unity, hence no room is allowed for other political party to operate thereby raising tension in the system. In other hand, the citizens cannot exercise the right of choice in one party state and this can lead to dictatorship.

Two Party SystemIn a two party system, it does not mean that only two political

parties are allowed to operates. Far from this, there may be other political parties recognized by law but two are viable and are likely to form the government after election. Nnoli noted that a two party system is a political system in which two political parties enjoy predominant electoral support among the population. He noted that two-party system is one in which even though three or more parties have a legal existence

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the probability is very high that one or the other of the two predominant ones will form the government after each election.

In a two party system, there is room for the opposition party. After every election, one party usually forms the government while the other stands as opposition. A typical example of two party systems is what is obtained in American and Britain. In Britain, even though there are other parties, the labour and conservative are predominant. The Republican and the Democratic parties are the predominant in America. In two party systems, there is room for the electorates to make choice of which party to join. In other hand, this divides the electorates into two warring camps or opposition

Multi –Party SystemAs the name suggests, a multi-partism simply means a

situation where three or more viable political parties exist in a state. The presence of three or more political parties only does not mean multi-partism, but these parties must be viable politically that at the end of election, government will be formed by coalition. A situation where there is, more political parties but one is viable as the case in Nigeria is not qualified to be called Multi-partism. Nnoli noted that a multi-party system is characterized by three distinct features which includes the legal existence of three or more political parties, the high degree of fragmentary electoral base of each of these parties and the inability of any single one of these parties to form a government on its own – thus giving rise to the emergence of a coalition of several parties to form the government.

Multi-partism as a party system that promote democracy which has become the most popular and acceptable form of government world –wide.

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CHAPTER FIVE

ELECTION AND ELECTORAL PROCESS

What is ElectionAccording to Agu, (2006), in modern democratic system,

election is one of the principles of choosing leaders.This according to him, is based on the fact that those who

preside over the affairs of men are expected to elicit obedience from them, should rule in the overall interest of the masses and that the people should be able to decide who should exercise control over their affairs. Nwaorji (2004) contends is the action or an instance of choosing by vote one or more of the candidates for a position especially political office. In the words of election is a device for filling an office or post through choice made by a designated body of people the electorate. Election is the process thorough, which the people electorate chooses representatives of political parties to represent them in any level of government such as federal, state or local governments. Schumpeter (1988) sees election as the process of choosing qualified candidates into an existing vacant political post following due democratic processes.

It is important to note that electron can also be held in non-government bodies like clubs, community based organization, women groups, national and international associations for the sole purpose of choosing leaders of such organizations (Agu, 2996).

In Summary, election is, therefore, the means through which group, corporate bodies, national and international associates, political parties and citizens of any country select, nominate, appoint or choose some of their members to represent them at whatever level of government in case of a nation.

Some Basic Election ConceptsWe shall discuss the meanings of the following concepts as it

applies to election.

Primary Election: This is a type of election held or conducted within a political

party in order to choose representatives who the represent that party in the general election where the final leaders will be elected.

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General Election: This is a type of election where all the electorate in a country

participates at the same time on a given day, to elect representatives into government positions. In general election, the various political parties vie or contest election at the same time. General election is different from primary election. Primary election only takes place within a given political party and only members of the political party concerned form the electors.

Bye Election: This is the type of election conducted to fill a vacant seat in the

parliament when a legislator dies resigns or recalled by his constituency.

Voting by Proxy: This is a method of voting in absentia; in other words, it is a

method of giving authority to someone to enable him vote on behalf of a person who is not present at the time of voting.

Referendum: This is a type of election held to determine an important

constitutional issue”, it can also be defined as the type of election held to ascertain the opinion of the people on an issue that affects them. In this type of election, the electorate is usually asked to say yes or no on the issue in question. Referendum is sometimes called plebiscite.

Political Gerrymandering: This is the act of manipulating constituency delimitation with

the purpose of favouring a given political party in the election e.g. sharing a country into electoral constituencies in such a way as to make one party to win more seats than others.

Electoral constituency: This is a geographical division of the country into electoral

units.

Federal constituency: This is an electoral unit for electing members of House of Representatives

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State constituency: This is electoral unit for electing members of state House of

Assembly.

Single-member constituency: This is a type of constituency where only a member or one

candidate is elected at a time.

Multi-member constituency: This is a type of constituency where more than one member or

candidates are elected at a time. In this type of constituency, there are more than one or several seats to fill.Senatorial district:

This is electoral unit for electing members of the highest Legislative house of state.

Presiding officer: A presiding officer is a person appointed by an electoral

commission to be in charge of the candidate of election in a polling station or polling booths.

Returning officer: A returning officer is a person appointed by an electoral

commission to collate the results of the election conducted in each polling station from the presiding officers for onward transmission to the electoral commission for announcement.

Party agent: This is a representative of a political party whose duty is to

ensure that there is no electoral malpractice to the disadvantage of his party.

Electoral ward: This is a geographical unit for electing local government

chairman and councilors.

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Decrees, edicts and bye-laws: Decrees are laws made by the (federal) military government,

bye-laws are laws made by the (state) military government, bye-law are made by the local authority or local government.

An act or statute: this is a law made by the parliament.

Royal assent: This is the signature of a president or a head of state, which can

make bills, become acts.

Organisation of ElectionsA free and fair election is a type of election where a voter is free

to cast vote according to his or her wish without any intimidation, harassment, inducement or coercion. In a free and fair election a voter is free to vote according to the dictates of his conscience.

Features of Free ElectionThe following features are the steps a government should take

to ensure a free and fair election:i. Disqualification from voting of certain persons such as lunatics, criminals, bankrupts etc.ii. Secret balloting iii. Absence of intimidation of votersiv. An independent electoral commission should conduct the

elections.v. All voters should be registered.vi. The electoral registers must be available for use on the day

of voting.vii. Public counting of votes supervised by returning officers.viii. Announcement of results of elections immediately after

public counting of ballot papers.ix. Results must be capable of being challenged in courts.x. Ballots boxes must be secured from being dumped with

ballot papers by party faithful.

Advantages of Free and Fair ElectionElections should be free and fair because of the following

reasons and advantages:

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Free and fair election creates sentiment of popular consent and participation in public affairs. The people feel that they have been consulted, and have indicated their wishes, in the broad field of national policy, and are therefore willing to accept the legitimacy of the power exercised by those put into positions of authority by the electoral system.

Free and fair election makes it possible for government to succeed another in an orderly manner, without violence or bloodshed.

Free and fair election emphasizes the responsibility of the government to the people. Politicians dare not become out of touch with public opinion, since they know that will lead to disaster for them at the next election.

Functions of An ElectionAccording to Abonyi (2005), the following are the role which

elections perform in a democratic society: An election serves as a means of other public officers.An election serves as an important means of political education

and socialization it affords the citizens the opportunity to learn more about the prevailing political economic and social conditions of their state

An election provides an important medium for ensuring smooth and peaceful change of government

The electorates, through election hold their elected representatives accountable hence, ensuring a responsible government.

An election socializes political activity and makes it possible for the citizens to participate in public policy making

An election provides both the rulers and the ruled an opportunity of taking stock of political leadership and policy making through a comprehensive examination of electoral processes.

Types of ElectionGeneral Election:

It is usually held at the same time (Simultaneously) throughout the country or within a state, either to elect members to the legislature or local government, or to elect president and political officers. Usually it is held periodically, depending on the constitution of a country. The general election usually confers legitimate of a authority on the government and the persons elected.

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Primary Election: Primary elections are usually elections held within a political

party to select the candidate that will represent their party in the general election of such parties only registered members of the very political parties are allowed to vote in the primary elections.

Bye-Election: It is usually held post or seat in the legislative or local a vacant

to fill a government council. This vacancy can be either as a result of death or resignation.Run-off-Election:

This takes place in a situation where no candidate wins in a general election as directed by electoral law. A run-off election or second ballot may be held between the two leading candidates in the first election.

Electoral College: This is a body that elects another body. It is an indirect system

of election where a body of electors elects the representative of the people on their behalf. These electors where elected by the generality of the people at the instance.The generality of the people are involved only in the first stage, but a few persons are involved in the electoral college.

The Process of Election: Election as a process according to Abonyi (2005) comprises a

number of apparatuses, activities and processes which include:

Inauguration of an Electoral CommissionTo enhance traditional, “administrative efficiency in the sense of

saving money through form simplification, procedure change, duplication reduction, and similar organization and methods approaches.

Reduction of perceived weakness such as corruption, favoritism, political spoils and so on.

Changing a particular main component of the administrative system, so as to meet some ideal image; this includes a large variety of main goals such as: introduction of a merit civil service planning, programming, budgeting system, moving towards automated data

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processing and integrated data and information banks, increasing the utilization of scientific knowledge.

Adjusting the administrative system to address over-riding societal objective; such as accelerated modernization or war.

Changing the division of labour between the administrative system and the political system; for instance, in the direction of reducing the power of the senior civil service and making it a more obedient servant of the political processes or increasing the professional autonomy of the administrative system and strengthening its influence on policy.

Changing the relations between the administrative system and the population or selected population segments; for example, this can be effected through relocation of decision centers (centralization versus decentralization), “democratization” in the sense of participation and democratization which ensure that personnel composition is reflective of various population segments (Gboyega et al, 1988: 78)

This commission was the body set up in Nigeria to look into the affairs of the civil service. It was necessitated by the shortage of manpower. Consequent upon the effect of the World War II, many of the British civil service officials were called serve in different war theaters and the gaps they created needed be filled More so, British civil servant were discontented with the salaries paid to them. For these reasons, a commission headed by Sir Walter Harragin was set up to save the situation.

The commission recommended a grading of salary and change of civil classification from European posts for whites and African posts for the blacks to senior service and junior service respectively. All the foreign servants were entitled to expatriation pay and all in the senior service (mainly whites) were entitled to car allowances. Voluntary retirement was pegged at 45 years by the commission. The Africans were entitled to bicycle and motorcycle allowances and shorter vacations.

The differences in allowances and conditions of service, especially the expatriation pay engineered projects against the service condition and it had to be replaced.

Characteristics of an Electoral CommissionThe essential characteristics of a commission are:

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Political neutrality and non-partisanship: A good electoral commission must be impartial and must not take side or show favoritism to any political party or group or aspirants or contestants.

Integrity of the members: members of an electoral commission must be men and women of probity, impeccable and proven integrity. In other words, they must be people who can show transparent honesty and accountability and must not be corrupt or take bribe.

Freedom and independence of action: an electoral commission must be free to perform its duties without fear or favour. It must not be tele-guided or influence by the government or any group in the discharge of its duties.

Security of tenure of members of the electoral commission (i.e. must have fixed term of office and fixed salary). Secondly, they must not be subject to frequent and arbitrary dismissal from office.

Salary should be charged on the consolidated fund; members of the electoral commission must be well paid and their salaries should not be delayed and they should be given all the necessary incentives in order not to allow them to be corrupt or enticed by rich people.

Duties of an Electoral CommissionElectoral Commission Performs The Following Functions:Conducts elections;Registration of voters;Constituency delimitation (i.e. division of constituencies;Supervision of election;Appointment of presiding and returning officers;Registration of political parties;Compilation of voters register;Screening and registration of aspirants (candidates), who will contest the general election, for each of the political parties;Provision of security on the day of the election; Announcement of the election result immediately after the election; Verification of claims made by political parties for purposes of registration and issuing clearance certificates to certain the category of political aspirants or contestants.

Problems of Electoral Commission: The main problems of electoral commissions are:

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Lack of adequate autonomy; an electoral commission is partially independent. The members of the commission are not given free hand by the government officials and influential people in the country to do their job.

Most of the officials of the omission are corrupt: some of the officials of the electoral commission take money from the political parties in order to help these parties to rig elections e.g. gerrymandering.

Inadequate funding: the commission is not adequately funded and this is why they cannot recruit high caliber staff and cannot provide sufficient or adequate electoral materials on the day of election.

The commission is not provided with adequate security to carry its job. On the voting day in the distribution of electoral materials, as well as counting perform voters, there is no adequate security to provide the necessary protection.

Lack of security of tenure: the job of the electoral commission is not a career one. Any member of the electoral commission can be thrown out from his job at anytime. This greatly affects the dedication of the workers to duty.

The Role of an Electoral Commission in Local Government ElectionThe 1999 constitution of the federal republic of Nigeria schedule

three part ii paragraph 4, provides for the powers of the state independent electoral commission as follows:

To organize, undertake and supervise all electoral to locate government councils within the state.

To render advice as it may consist necessary to the independent national electoral commission on the compilation of and the register of voters in so far as that register is applicable local government elections in the state.It appears that the above functions are enlarged by the respective local government laws of the state. For instance, the Imo state local government law No 15 of 2000 provides in addition to the above the following:

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Qualification and Disqualification of electors:

Ascertainment of the qualification of persons convicted of offences relating to dishonesty, who submit themselves for election.

Division of the area of authority of any local government for any purpose connected with election.

Disqualification of person for membership of a council:Definition and trial of offences relating to elections and the

imposition of penalties therefore, not exceeding a fine of N5, 000.00 or imprisonment for two years.

Membership of a council, or for registrations an elector, and other electoral provisions:

From the above, the independent electoral commissions of Nigeria are saddled with the responsibility of ensuring that the processes of election are followed in accordance with the electoral procedures and constitutional stipulation. Under the state law in Imo state,-law No15 (200), independent electoral commission of Nigeria (INEC), ensures that their functions are carried out n observance of the law to ensure free and fair election.

Summary, They screen the aspirants to ensure that they are qualified, if not

they have the right to disqualify them.They register candidates veining for election (electors); and have

the duty to ensure that the electors are not of questionable characters, ex-convicts etc. They are also charged with the responsibility of division of area of authority of local government connected with election. Has the power to disqualify any person for membership of council.

Issues of Electoral Qualification That means one’s right of suffrage. That is the right to vote; and also be voted for. It is the responsibility of the Independent Electoral Commission to assess the eligibility of the electors and member of the electorate. This right to vote and voted for has relationship with citizenship, franchise and universal adult suffrage. It then implies that for one to vote or be voted for, these general principles must apply:-He must be a citizen of country in question.

2. He must be up to 18yrs (i.e. Nigeria).

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3. Must not be an ex-convict4. Must be a person of sound mind.5. No act of disloyalty associated6. Must be a registered voter (electorates)7. Must be a registered member of a party (elector) 8. Must be a loyalist to the party9. Must not be under sentence of death imposed by any competent court of law or tribunal in Nigeria or sentence of imprisonment for any offence involving dishonesty or fraud.

At the local government level, these guiding principles may have some similarities. Some specifics are that;

10. The candidate must be from that local government 11. Must reside in the area or distance not too far from the local government

headquarters.12. Must at least have secondary school education13. Age: its range variations from a) For Councilor election must be up to 25yrs

b) For government or house of assembly, the elector must be up to 30yrs.14 He is a member of a political party.

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Fundamental Issues in Nigerian Politics, Government and Development Administration: 62


CHAPTER SIX

CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONALISM

Constitution In trying to secure a better place for all on the planet earth, human beings over the years have fashioned rules and regulations that guide their behaviour and that determine their relationship with one another. These rules and regulations, principles, codes of conduct and laws are what can be regarded as constitution. According to Obingene and Okeke (2004;1), constitution defines the relationship or bonds between the citizens and the state, the structure, power and functions of the organs of government. He noted that a constitution can be defined as a body of legal rules which governs the government of a country and which have been embodies in a document. Adigwe (1974:9) sees constitution as a body of laws which determine how a state is governed. He further noted that constitution define the structure and function of organs of government, declare the principle which regulate the operation of these organs, and define the bonds between the citizen and the state. Like said in a chapter on constitutional development constitution have been variously defined. As a result, effort at looking at these various definitions will not only make constitution well understood but also avail the reader the opportunity to explore the divergent views on constitution. In the opinion of Harris (1976:87), it was stated that a constitution defines how a country is governed. He further postulated that constitutions are useful devices when the state is first born, but no more than necessary evils later in a country’s constitutional history. As defined by Nwankwo (1997:94), a constitution is the system or body of fundamental principles according to which a nation, state, or body politics is constituted and governed. To make it more encompassing, Nwankwo further posited that a constitution is a body of rules and regulations that regulates the activities of government of a state an institution or an organization. Ndoh (1997:1) noted that a constitution is a set or body of principles and rules determining the structure, powers and limitations of the government of the country as well as defining the rights and duties of the governed. Critical look at the above definitions will discover some Salient points. This includes the fact that constitution not only regulates the activities of individuals, but also between the citizens and the state, between the organs of government. Constitution also detrines the structure and how a government is formed. In this category, we talk about federal Constitution, unitary constitution etc.

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Constitution can also be in the form of a document, here, we talk about written or unwritten constitution

Sources of Constitution A Constitution as a fundamental law of the state can be gotten through the following.1 Convention: Convention in the opinion of Adigwe is a kind of

constitutional morality. These are established pattern or order of doing things that has persisted over the years. This order or pattern may be adopted when drawing a constitution especially one that have received popular consent.

2. Acts of parliament: A Parliament here is the law-making body for the state. Act of Parliament in other words are laws made by the legislature through passage of bills into laws. Some of these laws are usually adopted while making the constitution

3. Judicial Precedents: These are also called Case Law: These are laws made by judges or decisions taken by then in courts. This is useful in constitution drafting.

4. Constitutional conference: Before a constitution is usually made, Conference are always held so as to draw from the wealth of knowledge of the participants. There contribution and recommendation usually forms part of the constitution after some legal amendment

5. Customs and Norms of the people: The total ways of life of the people are usually considered when making a constitution.

6. Writings of Eminent Jurists: What has been written by experts in law is now an important document to draw from when writing a constitution.

7. The people: Referendum and plebiscite are usually conducted before a constitution is made. By this way, the opinion and contribution of the people form part of the constitution

8. Historical records: information from these records like treaties could be used while making the constitution.

Types of constitution:Various types of constitution are as follows:

1. Written and unwritten constitutions 2. Rigid and flexible constitution

Others include:- Federal constitution- Confederal constitution- Unitary constitution

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Written constitution: Written constitution according to Appadorai Dorai (1974:50) may be

described as one in which the fundamental principles, concerning the organization of a government, the powers of its various agencies and the lights of the subject, are written down in one document (or a few document as in the French constitution of 1975).

In a simpler term, Nwankwo (P:96) noted that a written constitution is defined as that type of constitution which is written down and contained in a single document. Obingene and Okeke (p.5) have it that a written constitution is one which has its specific clauses and entire provisions contained in one document. The document is what is referred as the constitution. Examples of counties that operate a written constitution are Nigeria, United states of American (USA) etc

Merits of a written constitution:1. Written constitutions are usually precise, simple and consistent2. In a written constitution references can easily be made, and cannot be abused

by way of frequent amendmentDemerits:Apart from all these merits, a written constitution has demerits.1. It is always difficult to be red or understood by the ordinary citizen,

especially where illiteracy is high.2. It encourages disputes and litigations.3. It is always rigid other

Unwritten Constitution: By contrast, unwritten constitution is one in which the fundamental principles at the organization and powers of a government are not codified in one document, but where may of then are followed as a matter of usage. Unilike written constitution, the entire clauses and provision are not contained in one document. Unwritten constitution is not embodied in a single document. The constitution of Britain is a good example. It is important to note here that unwritten does not mean that nothing is written down. far from this, what it means is that it does not contain in a single document like in written constitution.Merits:1 It is easy to change, that is to say, it is flexible2. It does not invite much dispute and litigations.3. It is easily understood.

Demerits of Unwritten Constitution:

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1 Precision, simplicity and consistency which are the merits in an written constitution is absent in an unwritten constitution

In Britain, factors influencing an unwritten constitution are:1 Legislation2. Judicial decisions3. Common law4. Conventions5. Writing of eminent lawyers etc

Rigid Constitution:A constitution is said to be rigid one based on its process at

amendment. A rigid constitution is that which has a laid down procedure which must be adhered before its amendment. The procedure is usually contained in the constitution. Nigeria is an example of a country with a rigid constitution. As a result, a laid down procedure must be followed for the amendment of the Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria. In majority both in the Senate and House of the Representative and further two-thirds majority of all the State Houses of Assembly in Nigeria.

Merits:1 It does not allow for unnecessary changes2. It is good for a federal state3 It is not easily manipulated by overzealous politicians4 It leads to stability of the government.5. Liberty of the individual and their rights are better safeguarded

Demerits:1 Its Amendment is process usually difficult

This does not allow for flexibility in the system2. It is not easily adaptable to changes3. Under a rigid constitution, the judiciary may have too much power to

decide on the constitutionality of laws4. It attracts a lot of litigation from the citizens and government.5. It is costly to operate.

Flexible constitution:The easiness in the process of amendment is what qualifies

a constitution to be called a flexible one. A Flexible constitution unlike a rigid constitution requires only a simple majority to effect its amendment. Flexible constitution is a constitution that can be easily changed or amended. Amendment of a flexible constitution can be done through ordinary law-making process.

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Britain, New Zealand, Italy are some examples of countries with flexible constitutions.

The Merits of flexible Constitution1 It is easily changed. This is good for handling urgent constitutional

situations.2. Unlike rigid constitution, it cannot be said to be too old because it is

constantly enriched.3. It is good for unity state.4. It does not allow for constant conflict and litigation among the citizens

and government.

Demerits:1 It is always in a perpetual form.2. It can be manipulated by overzealous and selfish politicians.3. It encourages dictatorship and tyranism4. A flexible constitution lacks precision and is inconsistent which does

not allow for stability of government.

Federal Constitution: Adigwe (P.13) defined a federal constitution as one in which the federal principle is predominant. The federal principle is division of powers between the central and state governments or what we call component units in such a way that each of the government is independent within a particular field. Nwankwo noted that a federal Constitution is a type of Constitution which shares power between the federal government and the component states The point to make here is that in a federal constitution, governmental powers are divided among the level of government. Each has powers exclusively assigned to it by the law. The central and state governments have matters both can legislate on. This is called the concurrent list of powers. The central and state governments have exclusive and residual powers respectively.

Unitary Constitution Unlike in a federal constitution, unitary constitution concentrates all the governmental powers on a single central government. There may be other levels of government, but powers are assigned to it by the central government. Such powers assigned can be with- drawn when need be. The other levels of government have no autonomy. The central government can interfere in the affairs of the other levels of government.

Confederal Constitution:

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In this type of constitution, there is greater regional autonomy. The central government is subordinate to those of the state or regional government.Functions of a Constitution A constitution cannot be undermined because of the important roles it plays in a state such roles include1 It defines the structure and powers of the government2. It stipulates the rights, duties and obligations of the citizens.3. It encourages stability of the state4. It stipulates the functions and the limitations of the power of

government.5. The constitution is the final arbiter in a situation of conflict.6. It defines the relationship among the arms of government.7. It is the symbol of authority and statehood.8. Constitution safeguard the rights of the citizens.9. It states the mode of selection of leaders in a state

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CHAPTER SEVEN

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

Having understood the meaning of constitution, we can now look at constitutional development in Nigeria. However discussing constitutional development in Nigeria, the phenomenon of colonialism must not be forgotten (colonialism was a phenomenon that took place between 1800 and 1960). Colonialism in Nigeria is an outright political domination of Nigeria by Britain where Nigeria was under her rulership until 1960 when Nigeria gained political independence. With Lagos becoming a crown colony in 1961. In 1862, an organ called legislative council was empowered to make laws and ordinances, set up institution for the peace, order and good government of the colony. The British government, on the other hand, had powers to make laws when necessary for the peace, order and good government of the colony and to disallow any law passed by the colony legislature which was at variance with the interest of the British government (Okere and Obingene, 2007:9).

According to Adigwe (1974:177), it was noted that the council which had an official majority was in no sense representative of the people. Moreover, its advice was not binding on the governor. The council was never a large institution and by the time of its dissolution in 1922, it was composed of six official and four nominated unofficial members, two of the unofficial members being Africans).

When Lord Lugard became the governor of the colony and protectorate of Nigeria in 1914, he created the Nigerian council,. This was established immediately the amalgamation of the Southern and Northern protectorates in 1914. According to Nwanwo (1997:196), it was noted that the establishment of the council marked the first stage in the constitutional development of Nigeria. Okeke and Obingene (2007) noted that Lord Lugard created the Nigerian Council with a larger composition than the former legislative council. The Nigerian council was merely an advisory body. The council had either legislative or executive authority. It was not even mandatory for the Governor to comply with its resolutions, unless he deemed it fit and authorized to do so. Talking about its composition, Nwakwo noted that the council consisted of 36 members, 23 of who were European officials, and 13 non-official members, 7 Europeans and 6 Nigerians appointed to represent commercial mining and

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chieftaincy interests. On the significance, Nwakwo opined that it was the the first council set up to discuss the affairs of the whole Nigeria.

Factors that Aided Constitutional Development in NigeriaConstitutional development in Nigeria and any other state in Africa

cannot be said to be without influencing factors. Especially is the case in Nigeria where from colonial era till date one constitution always gives way for another, usually an improvement on the former.

(1) The activities of the educated elite in Nigeria who embraced early western education formed a formidable force against the obnoxious rule by the colonial masters. Apparently, the colonial masters in Nigeria did not make use or recognized the educated elite. Consequently, the educated elite took a critical stand until independence was achieved.

(2) The Nigerian Press: The press plays a vital role in stimulating constitutional development in Nigeria. Adigwe (P. 189) noted that between 1890 and 1940, the number of newspaper circulating in the country increased from one to eighteen. Remarkably, there were four Nigeria newspapers that helped to foster the nationalist cause during the period stretching from the end of the First World War in 1918 to the beginning of the Second World War in 1939. These newspapers include, the Lagos weakly Record Launched by John payne in 1921, the Lagos Daily News established in 1925 by Herberth Macuulay, the comet launched by Duse Mohammed Ali and the West African in 1937. Pointing out the significance of these new papers, Adigwe noted that these newspapers helped to speedup constitutional development, particularly in the 1950s, by attacking the government on many issues and publishing proposals for constitutional reforms.

3. Activities of Political. Parties: The elective principle provided in the sir Hugh Clifford of 1922 opened politicking and political activities in Nigeria. This led to the formation of political parties which include (Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), Nigerian Youth Movement i(NYM), National council of Nigerian citizens (NCNC), Action group AG), Northern People’s Congress (NPC) etc. In the Opinion of Adigwe (P.191) although other parties sprung up in the course of time, the foregoing Political Parties operated as the most important political parties in Nigeria up to 1966 when all Political parties in the country were banned by the first military government. He further opined that the emergence of activities of indigenous political parties helped immensely to foster constitutional development in Nigeria.

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4. Influence of Trace Unions: The activities of trade unions were paramount in the era of constitutional development in Nigeria. Such trade unions were Federated Trade Unions of Nigeria (FTUN) and Nigerian Trade Union congress (NTUC). In the words of Adigwe, Trades Unions after the war advocated economic and social as well as political and constitutional reforms

Sir Hugh Clifford Constitution of 1922In 1919, Lord Lugard was succeeded by Sir Hugh Clifford as Governor

of Nigeria from 1919 to1925.When Clifford assumed position, he decided to review the Nigerian council established by Lord Lugard. In his opinion, the council fell short of expectations. According to Ndoh (P.30) it was asserted that while Clifford was thinking of political reforms, the National council of British West Africa (NCBWA) in 1920 sent its delegates to London to petition the British Government and Crown. He noted that there were other public outcries over the inadequacies of the legislative council expressed by the European interests, the administration and the educated African elements. Consequently, Sir Hugh Clifford sought the approval of the colonial office for the establishment of the legislative council for the colony and protectorate of Nigeria. This new legislative council was established in 1923 and was composed of forty six (46) members. Analyzing the composition of the new legislative council, Adigwe noted that the new council was composed of forty six members, twenty seven of who (including the Governor) were official members. Of the remaining nineteen unofficial members, fifteen were nominated by the Government while four were elected. Three of the elected seats were allocated to Lagos while the remaining one went to Calabar. In total, there were ten Africans in the council, four of who were elected.

Worthy of note is that the new legislative council legislated only for the colony of Lagos and the Southern Province while the Northern province legislative powers were vested on the Governor alone which he administered through proclamation.

Feature of the Clifford constitution of 19221. The most striking feature of this constitution was the introduction for

the first time the elective principle.2. It introduced new legislative council composed of Forty- six members3. It introduced divide and rule syndrome in Nigeria4. It also established an executive council.5. It introduced limited franchise. As was noted by Ndoh (P.30) the

elector for the elected members from Lagos and Calabar were made up of male adults who were British subjects or British protected

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citizens having been ordinarily resident in the particular area for twelve months and having a gross income of 100 per annum

6. It increased the member of Africans in the legislative Council7. No African was appointed into the Executive Council8. The Northern Province was ruled by proclamation

Merits of the Clifford Constitution of 19221 Introduction of elective principle which created the enabling

environment for political activities thereby mobilizing the people.

2. Sequel to the above, the constitution encouraged formation of indigenous political parties.

3. Nigerians were elected into the legislative councilIt also increased the number of Nigerians in the legislative council.

Demerits of the Clifford Constitution of 19221 One glaring defect of this constitution was its introduction of divide

and rule that isolated the Northern Province by virtually excluding the territory from the legislative council.

2. In the Executive council, Africans were not represented either officially or unofficially.

3. The legislative council was subordinate to the Executive Council which had no African as a member.

4. The limited franchise introduced by the constitution disenfranchised many Nigerians.

5. The Constitution was imposed on the people; hence, no Nigerian was consulted before the constitution.

6. It did not provide for greater participation of Nigerians in the discussion of their own affairs.

Sir Bernard Bourdilion, 1935-1943Sir Bernard Bourdilion became the Governor of Nigeria from 1935-

1943.According to Ndoh (P.35), it was noted that he made spirited efforts towards the future constitutional development of Nigeria. He initiated reforms which he hoped would enable Nigerians secure greater participation in the discussion of their own affairs. Under Bernard Bourdilion, three regions each with a regional Assembly was created. In the opinion of Nwakwo, it was Bourdilion that laid the groundwork for the inclusion of the regional system or regionalism in the Richards Constitution.

Richards Constitution of 1946

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As a result of the criticisms leveled against the Clifford Constitution of 1922, in January 1947, the imperial order-in-council which is generally referred to as the Richards constitution came into force. The Richards constitution was based on the proposal which were embodied in a white paper that sir Arthur Richards submitted to the Nigerian council in 1946. The constitution as a proposal was approved by the Nigerian council and their amended by the imperial parliament. It was stipulated that the constitution will last for nine (9) years subject to minor review after every three years.

Aims of the ConstitutionAs stated in the Nigeria sectional paper No 4, 1945, the purposes of

Richards Constitution were as follows:

1. To promote the unity of the country2. To provide adequately with that desire for the diverse elements which

made up the country and3. To encourage greater participation of African in the discussion of their

own affairs

Features of the Richards Constitution1. The Northern province was brought within the legislative authority of

a new Nigerian legislative Council established by the Richards Constitution

2. The principle of regionalism was introduced. This led to the creation of Eastern region, western and northern regions

3. Sequel to this is the establishment of regional councils for each region4. It allowed for unofficial majority in the legislative council. Also the

constitution stipulated the method of nominating the unofficial members. In 1922 the governor nominated the unofficial members but 1946 it was the exclusive duty of the Assemblies established in the three regions.

5. The governor reserved the power to legislate by certification6. The elective principle was as it was in 1922, limited only to Lagos and

Calabar7. It created Houses of Assembly for the regions and House of Chiefs for

only the North.8. A new executive council was created to advise the Governor. But the

composition remained the same as in 1922, though 1943 and 1949 Nigerians were appointed.

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9. It introduced indirect election selection of membership of each of the Regional Houses was from the existing native authorities, which in turn selected five of its members as representatives to the central legislative council.

The merits of the Richards Constitution of 19461 It united Nigeria under one legislative council. The constitution

abolished legislating for the North by proclamation.2. The native authorities became electoral units.3. It made provision for unofficial majority in the legislative council.4. It created regional legislative which had legislative powers5. It increased the number of Nigerians in both Executive and legislative

council.6. The constitution enables more Nigerians to participate in political

process by reducing the income requirement from 100 to 50

The Demerits of the Richards Constitution of 1946:1 The majority of the members of the central legislature wee not elected.

Only four (4) were elected on a limited franchise that does not encourage political participation.

2. The power of the Governor to legislate by certification rendered useless the legislative power of the legislative council.

3. The elective principle remained as in 19224. The regional Assemblies lacked real legislative powers.5. Nigeria was not consulted before the constitution was made. It was

imposed on the Nigerian people.6. The legislative council was a mere advisory body thereby lacking real

legislative powers7. it encouraged unity in diversity8. There was no effective link between the Executive and legislative

Council9. The Executive council still remained unchanged. As in 1922, Richards

Constitution maintained unofficial members.

The Macpherson Constitution of 1951The Richards Constitution, which was stipulated to be in force for nine

(9) years was severely criticized by the Nationalists for alleged imposition of the constitution on Nigerians.

In the words of Nwankwo (P.199), it was noted that the Nationalist of the National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC) under Herbert Macaulay and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe toured important towns in Nigeria educating then on the political issues and also collecting denotion to send a

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protest delegation to London. Consequently, in 1951, Macpherson introduced a federal constitution in Nigerian and became the first Governor General of the federation of Nigeria. In the opinion of Ndoh (P.42) this was through the recommendation of a Constitution Drafting Committee headed by Hugh Foot to consider and to make recommendations for a new constitution for the country. He further noted that the committee among other things recommended the following. 1 A federal system of government made up of three regions viz: 2. A central legislature to be called the House of Representative and an

central Executive to be called the “Council of State” 3. The committee also recommended that the Regional legislature would

no longer function on a purely advisory basis but should possess real legislature powers in their respective regions and matters within their jurisdiction.

4. The central legislature should have power over regional legislation and with the power to review and reject such legislation if conflicts with the interest of the whole country

5. The Committee also advised that an Electoral Commission be set up in each of the Regions

6. According to the Committee, the problem of financial policy was to be examined by an expert and independent enquiry in consultation with all concerned and its report submitted to the Governor in council.

The Main Features of Macpherson Constitution of 19511 The constitution introduced a quasi- federalism in Nigeria2. The constitution substituted the legislative council with a central

legislative council called House of Representative and a central Executive council called Council of Ministers. The central legislature was composed of 136 members where the North had 68 members and the East and West had 34 each. According to Obingene and Okke (P.17) the council of minister was composed of the Governor, six ex- officio members and 12 ministers, four from each region. These ministers were appointed, based on the recommendation of the regional legislatures.

3. It assigned legislative authority to the Regional Houses of Assembly with limited authority over matters assigned to them.

4. It also established a Regional Executive council.5. The regional legislatures of the North and West consist of two

chambers, the house of chiefs and the House of Assembly.6. The Eastern region had a single chamber which is the House of

Assembly. There was no House of Chiefs.

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7. It introduced elected majorities not only in the central legislature but also in the Regional House.

8. For the first time in Nigeria, a Revenue allocation formula was introduced. Revenue was clearly shared between the centre and the Regions.

9. The central legislature had unlimited legislative powers. This can vote on regional legislations

10 The constitution also established a public service commission for the appointment, dismissal and disciplinary control of public officers.

The Merits1. Macpherson constitution of 1951 introduced the following in Nigeria:(a) Ministerial positions(b) Revenue sharing formula(c) Federalism even though it was or quasi-federalism2. The constitution was drawn with full participation of Nigerian3. For the first time in the constitutional history, the legislative houses

were assigned real legislative powers.4. It introduced elected majority in both the central and the Regional

Houses of Assembly.5. The constitution enlarged the central legislative thereby encouraged

more political participation of Nigeria.

Why the Macpherson Constitution of 1951 Collapsed In the opinion of Adigwe, the Macpherson constitution broke down partly because of political crisis that engulfed Nigeria at that time. The two political crises that contributed to the collapse of the Macpherson constitution were the Eastern Regional Crisis of 1953 and the crisis over the motion for self-Government in 1956.

1 The constitution allowed for a unitary and a federal attributes. Even though powers were shared, the central legislature had unlimited powers are mater in the domain of Regions.

2. The constitution made no provision for the post of the prime minister at the centre and premier at the regions. This did not provide true political leadership either but the or at the regions.

3. The constitution enacted the principle of collective responsibility in a manner that gave room for the equally important doctrine of ministerial responsibility. Ministerial responsibility: Ministers were responsible for matters handled by the departments.

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4. Another defect was the trend of partly policies which was on tribal lines. The three regions were dominated by one political party which invariably controlled the government of the region. The federal minister handed to show more loyalty to their regional government than the central government.

5. The constitution was not home-grown. It was like other constitutions which were enacted without the participation of NigeriansThe central legislatures were selected from Regional Houses of Assembly thereby giving the dominant parties in the region an advantage over other parties

1953 London Constitutional Conference The conference was attended by a team of nineteen delegates made up

of six representatives from each Region and one representative from the Cameroons

The terms of reference for the delegates: Eventhough other problems pre-occupied the mind of the leaders of political parties then especially that of Action Group (A.G) and National Council of Nigeria citizens (NCNC), the delegates were asked to discuss the following points:

1 The defects in the 1951 constitution2. The changes required to remedy these defects3. The steps to be taken to put the changes into effect

4. The question of self government in 1956 The delegates of the constitutional conference sat between 30 July

and 22 August 1953. Their decisions included:

1 Federation in which residual power would be vested in the Regional government should be established.

2. Legislative powers should be shared between the federal government and the federating Units.

3. That Regional lieutenant. Governors should be known as “Governors” while the governor of Nigeria would be designated “Governor General.

4. That subject to ratification by a conference to be held in Lagos in the following years, a separate regional Administration would be established in the cameronia if the inhabitants of the territory expressed such a desire in a referendum.

5. That Lagos should be detached from the Western Region and be neutralized.

6. That her majesty’s Government would in 1956 grant self government to those regions which desire it.

The Lagos Confernce of 1954

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In the words of Adigwe, the reason for the conference was to consider the advice of the fiscal Commissioner appointed by the secretary- General in the London conference of 1953 and to consider any other matter left unsettled by that conference. The conference that started on19 January, 1954 has the following as decision reached;1 That the public service and the judiciary should be regionalized That autonomy should be granted to the Southern Cameroons2. Apart from these decisions, the conference accepted the proposal of Sir

Louis Chick on allocation of financial resources to the region and central government

The Lyttleton Constitution of 1954 Following the decision of the 1953-1954 constitutional Conferences and

the dynamics of politics during this period, it was decided that the constitution of 1951 be revised to remedy the lapses in the system. In October 1954, the Lyttleton constitution came into force. In the opinion of Ndoh (P. 48), this constitution marked the inauguration of a truly Nigerian federalism consisting of three regions each with its own executive powers and enjoying of large measure of autonomy.

Features of the Constitution(1) The governor became known as the Governor-General of the

federation of Nigeria and the Lieutenant General become Governors of their respective regions

(2) Legislative powers were shared between the centre and the Regions.(3) The offices of the speaker and Deputy speaker were created to preside

over regional legislature with the exception of the North.(4) It created regional premiers(5) Public service and the judiciary were regionalized.(6) Lagos was separated from the Western Region and made Federal

territory.(7) There was no provision for the office of a prime minister at the centre.(8) The central legislature was Unicameral(9) Revenue allocation was based on the principle of derivation.(10) Federal laws were to prevail over regional laws(11) The constitution provided for direct election of member of the

legislature(12) Each region had three ministers in the council of ministers in the

council of ministers at the federal level.

Merits of the Constitution

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1 There was a clear division in and sharing of powers between the central and the regions.

2. It introduced direct election in system into the election to both the federal and regional legislature.

3. It created ministers with portfolios.4. It introduced a true federal system for Nigeria

Demerits1. Absence of prime Minister created a weak central administration.2. There was no provision for bicameral legislature at the centre.3. The ministers were appointed on regional basis thereby making then

loyal to the regions instead of the central government.4. The constitution basically was drafted to protect the interest of

colonial masters5. There were still non- Nigeria Governors in the Executive council.6. The granting of self- government to the regions encouraged ethnic

rivalry in the country.7. The principle of derivation introduce denied other parts of the country

revenue.

The London Constitutional Conference of 1957 The decisions taken in the London Constitutional Conference of 1957 are:

1. Eastern Region should be given additional House of Chief Similar to that in Western region. This means a bicameral legislature for the Eastern Region.

2. Southern Cameroon to be raised to a regional status with the provision of the officer of Premier.

3. The conference also decided that a bicameral legislature be established at the centre. The second chamber will be known as the senate.

4. Self-government to be granted to the Eastern and Western Region on August 1957 while that of the North will be in 1959.As a result of these decisions, the three regions had their self-government accordingly.

5. The Conference also decided that universal adult suffrage be used in electing representative of the legislature in other areas other than the North which was to use male suffrage.

6. The conference also created the office of the prime minister at the centre. Although it was created in 1957, it was first used in 1960.

7. It was agreed in the Conference that Nigeria be granted independence in 1960.

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8. That the new House of Representatives would be enlarged so that it will consist of 320 members elected on the basis one members for approximately 120,000 of the population

9. That police should continue to be a federal matter.10 It was agreed that a commission of inquiry should be set up to probe

the fears of the minorities.11. It was also decided that the Governor-General should be empowered

to set up an ad-hoc commission that will make recommendations on how constituencies should be delimitated.However, the conference was originally scheduled to hold in 1956 but

due to allegation levelled on the premier of Eastern Region, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, concerning his relationship with African Continental Bank Ltd and some other organs of the Eastern Regional government, the conference was held in 1957 with the following decisions.

As you may like to know, the 1951 London constitutional Conference decision were partly implemented. The effects of the implementation were the attainment of regional self government, appointment of the federal prime minister, British ex-officio members disappeared from the federal council of ministers, Southern Cameroon was given a separate region with a head of government affairs called premier.

London Constitutional Conference 1958Constitutional conference held in Nigeria before independence.

According to Adigwe p.218) it was noted that the Conference was in session from 29 September to 27 October 1958. The Conference had in attendance various political parties. The conference had as its agenda the reports of the minorities commission, Fiscal commission and other matter important. At the end of the conference, the following decisions were reached:

2. That Northern region should have self-government in 1959.3. That the provisions to regulate the procedure for amending the

constitution and for altering the regional boundaries should be stated in the constitution.

4. That Northern and southern Cameroons should decide through a plebiscite whether to stay with Nigeria after attaining her independence or not.

The Independence Constitution of 1960Following the general election conducted in 1959, by September 1960, the

imperial parliament had enacted the Nigerian constitution (or order in council). In October 1, 1960 Nigeria gained Political independence from Britain. The Igbo constitution conferred full independence on the entire Nigeria. It came

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into operation on October 1, 1960 and remained in force until 1963 when Nigerian became a Republic.Features1 It provided for a bicameral at the central legislature2. It adopted a parliamentary system where two Heads existed. These were

Head of States, a constitutional monarch, the Queen of great Britain represented by a governor- General Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. While the Head of Government who was a prime minister was Alhaji Tafawa Belewa

CHAPTER EIGHT

NATIONALISM AND NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

Nationalism in this context is here discussed in relation to colonialism. Colonialism is a phenomenon that took place in Africa from 1800 to 60s.In this period, African as a continent was dominated and subjugated by a foreign government which hitherto was superior in terms of political and economic powers. The activities of the colonial governments were not in its entirely favourable to the African people. Consequently, it is this unfavourable nature of colonialism that led to the nationalist movements in African. In Africa, one can be right to say that Nationalism was as a result of colonialism. The desire by the African people to be freed from colonial rule was the motivating factor in the nationalist struggle. In the words of Chikendu (2004:77) African Nationalist were motivated by a desire to expel the colonial masters and then to build a nation out of the conglomeration of ethnic and religious groups that have been put together, by the same accident of history, by the colonial overlord. Chiendu posited that Nationalism logically connotes devotion to ones nation, which invariably leads one to advocate the national unity or

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independence of his nation. The main and tangible content of nationalism is the feeling or consciousness in a people which disposes then to think of themselves as a distinct group from other human groups. In the context of colonial polities, Nwankwo (1997:189) noted that nationalism is a policy designed to achieve national self-determination or political independence by the removal of alien rule. He further admonished that nationalist movement is a political movement aimed at the removal of alien or foreign rule in the African countries during the period of colonialism and struggle for political independence. Nationalism as a political struggle is propelled by a feeling of being one people held together by cultural ties and historical experience of which without the propelling force will not be there. Nationalism is a political struggle designed to free the African people from the vestiges of colonialism. Nevertheless, pre-independence nationalism is quite different from the modern day nationalism. The pre-independence was geared toward self determination while modern nationalism is patriotic and a selfless service to the state. Modern nationalism is geared toward the promotion of the national interest of a state in the international arena.

Factors That Led to the Growth of Nationalism in Africa In the struggle for self government, so many factors have contributed in making it a success. These factors include both internal and external.

(A)The External Factors:(1) The influence of the British labour Party: The British Labour Party over the years stood for the granting of independence to colonial subjects. According to Adigwe (1974:378) the party’s opposition to colonialism dated back to the early years of the second world war. In 1940s, the members of the party posited that the freedom which the party had always demanded should be extended to all men. The party during this time made spirited effort to encourage British Government to prepare African countries for eventual self government.

(2) The Impact of American Attacks on Colonialism:During the early years of the Second World War some prominent

Americans denounce colonialism and imperialism. Such prominent men include Wardell Willke a Republican Presidential candidate, Cordell Hull, the then secretary of state, president Franklin Rooservelt, Raymond Leslie Buell (the American Africanist author) etc.

In the words of Adigwe (1974) as a result of these attacks on colonialisms the British government became increasingly active in preparing

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colonial subjects for eventual independence. He noted that between 1940 and1945 important Acts which sought to promote the economic wellbeing of certain British colonies passed through the imperial parliament

3. The Atlantic Charter of 1941, This was made by American and British Head of states in connection

with the Second World War. The Charter empowered the signatories to respect rights of all the peoples to choose their own form of government. In course of time Nationalists in West and elsewhere construed the article to mean that after the war they world be entitled to choose their own form of government. The Charter later became a mandate for nationalists everywhere.

4. Post–War Economic Prosperity in West Africa: The aftermath of the World Wars shattered the Economy of the

European countries. This increased the demand for West African commodities. The demand boosted the economy of west African countries and the prosperity that followed provided a solid foundation for the introduction of significant constitutional changes.

5. The Activities of West African JournalistsThe leading west African journalist in the first half of the twentieth

century revolutionized journalism by directing it towards the nationalist cause and alerting west African Politician to the task of liberating the African people from colonial rule. In 1943, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe led a delegation of eight West African journalists to London.

6 The West African Educated Elite:West Africa students overseas during and after the second world war

agitate for the decolonization of the four British administered territories of Nigerian, the Gold Coast, Sierra lone and the Gambia. These educated West Africans came together under one umbrella with one voice and provided the needed leadership for the nationalist struggle. It was these educated elite that champion the cause of criticizing the various constitutions introduced in African. Having prepared for independence for the colonies, British government handed over power to these educated elite who controlled the government at the end of colonial rule. Such educated elite were: Herbert Macaulay, Dr. Kwame Nkanumah, Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Chief Awolowo, Chief H.O. Davies, Casely Hayford etc

(B). The Internal factors: Africans were disenfranchised and were not duly consulted in

government: The British government run the administration of the colonies

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with few or no Africans. They were not properly represented in the legislative and executive councils Limited suffrage was introduced thereby denying all the eligible Africans the right to contribute in the running of the affairs of their father land.

1. Development anti – Colonial Pressure Groups:The African Nationalists grouped themselves in their effort to achieve

independence for their people. These pressure groups include National Congress of British West African which was established in 1920, West African Youth League which was formed in 1935 by a Sera Leonean I.T.A Wallase Johnson, West African Student Union which was established in London in 1925, the Aborigines Right Protection Society which was formed in 1897 to protest against the colonial government obnoxious land ill policy in Ghana.

2. The development of Political Parties:One of the advantages of the Clifford constitution of 1922 was the

introduction of elective principle and the legislative council which four seats were allocated to Nigerian. The elective principle and the creation of legislative council opened the door for electioneering in Nigeria. Consequently there was need for political parties. In 1922, Herbert Macaulay formed the first Political party called Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP). In 1944, National Council for Nigerian citizens was formed. In 1951, the Action Group was formed, while Northern People’s Congress was also formed in 1951. Commenting on the activities of these parties, Chikendu noted that NCNC did much to arouse political consciousness among the masses of Nigeria These parties mobilized the people of Nigerian and formed the channel through which their interest was expressed. These political parties criticized the various constitutions introduced in Nigerian and also participated in the constitutional conferences that eventually led to independence.

3.The Youth Factor the in Nationalist struggle: In Nigeria, the story of nationalists activities will not be complete without mentioning two of the various youth organizations that helped to inspire Nigeria Nationalism, namely the Nigerian Youth Movement and the Zikist Movement. Described by James Coleman (1986:218) cited in Chikendu the Nigerian Youth Movement was “the nkelens of Nigerian’s first genuine nationalist organization. Chikendu also noted that the Zikist movement was a militant organization aimed at actualizing the ideas and philosophy of Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nigeria’s foremost nationalist whose intellectual efforts inspired the Nigerian Youths to a point of frenzy . It was through the effort of Nigerian youths that in 1938 the “Cocoa Pool” a buying agreement signed by

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European firms engaged in exporting was terminated and eventually some sort of marketing board as established for the cocoa producers.

Other factors include the following:(1) Africans were exploited economically by buying the local raw

materials at very cheap prices and import the finished goods at very exhorbitant prices.

(2) Africans were not allowed to participate in government. The colonial masters monopolized political powers

(3) African tradition and culture were not respected.(4) There were payments of low wages, tax force labour on African(5) The impacted of Women. A typical expression of this is the Aba

Women riot of 1929.All these factors combined to fast treat the growth and development of

nationalist struggle which eventually led to independence of various African countries in 50s and 60s.

Factors that Influenced the Success of Nationalist Struggle:1) Activities of the African owned print media.2) Activities of the Educated Elites.3) Unfavourable nature of colonialism and imperialism.4) Support from international organization like United Nations

organization with the determination to end colonialism5) Independence of other countries which stimulated other African

countries.(6) The socialist Condemnation of the evil of colonialism and the

activities of opposition parties in Europe

The Effects of Nationalist Struggle in Africa:1) End of colonialism in Africa2) Independence to African counties formerly under colonial rules.3) Political education which was as a result of writing, speeches and

other activities of the Nationalist movement4) It brought into Nigeria and Africa certain changes upon which

independence was achieved.5) It prepared Nigerians for effective political leadership which they took

over after independence.6) It also immortalized some of our illustrious sons like Nnamdi

Azikiwe, Herbert Macaulay, Kwame Nkurumah, Awolowo etc7) It allowed Africans the opportunity to participate in the governance of

their countries

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CHAPTER NINE

PUBLIC COMPLAINTS COMMISSION

1. Historical BackgroundThe idea of redressing the grievances of citizens against

administrative injustice through an Ombudsman-like institution was one of the recommendations made by the Udoji Public Service Review Panel set up in 1972 by the Federal Government to examine the organization, structure and management of public Service and recommend reforms where desirable. One of the recommendations of the panel was the establishment of Public complaints Commission which the Federal Government accepted. Accordingly,

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the enabling decree 31, which established the Public Complaints Commissions in Nigeria was promulgated in October, 1975. The establishment of the Commission is also entrenched in Section 273 (5) of the 1979 constitution of the Federal republic of Nigeria. The decree has been incorporated in the 1990 laws of the Federation of Nigeria as Public Complaints Commission Act Cap. 377.

Broadly, the Decree, now Act, provides for:-(i) The establishment of the public complaints Commission at

the Federal level and in each State of the Federation.(ii) The appointment of a Chief Commissioner by the National Assembly

or the highest law making body in a Military set-up to co-ordinate the activities of the State Commissioners; and

(iii) The appointment of State Commissioner for every State of the Federation by the National Assembly as in (ii) above.

(iv) The power to receive complaints, to investigate such complaints and to recommend appropriate actions.

(v) The power to issue reports.

2. Aims Of The Public Complaints CommissionThe main aim of the Public Complaints Commission is to promote

social justice for the individual citizens without which there can hardly be genuine peace and stability in the country. With the enlarged bureaucratic system in the country, cases of mal-adminstration or bureaucratic excesses are bound to occur. It is therefore the responsibility of the commission to help those individuals who can not help themselves to get theirs right for any injustice suffered arising from such administrative action or inaction of Government Minsteries/Departments, Local Government and incorporated companies in Nigeria.

Beside, the commission assist the aggrieved individual citizens in no small measure, not only in securing redress to any wrong done, but ,also by listening patiently to their expression of anger which, without the intervention of the Commission, could lead to mental or emotional problems which may ultimately destroy the individuals concerned as well as those around them. The Commission is always able to avert perpetual misery by being able and ready to instill some element of trust in the hearts of the aggrieved persons and to assure them of being accorded fairness and equity.

In resolving complaints, the Commission attempts to esetablish some cordial relationship between the complainant and the authority complained against, so that at the end of it all, there is genuine reconciliation.. In this way, a sound and peaceful society could be evolved and sustained.

3. How The Commission Functions

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The primary function of the Public Complaints Commission is to provide impartial investigation on behalf of the citizens who feel they have suffered injustice through the actions or in-actions of Government Ministries, Local Government, Incorporated Companies in Nigeria and official of these bodies, On a daily basis, decisions are made by these bodies which affect the lives of the citizens. Majority of these decisions and actions are just and reasonable. However, errors do occur and when these happen it is ithe duty of the Commission to identify, address and recommend the rectification of these mistake amicably.

The Commission is independent of government bureaucracy, and, at the same time, it is given extensive powers regarding disclosures and access to all Government information including the production of documents which aids the Commission in its investigation. The Commission is empowered to enforce compliance in order to obtain the necessary information. This power is vital to the Commission in facilitating impartial investigation in order to arrive at a fair and equitable decision

Investigation of complaints is provided at no cost to the citizen as well as non-citizens resident in the country and they are treated with the confidentiality they deserve. The Commission has able staff to handle all the complaints speedily, provided there is cooperation from the respondent. The Commission puts high priority on being accessible to the citizens and to fulfil this commitment, the Commission not only has offices in thirty six (36) States of the Federation and Abuja (the Federal Capital territory), it also has five (5) Zonal Offices located in Local Government Areas in each State of the Federation

In addition, Complaints Boxes’ are placed in strategic locations in th Local Govt. Areas throughout the Federation. This arrangement facilitates the ease by which complaints could reach the Commission as well as make it possible for the complainants not to travel far distances before lodging their complaints.

4. Powers And Duties Of The CommissionAll Commissioners (including Chief “”Commissioner) are responsible

to the National Assembly,but the Chief Commissioner, coordinates the work of all the State Commissioners.

Decree 31 of 1975 further provides the Chief Commissioner and the State Commissioners the powers to investigate on their own initiatives or following complaints lodged by any person, any administrative action taken by:(a) Any Department of Ministry of the Federal or any State Government(b) Any Department of any Local Government authority set in many state

in the Federation.

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(c) Any statutory Corporation or Public Institution set up by any Government in Nigeria

(d) Any Company incorporated under the Company and Allied Matters Decree No. 1 of 1999 whether owned by any Government or by private individuals in Nigeria, or

(e) any officer or servant of any of these bodiesPursuant of sub-section (2) (a) to (d) above, the Commissioners

have the following powers:-(a) The Chief Commissioner has power to determine the manner by which

complaints are to be lodged.(b) Any Commissioner has absolute discretion to decide whether or not

and in what manner to notify the public of his action or intended action in any particular case.

(c) Any Commissioner shall have access to all information necessary for the efficient performance of his duties and for this purpose may visit and inspect any premises belonging to any person or body mentioned in sub-section (2) above.Every commissioner shall ensure that administrative action by any

perseon or body mentioned in sub-section (2) above will not result in the commitment of any act of injustice against any citizen of Nigeria or other person resident in Nigeria and for that purpose, he shall investigate withspecial care administrative acts which are or appear to be: (i) Contrary to any law or regulation(ii) Mistaken in law or arbitrary in the ascertainment of fact(iii) Unreasonable, unfair, oppressive or inconsistent with the general

functions of administrative organs(iv) Improper in motivation or base or irrelevant considerations(v) Unclear or inadequately explained; or(vi) Otherwise objectionable; and (e) a Commissioner shall be competent to investigate administrative

procedures of any court of Law in Nigeria.Where concurrent complaints are lodged with more than one

Commissioner, the Chief Commissioner shall decide which Commissioiner shall deal with the matter and his decision therein shall be final.

All Commissioners and staff of the commission shall maintain secrecy in respect of matters so designated by reason of source or content, so however, so however, that Commissioner may, in any report made by him, disclose such matters as in his opinion ought to be disclosed in order to establish ground for his conclusions and recommendation.

In the exercise of power conferred upon Commissioner by this section, the Commissioner shall not be subject to the direction or control of any other person or authority.

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It shall be the duty of any body required to furnish information pursuant to sub-section(3) (c) above to comply with such requirement not later than thirty days from receipt thereof.

5. Restriction/Limitations On The Powers Of The CommissionA Commissioner is barred from investigating any matters:(a) That is clearly outside his terms of reference(b) That is pending before the Provisional Ruling Council now the

National Assembly, National Council of state or the Federal Executive Council.

(c) That is pending before any Court of law in Nigeria.(d) Relating to anything done or purported to be done in respect of any

members of the Armed Forces in Nigeria or the Police Force under the Nigerian Army Act of 1960, the Navy Act of 1964, the Air Force Act of 1964 and the Police Act as the case may be.

(e) In which the complaint has not, in the opinion of the Commissioner exhausted all available legal or administrative procedures.

(f) Relating to any act or thing done before 29th July, 1975 (i.e) before the commencement of the Commission) or in respect of which the complaint is lodged later than twelve months after the date of the act or thing done from which the complaint arose; and

(g) In which the complainant has no personal interest.It is necessary to note that, once a decision is taken on complaint by

any of the Commissioners, that decision is final and it cannot be reviewed by another Commissioner

6. Complaints Which The Commission Can InvestigateComplaints which a Commissioner can entertain are numerous but

the following are few example:Delay in :(i) Any Department or Minstry of the Federal or State Government or

local government Authorities to pay compensation for land acquired for public use

(ii) Payment of retirement benefits (Pensions and Gratuities)(iii) Payment of death gratuityof the family of a deceased person.(iv) Payment of workmen’s compensations(b) Wrongful termination of appointment© Wrongful dismissal(d) Wrongful computation of N.P.F contribution or under-payment of

contributors entitlement(e) Difficulty in getting Insurance Companies to pay claims(f) Failure to get refund of amount over paid Tax Authorities

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(g) Loss of Postal or Money Orders and Parcels(h) Impropriety by the uniformed personnel’s(i) With-holding of supernuation(ii) Non-payment of goods bought and/or services rendered to

Government Ministries/Parastatal, Local Government or other Corporate bodies etc

7. Recommendations After InvestigationA Commissioner after investigation, amy recommend the following

steps to the appropriate person or to responsible administrative agency:(i) a That a further consideration of the matter be made.

b That a modification or cancellation of the offending administrative or other act be effected.

c That an alteration of a regulation or ruling be effected.d That full reasons behind a particular administrative or other act be

given.(ii) Where appropriate, a Commissioner may refer cases where he feels the existing laws or administrative regulations or procedure are inadequate to the Federal Government or to other appropriate person or body.(iii) Where however, a Commissioner decides not to investigate a

complaints, his reason must be made know to the complainant.

8. Offences And PenaltiesA Commissioner may report cases where he discovers that a crime

may have been committed by a person to the appropriate authority; or recommend that, the person be prosecuted. Where also he feels that the conduct of a person is such that disciplinary action should be taken against him, he shall make report to that effect to the appropriate authority who shall take such action as may be necessary in the circumstance.

Complainants lodged before the Commission shall not be made public by any person except a Commissioner and any person who contravenes this provision shall be guilty of an offence and shall be liable on conviction to a fine of N500.00 or imprisonment for six months or to both such fine and imprisonment.

If any person who is required to furnish information under this decree fails to do so, or in purported compliance with such requirement to furnish information knowingly or recklessly makes any statement which is false in a material particular, he shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to a fine of N500.00 imprisonment for six months or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Any person who willfully obstructs, interferes with, assaults or resist any Commissioner or any other officers or servants of the Commission in the

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execution of his duty or who acids, invites, induces or abets any other person to obstruct, interfere with assault or resist such Commissioner, officer or servant shall be guilty of an offence and liable on conviction to a fine of N500.00 or imprisonment for six (6) months or to both such fine and imprisonment.

Any person, who in respect of any complaints lodged by him, knowingly make to a Commissioner any statement whether or not in writing, which is false in any material particular, shall be guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be sentenced to imprisonment for one year without any option of fine

Power To Summon PersonsIn the discharge of his functions, a Commissioner has power to

summon in writing any person who in the opinion of the Commissioner is in a position to testify on any matter before him, to give evidence in the matter, and any person who fails to appear shall be guilty of an offence and on convictioin shall be liable to a fine of N500.00 or six months imprisonment or to both such fine and imprisonment

10 Immunity No commissioner shall be liable to be sued in any Court of Law for

any act done in the due exercise of his duties as spelt out in the enabling Act. Any report,statement or other communicatioin or record of any meeting, invesetigation or proceedings which a Commissioiner, officer or servant of ithe Commission may make in due exercise of his functions shall be priviledged in that its production may not be compelled in any legal proceedings if Attorney- General of the Federatioin certifies that such production is not in the public interest.

11 Procedure For Lodging Complaints Before The CommissionComplaints are lodged in writing and signed by the complainant

himself before it is submitted to the Commission in dulicate. If the complainant is illiterate, his/her complaint is received and reduced into writing by official of the Commission. This is read over the complainant in the language he/she understands and in the presence of a witness. All three (3), the complainant, the writer/interpreter and the witness then append their signatures/right thumb impression. Complaints are usually submitted to the Commission or sent by post or dropped in complaint boxes for collection by the staff of the Commission. It is also a requirement that relevant documents should be attached to or enclosed with the petition to facilitates easy and speedy investigation. In certain circumstances, it is preferable to lodge complaints with the Commissioner in the State where the complaints resides. For instance, a complaint against the Federal/State/Local Government,

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Ministry/Department, corporate organization or any individual citizen residing in a State, shall be submitted to the Commissioner of Public Complaints of the State whose Office is at the State capital or to the officer- in- charge of the Zonal office of the Commission whose office is at the Local Government headquarters.

The Commission acknowledges with utmost dispatch the receipt of any complaint sent to it. Therefore, if the complaint does not receive an acknowledgement of the receipt of his petition within a reasoble period, he should make enquiries about it since it could have been lost in transit. In the event of failure of a complainant to respond to the Commission’s enquiries or correspondence after three (3) successive reminders have been sent to the last known address of the complainant, the Commissioner may decide to close the complain’t case for lack of interest, and when this is done, the complainant shall be informed of the action in writing.

Once a complaint is certified genuine and within the competence or jurisdiction of the Commission to handle, it is registered and investigation process are put in motion. If ithe complaint is such that another body would handle it better, the complainant is directed to that body. For example, complaints on rent are directed to the Rent Tribunal. Usually, this is done through the Commission’s staff, thus providing some sort of assistance to the complainant. It should be noted here that the Commission does not charge any fee for its services.

12. Summary Of Issues To Be Covered In ComplaintsName and address of complainant (telephone No and P.O Box No.

if available, street name only, is not adequate).Name and address of the authority/organization/person(s) against

who the complaint is made (if appropriate) name and address of place where action or failure of service occurred

Details of complaints including witness addresses, other evidence of importance like agreements conditions of service, redress and vital documents. All document are to be submitted in duplicate.

Date when action occurred and date of the complainant’s awareness of the grievance.

Where the complain is made more than twelve (12) months after the date in sub-paragraph (5) above, reasons for the delay in making the complaint should be given.

Details of any action taken by or on behalf of the person aggrieved to drew the attention of the authority or person in sub-paragraph (2) above to the substance of the complain (including copies of any correspondence).

Action, if any, taken by the authority following the reference in sub-paragraph (7) above.

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Statement of the hardship or injustice claimed to be sustained by the complainant or person aggrieved prior to or at the time of the complaint.

If (only if) desired the names, title, or designations of any individual members, officers, or agent of the authority complaint against.

Statement of reasons for naming any person in sub-paragraph 10 above.

CHAPTER TEN

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Meaning, Nature And Scope Of Public AdministrationIn other to understand properly what is meant by Public

Administration, it is useful to begin by defining “Administration”

What is Administration?

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According to Adebayo (2004), administration is the organization and direction of person’s in order to accomplish a specific end. He stated further, that the simplest and shortest definition of administration is the one which says that “when two men co-operate to roll a stone that neither could move alone, the rudiments of administration have appeared.

Simon (1947) sees administration as “activities of groups co-operation to accomplish common goals. Administration consists of getting things done through organization. Z.A. Vieg citied by Nwizu (2002) Administration is a determined action taken in pursuit of a conscious purpose. According to Luther Gulick (1973), administration has to do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of defined objectives. It is the organization and use of men and materials to accomplish a purpose. Sharma, (1975) sees administration as a way of conceptual thinking for attaining predetermined goals through group effort.

Obasi Igwe (2005) sees administration as an authoritatively coordinated process for the achievement of group objective. Tyagi (2004) offered some useful definition of administration. According to him, the word administer is derived from the Latin word ministiare which means to serve. In its common use, administer means to manage the affairs of, or to look after people. Administration, he continues is the management of people ordering in the collective activities of human beings, and as most human activities are collective and coordinative, administration is a general process discernible in every group activity whether private or public, large or small.

Onah (2005), citing Dwaldo (1978) asserts that modern society consists of different groups of people sharing similar views and pursuing common objectives. For these groups to achieve their purpose, cooperative action is needed. Administration is cooperative action with a high degree of rationality. Human action is cooperative if it has effects that would be absent if the cooperation did not take place. The significance of a high degree of rationality lies in the fact that every human cooperative action is directed towards the attainment of set goals whether we think in terms of formal or organizational goals, the leaders or the goals of all who cooperate.

F. M. Marx (1965) citied by Obikeze stated that “Administration consists in the systematized ordering of affairs and calculated use of resources aimed at making those things happen which we want to happen and simultaneously preventing development that fails to sequre with our intentions.

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For us, administration means the rational process or the activities/actions required in directing the material am non material resources towards accomplishing a predetermined objectives or objective. It includes all the deliberate and purposeful action taken by people whether as a groups or individuals with the aim of accomplishing objectives. In short, it is a mutual process of achieving a goal. Thus, administration therefore excludes non purposive and non-co-operative group activities like two men fighting with each other

Principles of AdministrationHenry Fayol listed some fourteen principles, which he called the

principles of management. These principles are summarized thus:1. Division of Work: This is specialization, which economist

consider necessary for efficiency in the use of labour. Fayol applied this to all kinds of work, both managerial as well as technical.

2. Authority and Responsibility: Here, Fayol finds authority and responsibility to be related, with the letter the corollary of the format and arising from it. He sees authority as a combination of official (deriving from the manager’s position) and personal – (composed of intelligence, experience moral worth, past service etc) factors.

3. Discipline: Seeing discipline as respect for agreement which are directed at achieving obedience application, energy, and the outwards mark of respect, Fayol declares that discipline requires good superiors at all levels

4. Unity of Command: This means that employees should receive orders from one superior only.

5. Unity of Direction: According to this principle, each group of activities with the same objective must have one head and one plan. As distinguished from the fourth principle, it relates to the organisation of body corporate rather than to personal.

6. Subordination of Individuals to General Interest: This is self- explanatory, when the two are found to differ, management must reconcile them.

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7. Remuneration: Remuneration and methods of payment should be fair and afford the maximum possible satisfaction to employ and employer.

8. Centralization: Without using the term centralization of authority, Fayol refers to the extent to which authority is concentrated or dispersed. Individual circumstances will determine the degree that will give the best over all years.

9. Sealar Claim: Fayol thinks of this as a claim of superiors from the highest to the lowest ranks, which while not to be desparted from needlessly, should be short – circuited when to follow it scrupulously would be determined.

10. Order: Breaking this into material and social order Fayol follows the single adage of “a place for everything and everything in its place.” This is essentially a principle of organization in the arrangement of things and people.

11. Equity: Loyalty and demotion should be elicited from personnel by a combination of kindness and justice on the part of managers when dealing with sub-ordinations.

12. Stability of Tenure: Finding unnecessary turnover to be both the cause and the effect of a bad management, Fayol points out its dangers and costs.

13. Initiative: Initiatives is conceived of as the thinking out and execution of plan. Source it is one of the “keenest satisfactions for an intelligent man to experience”, Fayol exhorts mangers to “Sacrifice personal vanity” in order to permit subordinates to exercise it.

14. Espint De Corps: This is the principle that “in union there is strength as well as an extension of the principle of unity of Command, emphasizing the need for team-work and the importance of communication in obtaining it.

Public Administration

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Like most other concepts in the social sciences, public administration is engulfed with the controversy of definition galore (Dick, 2006). For proper understanding of this phenomenon we should try to explain the meaning of public or public sector.

According to the Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary (1980), the word “Public is used to refer to:-of or relating to or affecting all the people or the whole area of a nation or state;-of or relating to a government or being in the service of the community or nation; and-of or relating to business or community interest as opposed to private affairs, exposed to general view.

Henceforth, public sector is simply the activities of the three levels of government and their agencies. That is the commonly owned sector. What then is public administration? From the foregoing public administration simply means governmental administration. It is the study of the management of the public agencies that carry out public policies in order to fulfill the state purposes in the public interest (Naidu, 2006)In the words of Adebayo, when administration is qualified by the word “public” it simply means the practice of administration in a particular segment of society: that of the public sector. He went further to conceive public administration as governmental administration and operates in particular sphere of government. Public administration is the machinery for implementing government policy. Dick, (2004) sees public administration a word used to designate and delineate a process or activity that of administrating public affairs.

According to Duight Maldo (1948), Public administration is the organization and management of men and materials to achieve the purposes of government. Leonard White (9166) defines public administration as “the management of men and materials in the accomplishment of purposes of the state” Public Administration is concerned with the art and science of practical management of government affairs such as enforcing law and order and executing government policies pro bono public i.e. for the good of the public (Taiwo 1978). Adebayo (2004) sees public administration as the machinery for implementing government policies. It is concerned with the study of how a country’s administration is organized and how it functions. To W.F. Willoughby (1927) public administration is seem as the functions

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of actually administering the law as declared by legislature and interpreted by the judicial organ of government.

Gregory Nwizu (2002) opines that public administration in a broad sense means “the management of affairs by the government or its agencies to serve the people at local state, national and international levels. E.N. Gladden (1952) defined public administration “as the management of affairs by public bodies: the arts of policy making, of legislation and of adjudication belong to the wider sphere of politics and government of which public administration is but one sector. He adds that public administration is concerned with the administrative activities of government

“Public administration” refers both to the activities of bureaucrats concerned with the management or administration of government organizations, and the study of these activities. Public administration is that part of the larger field of cooperative human action to be distinguished by the special character of its goals which are public (see Waldo 1983). “Public administration both as a study, an as an activity is intended to maximize the realization of goals, and often the two blend into each other. Since in the last analysis, study is also a form of action” (Waldo 1978:179).

Ekwealor (2007) presented a brief summary of the definition of public administration as follows:-

i. It is governmental administration.ii. A co-operative group effort in a public setting.iii. It is different in significant ways from private administrationiv. It is a body of knowledge of how a states administration is

organized and how it functionsv. It is the machinery for implementing government policy.vi. It is concerned with the most efficient way of allocating scare

resources of the government.vii. It has an important role in the formulation of public policy and

is thus a part of political process. viii. It is the process of getting things done and as a process it

involves those activities, functions or business of government in her bid to effectively fulfill and enforce public policy.

ix. It is closely associated with numerous private groups and individual in providing service to the community.

Naidu S.P (2006) in his own part summarizes the various definitions of public administration thus:-

1. Is the non-political public bureaucracy operating in a political system.

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2. Deals with the ends of the state, the sovereign will the public interests and laws.

3. Is the business side of government and as such concerned with policy execution, but it is also concerned with policy making.

4. Covers all three branches of government, although it tends to be concerned in the executive branch.

5. Provides regulatory and service functions to the people in order to attain good life.

6. differs significantly from private administration especially in its emphasis on the public and

7. is interdisciplinary in nature as it draws upon other social sciences like political science economic and sociology.

Rationale for Public AdministrationHistorically, the work of administration in most societies was a

simple and straightforward affair. There was no complex system of public debts and property to manage. Governmental confined their activities to the maintenance of law and order. Over the years, however, the scope of governmental action increased (Uduma, 2003).

According to Ezeani (2006) there are a number of reasons why public administration is a necessary aspect of modern government. First there is a noticeable growth in the size of modern government today extend to many areas of society’s life. Government is involved in foreign affairs or international relations, agriculture, industry, health, education, sports etc. it is impossible for the individuals than constitute the three arms of government alone to carry on these because they may not have the competence, enough time and energy to do so within the time necessary to satisfy the population. Therefore, additional hands are needed and this can be found in the civil service or public administration (Nnoli 2003).

Second, government activities have grown in complexity. Thus, different kinds of skills and professional expertise are required for the various activities. Members of government do not possess all the expertise needed to perform modern governmental functions. As Nnoli (2003), rightly puts it, “they need the variety of experts found in public administration such as teacher, doctors, auditors, accountants, etc to help out”.

Third, “the demands of increased productivity, performance or achievement in which many more people are involved than those in government (Nnoli 2003). Thus, clerks are required to fie letters, engineers to construct roads and operate machines, doctors to treat patients,

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secretaries to write memoranda, statisticians to gather data, and so on and so forth. These additional hands are found in public administration.

Finally, those at the relm of affairs in government are usually politicians who devote most of their time politicking. They need the assistance and support of career and seasoned bureaucrats and technocrats who will emphasize the management of natural and other non-political resources and to see to the implementation of government policies. Public administration, therefore, enables the government to manage its non-political resources and activities, a task the politicians may not have the time and technical competence to perform. (Ezeani, 2006).

The Nature of Public Administration There are two broad views regarding the nature of public

administration. They are:

a. The Integral View According to this view, administration is the sum of total of all the

activities-manual, electrical, technical, managerial etc-which are under taken to realize the objective in view. If we accept the integral view, all the acts of the officials of government from the peon in a remote office to the secretaries to government and head of state at the capital constitute public administration. A staunch supporter of this view is L.D. White in his opinion public administration comprises all types of operations undertaken by all persons, ranging from the lowest to the highest, in order to implement public politics. Acceptance of this view makes the scope of public administration vast and unwieldy because it includes a heterogeneous mass of activities.

b. The Managerial ViewAccording to this view, administration comprises the work of only

those persons who are engaged in performing managerial functions in an organization. If we take the managerial view, public administration focuses principally on planning, organizing, directing, controlling and coordinating of government operations. The work concerned with management unities and controls the activities of all others as part of co-ordinated endeavour in an enterprise. This view regards administration as getting things done not doing things. Luther Gulick writes “Administration has to do with getting things done, with the accomplishment of defined objectives”. This view therefore excludes from the preview of public administration non managerial activities such as manual, clerical and technical activities. The

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managerial view gives unity to administration. Herbert Simon, Smithburg and Thomson are other important supporters of this view.

Scope of Public Administration The scope of public administration according to Obikeze et al

(2004) means the service of the public or governmental administration. It means those issues functions, spheres and areas which public administration covers. So, by scope of public administration we means the major concerns of public administration as an activity as a discipline.

There are two contradicting views over the scope of public administration. Theses are the traditional and the modern views.

The Traditional ViewsThe traditional writers restricted the scope of public administration

to the executive branch only. In this narrow sense public administration covers primarily the organization, personnel, practices and procedures essential to effective performance of the civilian functions entrusted to the executive branch of government (Naidu, 2006)

The Modern ViewModern writers have extended the scope of public administration

to all the three branches of government. To them, public administration is the whole government in action. They argue that the activities of the legislature and the judiciary affect and shape the operations of public administration considerably. According to them, in a democracy all major administrative policies emanate from the legislature in the form of laws. The legislature also exercises control over administration with a view to see that the policies are implemented as it intends. The judiciary has the power to restrain public administrators from unconstitutional, illegal and arbitrary acts. By so doing the judiciary determines what kind of public services can be rendered and under what conditions.

In summary, Adamolekun (1983) identified ten categories of public organizations with which the activities of government is carried out in Nigeria.

1. The federal civil service.2. The 36 states civil service.3. The 774 local governments.4. Statutory corporations of the federal and state government.5. Comprises or enterprises with full or majority ownership by either

the federal or state government.

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6. Authorities or commissions establishment by the federal or state governments.

7. Educational institutions establishing or financed mainly by federal and or state governments.

8. The Nigeria police force.9. The armed forces and.10. The judiciary.

Fields of Public Administration The fields of public administration include:-

A. Organization theory:It deals with the formal structure, internal functioning and

performance of organizations; their external environment and the behavior of groups and individuals within them.

B. Public personnel administrationIt is concerned with manpower planning and the establishment of

position classification system. It covers such matters as recruitment, training, pay scales, promotion, retiment, employer-employed relations etc. The efficiency of administration depends on the efficiency of the persons employed.

C. Public financial administrationIt includes the entire financial process preparation, enactment and

execution of the budget, accounting and auditing. Since every administrative activity involves money, the volume of administrative activity depends on the volume of money available to the government and its proper spending.

D. Comparative Public AdministrationThe cross national and cross-cultural administrative studies

constitute an important areas of specialization within he discipline of public administration.

E. Development administrationIt concerns administration of developmental plans and programmes

undertaken by the developing nations. As important aspect of development administration is the development of administration i.e. improving the capacity of administration for development activities.

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F. Administrative ecologyIt deals with interaction between public administration and its

political, economic and social cultural environment. It is an emerging new area of study within public administration.

G. Public Policy AnalysisThis developing sub field of public administration studies the

process of policy-making, the contents of policy, its implementation and the policy outputs.

Features of Public Administration: The hallmark of public administration is the public nature of its

goals. Thus, the General board objectives of public institutions and organizations are determined by national legislature or through executive orders.

Public administration refers to administration of government and quasi governmental organizations such as the public service, state boards, cooperation and agencies owned by the government (Obikeze and Obi 2004).

They pointed out the following common features of public administration.They are:

(a) Political neutrality.(b) Specialization.(c) Impersonality.(d) Continuity.(e) Meritocracy.(f) Hierarchy.(g) Anonymity.(h) Impartiality.(i) Accountability.(j) Rules and regulations.

Factors responsible for the Growth of the Study of Public Administration:

Primarily, the role of public administration in the society has been limited. But in contemporary society, its role has increases manifolds.

Laximikanth (2007) identified the following factors as responsible to this:

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(a) The scientific and technological developments have led to big government which implies vast increase in scope of the activities of public administration.

(b) The industrial revelation which give rise to socio-economic problems forcing the government to take up new responsibilities.

(c) The emergency of welfare state replacing “policy state” (i.e. negative state base on the philosophy of laissez fair). A welfare state is a positive state which is committed to the welfare of the people. Rosese Pound calls the welfare state of “service state”.

(d) The adoption of economic planning by the modern governments to achieve the goals of welfare state has increased the scope of the role of public administration.

(e) The population explosion has created various socio economic problems like growth of slums, food shortage, transportation problems, and so on, which have to be dealt by the public administration.

(f) The nature of modern welfare has increased the responsibilities and activities of public administration in terms of mobilization of necessary human and material resources.

(g) The increase in the natural calamities like floods, droughts, earthquakes, due to excessive environmental degradation, has enhanced the functions of public administration as it has to handle the rescue operations.

(h) The decline in social harmony and increase in violence due to class conflicts communal riots, ethnic wars, and so on have increased the importance of public administration in terms of crisis management.

Differences and Similarities Between Public Administration and Private/Business Administration

Administration as a co-operative group activity is truly universal and operates in all types of public and private organizations. Hence, it occurs in both public and private institutional settings. Though, its nature varies with the nature of the setting (Naidu, 2006)

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Administration is said to be private when it concerns the operation of organization that seeks purely profit, such may be owned by a few persons or a large group but the fact remains that the ultimate and most important goal is to make as much profit as possible (Obikeze et al 2004). Besides, the tenacious concern for profit making private administration is business orientated in the sense that it demonstrates concern for entrepreneurship innovativeness and efficiency. Before discussing the differences and similarities between public and private administration, we should first look at the University of Administration.

Differences between Public and Private Administration:According to Wallace Sayre, business and public administration

are alike in all unimportant respects. Public administration has certain special characteristics which are derived from the nature of public setting in which it operates.

The distinguishing features of public administration which affect its style and practice.

(1) Political Consideration/Direction: As Dick Uduma puts it “it is claimed that public administration is

subject to greater legal elaborate and seruting that those of private administration” put differently, public administration system responds to a complex set of demands articulated through the political system to an extend that has no parallel in business administration.

From the above one can see that public administration is political, while private/business administration is non-political. Thus public administration works under political direction and scrutiny. Business is not to subject to political direction except in times of emergency. It functions largely under the influence of market condition (Naidu, 2006).

(2) Absence of Profit Motive The major aim of public administration is to render services to the

people, this on the ground that motive for establishing public enterprises is to offer services to the people, which they cannot render economically to themselves as individuals. They are not oriented towards making profit for the government. Often, government provides unprofitable and costly services to the people. This can be premised on the ground that the ends of public administration are communal, while those of private business are personal.

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In other words, the main beneficiary of public administration activities is the entire community, whereas that of the business is the owner of the business himself (Niadu, 2006) While the private organization will ensure the maximization of profits that accrue to any activity it embarks upon, government organization may even subsidize their cost so as to make their services affordable to the public (Onah, 2005) Summarily, public administration pursues/fulfils non-economic and socio-political need/ends while private organizations are more or less profit oriented.

(3) Scope Of Operation The activities of business enterprises are of a limited range. These

characteristics contrast with those of the governmental administration of a state which has responsibility for external defense, external relations, the provision of currency, the maintenance of law and order within its territorial boundaries and overall economic and social well being of its citizens (Nwatu, 2007)

(4) Legal FrameworkPublic administration operates within a legal framework. Thus its

activities are fixed by a set of constitutional practices, laws, rules and regulations. Henceforth, public administration is established by degrees, status or acts of parliament, while private organizations are governed by company or commercial laws.

They cannot act outside the law, if they do so, their actions can be challenged in the courts of law grounds of ultravire.

These legal constraints on the actions of public officials account for the limited description enjoyed by them in discharging their duties.

(5) Measurability of Output: Because public administration pursues non-economic and

quantifiable objectives like law and order, political stability etc, it is difficult if not impossible to measure its efficiency. While the level of profitability is the parameter for measuring efficiency in private organization, since their output are economical and measurable.

(6) Methods of Operations: Managers of business organization exercise greater initiative in

decision taking and disposal and issues. Public administrations are

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criticized for their slowness in making decision and taking action that is red take. This may have to do with the accountability factor.(7) Aspirations Public administration implements public policies and satisfies collective aspirations. In contrast, business administration implements private policies and ministers to private corporate interest.

(8) Sources of Finance and AccountabilityPublic administration is financed from the public purse i.e. tax payers

money and as such is subjective to public accountability. Business administration for its part, relies on private funding from shares stocks bounds, bank loans, etc and to this extent is accountable only to its financiers.

(9) Control Public administration is controlled by rules and regulations

establishing it, and externally by the general public who are the principle owners. There are also checks by the various organs. of government on one another.

(10) Uniform Treatment:Public administration is expected to be consistent in procedure in

dealing with the public officials are not meant to show favour to some people in utter disregard for others. Private administration need not bother about uniformity. Public administration has well organized rules which are meant to be observed without sentiments or emotion. But in private administration rules can be changed depending on many factors (Obikeze, 2008)

(11) Cost of ServiceIn public administration, the public pays taxes for the provision of

services and therefore requires that the services rendered should be commensurable to the taxes they pay. In most cases, government budget is generally a deficit budget that is a situation in which expenditure exceed income. In private administration, income often exceeds expenditure.

The Similarity between Public and Private AdministrationIn spite of the above differences spotlighted between public and

private organizations, there are some existing similarities between the two.

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(1) Both public and private administrations are influenced by the changing needs of the society. In order words, they must adopt to changes in the environment on order to survive.

(2) Public and private administrations are interested in economic and socio-political matters, though their degree of interest varies.

(3) A good number of goals pursued by public administration can now be quantified as can be seen in the privatization of many government corporations like PHCN, NITEL etc in order to make profit.

(4) Both of them employ the same type of staff with the same academic and professional qualifications and experience.

(5) Such administrative problems as choice, motivation, loyalty, reward etc are similar to both.

(6) Both of them take place within formal bureaucratic organization. Rules are observed and there are hierarchy of officials with titles and authority for carrying out duties.

(7) Public and private administrations are governed by public, merartil and private laws. (Article of Association) as the case may be. Such laws are laws on the employment of woman and infants in factories and wines, the hours of works, minimum wages etc.

(8) Some large private organizations such as UAC and Cadbury often pursue political policies like public organization and consider public opinion and take political decisions protect their images. Sometime, they award scholarships in their areas of operations.

(9) It is a well-known fact that public administration stration is mainly involved in implementing public policies, but some of these policies may be private. It cannot claim non-chalant attitude just because the policy is private.

Administrative Processes Peculiar to Public AdministrationPublic administration is a distinct field of administration. There are

functions and processes peculiar to it and these are in addition to the general processes found in other areas of administration. The peculiarity arises out of the fact that public administration is the action part of the government. It is the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realized. Government is concerned with the general welfare and happiness of the people within its jurisdiction. It most be able to defend the state from both internal and external aggression. It must also be capable of

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protecting the lives and inhabitants of its people and setting internal disputes.

It must also be in the position to provide the necessary framework for a healthy and growing social and economic system.It must also be able to provide essential services, health, water, roads, electricity, education and the like which are indispensable to the welfare and happiness of the community.

Government must make regulations to protect persons and property against abusive and violence to collect taxes, control traffic and the like. To settle dispute and arbitrate between parties, it (the government) must negotiate and conciliate. The government must be engaged in balancing conflicting interests between groups and individuals. This it does through consultation, negotiation and compromise.

These in the aggregate form the pillar of the responsibilities of a government. These functions of regulating, conciliating, balancing, compromise, provision of service are the task of public administration. Regulatory functions involve the making of rules and regulation and issuing of policy directives. For the rational performance of these functions chene must be prior planning, and gathering of information and data. It is also importance to hold consultative with representatives of sectional groups and to reconcile conflicting interests and point of view. It is after this that rules, regulation and directive are issued by government.

These functions of conciliating, reconciling and balancing are peculiar to public administration. Administration in the private sector has no parallel with it. It is these peculiar functions which enables public administration to implant and embody the ideals and wishes of political office holders in control of policy. It is by these functions that they are able to advise ministers and help them to formulate policies, and also assist in carrying out such policies. In the task of a advising the ministers, the administrator has to combine technical advice and other consideration-political, financial, social and the like to balance the short term pressures against the longer term consequences. It is through this method that the administrator fairly and fully presents the relevant issues for decision.

The question of advising the Minister is very crucial and fundamental to the work of the administrator. There are many issues calling for decision affecting the public. It is really impossible for the minister himself to give the decision except in the most important cases. Even here the administrator must fully supply the relevant information and facts concerning the issue in question.

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Fundamental Issues in Nigerian Politics, Government and Development Administration: 112


CHAPTER ELEVEN

THE EFFICIENCY, EFFECTIVENESS AND ACCOUNTABILITY IN NIGERIAN PUBLIC SERVICE

Public enterprises in Africa, as well as in Latin America, were

basically established for development purposes as well as to play a leading role in the over all growth and development of the economy. Though, their

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performance is not some thing to write home about. In short, they have failed to perform the roles for which they were established (Ozor, 2004).

In other words, public enterprises of the developing countries have been characterized as inefficient red tape, unproductive, public enterprises in Nigeria are seen as constituting financial lose and burden on the government. Okongwu, Summarizes this when he stated that, public enterprises in Nigeria could be best described as an epitome of inefficiency and unproductively.

What is clear here is that public enterprises in Nigeria, is inefficient and ineffective sot this chapter would be devoted to examining the meaning of the concept efficiency and effectiveness.

The Concept of Efficiency and Effectiveness The Concepts “efficiency” and “effectiveness” go together in the

literature of organizations, many writers see them as the twin objectives of at purposive or organized activities, namely the achievement of objectives (effectiveness) at minimum cost (efficiency) (Ile 1999: 354). The two concepts, efficiency “and effectiveness” are used synonymously, since they are abstract measures of performance. Ekong (1980, 20) stated that, from a strictly comparative point of view, both (efficiency and effectiveness) are abstract measures of organizational performance. The two evaluate the conditions under, and the degree to which organizations are attaining their various goals. These concepts therefore provide useful indicators of the ability of an organization to survive in its environment.

Although, these concepts have much in common they do not mean the same thing so, we should at this juncture examine them separately.

The Concept of Efficiency The Oxford Dictionary’s defined efficiency as, fitness or power to

accomplish or success in accomplishing effectiveness, efficacy, Simon (1976,180) efficiency is simply defined as the ration of output (that is , total energy) expended.

In the words of Ekong (1980, 20) efficiency is the ratio between input and output, between efforts and result, expenditure and income and cost and the resulting pleasure.

The criterion of efficiency is relevant and useful when measuring the performance of commercial organization. Those are largely guided by the profit motive (Ezeani, 2005) further stated that emphasizes in such organization(s) is on the selection of alternatives and the minimization of

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cost. In commercial organizations, money is the common denominator in measuring output and income. (Simon, 1976)

In the public service and other social services where profit is not the main objective for establishing them, the criterion of efficiency becomes problematic. As rightly pointed out by Ekong (1780:19) “while productive efficiency in input- output terms in most profit – making and business organizations, such measure is general impracticable in non-profit-making organizations”.

Ezeani, summarized this when he said that, “the civil service and other non-profit making organizations perform some social service functions that cannot be used in measuring their performance.So we can rightly state here that efficiency concept is applied in eases where objectives, input effort result etc can easily be quantifiable.

The Concept of EffectivenessIn the words of Machine, (1973, 260) effectiveness refers to the

extent to which output is in line with organizational objectives. Ezeani, (2005) sees effectiveness as the extent to which an organization realized its goals. Organizational goals according to Etzion, (1964) are the destined state of affairs which the organization collectively attempted to realize,” such state of affairs, which the organization strives to realize, according to Ekong (1980) “constitutes an ideal, the progress” of the organization.

For us, effectiveness is simply the measure of the degree in which an organizational management achieves the objectives. Thus management effectiveness is then defined as how well and efficiently the managers of an enterprise in a given environment accomplish enterprise objectives and the efficiency is given by E = O/1, where E is efficiency, O is output and I is input.

Problems of Measuring EfficiencyAccording to Farmer and Richman, (1965) measuring the

efficiency encounters extremely difficult problems in measuring inputs and outputs. These are: (1) The uncertainty problem, since management decisions and practice

always deal with the future.(2) The problem of clearly defined Goals: since most goals are not

clearly defined.

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(3) The problem of resource mobility, since inputs such as labor and capital, cannot be easily shifted from one less profitable opportunities to more profitable ones.

(4) The problem of subsystem optimization since the conceptual ability and measuring techniques are seldom available to evaluate adequately the enterprise as a total system over time.

The Means of Measuring EfficiencyFarmer and Richman 1965 stated the means for measuring the

efficiency of a country or a firms operation. From the standpoint of a country they are:

(1) The level of real per capital Gross littoral product.(2) The rate of utilization of inputs (That is how well are labor, Capital

and land utilized)(3) The usability of outputs (are they needed, and how usable they are) (4) The rate of growth of real per capital Gross National product.(5) The level of competition (how much rivalry is there to force

entrepreneurs to be efficient.(6) The adequate and accuracy of planning (are outputs available for

unwanted and unneeded terms in some sections of the economy.From the standpoint of a firm, the following factors are the means

for ascertaining the efficiency of an individual firm. They are: (1) Profitability as measured by the return on net worth or an

asset employed.(2) How well the firm competes in the export market.(3) Output per employee.(4) The extent to which the firm utilizes its plant capacity.(5) The level of cost and prices where applicable and their

relationship to those of other firms.(6) The matter of long-run innovation and whether policy and actions

are optimizing short-range performance at the expense of long range performance or vice versa.

Inefficiency

Since efficiency is simply concerned with the measuring the ability of inputs to produce outputs or the relationship between performance and standard performance or between result and effort. Inefficiency is the failure of inputs to achieve desired outputs or the gap between actual performance and expected performance and between result and efforts.

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Basic Properties of InefficiencyFor proper understanding, Ejiofor (1981) discussed some

fundamental hypotheses, which would aid the understanding of concept inefficiency they are as follows.(1) The more developed a system the less inefficient are its subsystems.

Since a system is an assemblage of parts, recited in such a way that a change in one affects another, entire system cannot function efficiently. The inefficient parts would, before long, drag down the entire system or alternatively, the efficient parts will put pressure on the inefficient to increase its efficiency (Ile 1999: 388).

(2) The more developed a system, the higher the cost of the inefficiency of any of its subsystems. A power failure in a developed country where almost the entire life revolves around electricity would be more disastrous than a similar power failure in a rural area just recently electrified.

(3) In terms of the move towards development of the total system, a behaviour that is efficient in the short run may be inefficient in the long run.

(4) In a similar manner, a behaviour that is inefficient in the short run may be efficient in the long – run.

(5) An abnormally fast rate of growth of an economy induces inefficiency in some of its sub sectors. This arises since such a fast rate is typically powered by small sub sector, like oil in the OPEC countries (ile 1999).

(6) The higher placed individual the more he can be insulated from the inefficiency of the system in which he lives. In Nigeria, the rich can, and many easily insulate them selves from the inefficiencies of the school system by sending their children to private schools.

(7) Not only are highly placed official insulated from societal inefficiencies, but also “ for people of questionable integrity who are in the right “ (privileged) places, inefficiency is profitable “. The profitability reveals itself in the form of more money and power for the official. (ile 1999). In the long wait for delivery of cars already

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paid for, the long petrol queues, the huge bank crowd, etc. prospective consumers who are forced by such in efficiencies to postpone the satisfaction of their wants may tend to shorten the waiting time by making gifts or granting other favors to officials in the inefficient system.

(8) The higher the official, the more pivotal his position is to the welfare of this organization and therefore the greater his opportunity to gain at the expense of his organization.

(9) Since inefficiency leads to personal gains, a well – placed official of questionable integrity tends to have an interest in the inefficiency of his organization. Example a corrupt customs official would wish that the security at the ports remains porous.

(10) Inefficiency creates job opportunities. It creates jobs that provide services, which were to have been provided in a more efficient way by the inefficient system had it been working efficiently.

(11) The true cost of the failing of an inefficient system can be approximated by the total cost of providing, in a less efficient manner, the services it was set up to provide.

(12) Inefficiency also tends to be resilient it is very difficult tofight.

Classification of Inefficiency Ejiofor (1982) identified two basic categories of inefficiency: they

include: Deliberate and induced in-efficiency.

(A) Deliberate or Voluntary inefficiency: officials create this type of inefficiency deliberately for their selfish purposes. This can also be called primary inefficiency. Since this type of inefficiency is deliberate a worker who has a change of heart can on his own accord reduces or eliminates this type of inefficiency immediately (Ile, 1999: 362). This type of inefficiency can further be grouped into Greed- Motivated inefficiency and Retaliatory inefficiency.

(i) Greed - Motivated inefficiency: this type of deliberate inefficiency is initiated by get- rich officials who are bent on capitalizing on the fact that given the right circum stances, inefficiency makes the well – placed rich and powerful. A law

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enforcement agent that delays justice to induce the client into bribing him typified this inefficiency type. ( fle, 1999).

(ii) In this case the worker is deliberately inefficient and as a way of having his own back on an inefficient and corrupt society. A worker who shows down his pace of work because he perceives that he is not getting commensurate reward typifies this group.

(B) Induced or Involuntary Inefficiency: This situation the worker is efficient because someone else upstream or something else was inefficient. This type is inefficiency can further be classified into.

(i) Derived Inefficiency:This type of inefficiency occurs. This is clear when one considers the fact that, in any system, the output of one subsystem may be the input of another subsystem, which transforms into other output. Consequently, standard inputs tend to yield standard outputs.

(ii) Culture Induced Inefficiency: That type of inefficiency arises from the attitude that paid employment is white man’s work or not my father’s work, and it is therefore not worth exerting oneself in work performance.

(iii) Boss- Induced Inefficiency: This type of inefficiency exists when the boss himself is inefficient, gives bad example stile initiative and unwilling to control his subordinates.

(iv) Structured Inefficiency: This type of inefficiency results when the worker lacks the necessary physical and mental capabilities for his job due to inadequate education, training, experience or health.

(v) Structural- Induced Inefficiency: This type of inefficiency results from lack of or inadequate infrastructure. Like good office equipments, poor communication network, transport facilities etc.

(vi) Causes of Inefficiency in the public service: Adebayo (1981, 142-153) classified the causes of inefficiency into the following groups.(1) Institution factors (2) Political factor

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(3) Sociological and Attitudinal factor (4) Psychological and Attitudinal factor (5) Sociological factor.

(1) Institutional Factor: The following are compared as institutional factors:

(a) Faulty Employment Instating: One of the banes of the public service in Nigeria is the recruitment of mediocre or totally unsuitable candidates in preference to candidate of high merit. The selection of unsuitable candidates, which undermines efficiency and lowers performance in the public service, occurs in the recruitment of higher grades of staff. Even in the Appointment of Boards of director, committee members and commissioners are based of blood reactions and not qualification.

(b) Faulty Posting and Frequent Posting: A man’s capability can be best demonstrated in fields most familiar to him by training and experience. When you put a man on a job for which he has not got previous experience or background training, then it is asking to much to expect him to be master of that job immediately.

( c) Inadequate Training: Admittedly, efforts have been made to the report of improve of the training of the public officer, following 1972 public service Review Commission, which introduce a result – oriented approach to public service.

Notwithstanding, attention is focused on senior management training to the relative neglect many bosses in the public service do not appear to appreciate the purpose and value of staff training and development. The usual pretext for not recessing officials for training is that such officials cannot be spared to leave their desk and go for training, (Ile 1999: 369).

(d) Deterioration in Health.According to Ile (1999): perhaps because of domestic commitments and responsibilities of most Nigerian public officers, whose health has deteriorated to the point of permanent disability, they hold on

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and drag themselves to work, painfully laboring with their official assignment by day and collapsing on their backs after office hours.

(a) In Competent Superior.Some times, due to some flake or deficiency in the system, some incompetent officials climb to a high point of seniority, at which they have to direct and supervise the work of junior officials.

(2) Political Factors(a) Undue Advancement:

Political development has in Nigeria during the past years inadvertently brought in its wake a lowering of efficiency in the public services state creation, created many vacancies in each of the new, sates. The result was the sudden picking of people overnight into higher positions, which certainly have been the case in the normal course of events under the existing public service (Ile, 1999). This process created numerous new top positions, which had to be

filled by going down the list of staff and picking officials to assume higher responsibilities.

(b) Lack Of or Unhelpful Political Direction: Lack of good political culture contributes to the inefficiency in the Nigerian public service. Polities with bitterns and ethnicity would eventually cause frustration and confusion within the system. This situation, according to Ile, (1999: leads rapidly to impairment of efficiency. The administrator is always left in a quandary-he cannot follow up

and test the soundness of his views because they have been rejected by the minister.

(3) Sociological and Attitudinal Factors (False Reporting :)This is a dominant feature in the Nigerian public service. It is commonly found with the use of confidential reporting Head Department have beer known to write untrue confidential reports on their subordinates, giving to such subordinate merits and virtues that they did not possess. False reporting is rapidly taking over the organizations, especially the public sector organization, because of the following reasons according Ile, (1999: 374).

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(i) A reporting officer who has himself been guilty in conduct, unbecoming of an official in his position, and who knows that a certain subordinate official is aware of the conduct becomes afraid to write an adverse report on the subordinate in case he should turn round and expose him.

(ii) Some reporting officers are afraid of the social consequences that may allure if they write adverse reports on the subordinate who have strong social connections by birth, tribe or marriage.

(iii) Fear of blackmail and Physical EncountersSome timid Heads of departments who had no stomach for physical encounter with a subordinate whom they knew to be fierce and quarrelsome, sought peace of mind by avoiding writing the truth about the subordinate.

Although, the confidential reporting system has now been replaced with the Annual performance Evaluation Report Still the ills of the confidential reporting is even now more pronounced.

(4) Psychological and Attitudinal Factors This is common among the junior workers: the messengers, typists, cleaners, clerks, Laborers. All these categories of believe that government work in the hand of some nebulous and indefinable authority, whose work is never done or finished but continues until eternity. This is the corollary of the mentality of workers during the colonial regime, when government work was regarded as work in the service of the foreign white man over lords whose wealth was inexhaustible and whose work extended from year to year with out end (ILe, 1999).

(5) Sociological Factors.This is still another allied cause of deterioration of efficiency in the Nigerian public. This is a chronic habit of false declaration of age by some public offices. The average Nigerian wants to stay as long as possible in the public service in order to insure himself against want and penury in his advancing years.

Suggestions for Improving Efficiency

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It is clear from the discussions above that the public sector’s poor performance is basically on the lack of or inadequacy of efficiency or efficiency promoting techniques. So to ensure and upheld the level of efficiency in the public service, the following is strongly recommended.

(a) Need For a Defined Objective. Departments and agencies of government need to give conscious attention to aims and targets example the introduction and strictly applying the Management Techniques of Management By Objectives (MBO).

(b) Constant Review of Programs. For efficiency to be ensured and maintained, it is necessary that departmental programs, procedures and processes should be regularly reviewed.

(c)Need for Success Seeking Approach: The popular orientation towards avoiding mistakes is the greatest cause of inefficiency and lack of initiative in the public service the entire system is directed towards identifying faults and failures and the exposition of mistakes. This makes the public servants to approach the work with extreme caution; with this situation mistake avoidance becomes regarded as the equivalent of success.

It is clear that risk-taking is a constant element in business management, while public service must progressively move towards.(Ile, 1999: 383).(d) Adequate Use of Delegation.

Public service is too much dependent on hierarchy, and some hierarchies are too long to make for quick decision-making and efficiency in management. Inshort acute lack of efficiency in the public service is traced to lack of delegation.

(e) Marit Promotion.The public service system in Nigeria is not geared towards

rewarding merit. In other to promote efficiency, they should reward public officers who demonstrated outstanding initiative, courage, resourcefulness or merit.

Review Questions

(1) Define the concepts of efficiency and effectiveness

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(2) What are the properties of inefficiency

(3) Write on the Classifications of inefficiency(4) Make suggestions on ways of improving efficiency

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CHAPTER TWELVE

PUBLIC ENTERPRISES: THE MEANING AND NATURE Introduction:

The involvement and role of any Government in the development of a nation is very vital. Such involvement and role are imperative in the social and economic spheres of development. These are visible in the manufacturing and industrial sectors, the incorporation of corporation of

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companies, corporations and departments. These organizations involving the activity of the government are known as public Enterprises (PE). These organizations may be small, medium or large scale. (Olewe, 1995).

Such governmental involvement was necessitated by the world war 11, 1960s and early 1970s) which resulted in a massive intervention of the government in national economies. By establishing public enterprises (PEs), State-owned Enterprises (SOEs), the government intervened in the economies. According Ezeani; (2006) public enterprises were seen as veritable tool for achieving national socio-economic development.

The Second National Development Plan 1970-74 was aimed at stimulating and accelerating national development, with the state as the main actor.

The idea of government/state intervention in the economic activities of state has constitutional backing. The 1999 constitution of Nigeria empowers both the federal and state Governments to intervene in the economy as entrepreneurs. For instance Chapter 11 section 16 sub-section 1C) of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria state among other things:

“Without prejudice to the right of any person to participate in a given area of the economy within the major sectors of the economy… ‘Going further, section 16 sub-sections 4 (a) of the same constitution defines the term major sectors of the economy thus: These sectors shall be constituted as a reference to such economic activities as may from time to be declared by resolution of each house of the National Assembly. They are to be managed and operated exclusively by the government of the federation.

From the foregoing, it can be deduced that establishment of public enterprises in Nigeria has a constitutional backing i.e. government has a constitutional right to intervene in the operation and management of the major sectors of the economy:

Definition of Public EnterprisesAccording to Ozor (2004), there is no generally accepted agreement

among scholars with regards to the definition of public enterprises. The lack of general agreement among scholars emanated from the variations in the nature of public enterprises- their organization functions and control among countries. Consequently, these differences make it difficult for a universal definition without prejudice to the right of any person to participate in areas of the economy within the major sectors of the economy. ‘Going further section 16 subsections 4 (a) of the same

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constitution, defined the term major sectors of the economy thus: ‘ these sectors shall be constituted as a reference to such economic activities as may from time to time be declared by resolution of each house of the National Assembly to be managed and operated exclusively by the government of the Federation.

From the foregoing, it can be deduced that establishment of public enterprises in Nigeria has a constitutional backing i.e. government has a constitutional right to intervene in the operation and management of the major sectors of the economy. He elaborated on this while citing S.A Sosna.

There are many reasons why in developed capitalist countries there is no single standard definition of public Enterprises. Public enterprises are established at different periods, and each epoch naturally brought forth the type of public enterprises most clearly marching its own conditions.

To Caider, the problem of finding a generally acceptable definition of public enterprises is because the concept of development which they designed to promote has evoked difference images like, economic well-being, social well- being, social harmony cultural freedom etc. that definition largely depend on perspectives.

In the words of Leleye (2002), a public enterprises (PE) is an organization that is set up as a corporate body and as part of the governmental apparatus for an entrepreneurial or entrepreneurial-like organization that emerged as a result of government acting in the city of an enterprises (Asamolekwu 1982),

According to United Nations (1974) Publication, public enterprises are those enterprises “in which the government has majority interest of ownership and/ or management.

Another United Nations source (1968) defines public enterprises as industrial, agricultural and commercial concerns, which are owned and controlled by central government (in a unitary state) or the central government and regional government (in a federation)”.

Public enterprises, according to Irukwu, is defined as, “any organization institution or enterprises, which is operated under the auspices of the stat, either as a commercial concern or as an instrument of social welfare and service. To Gyang, public enterprises are “those autonomous bodies which are either fully or partly owned by government to provide by private finance. According to the New Encyclopedia Britannica, the term public enterprises denote an organization operating or supposed to be operating on commercial principles, wholly or partly owned and effectively controlled by public authority.

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S. A. Hanna, defined public enterprises as “those organizations that are controlled by the state and that carry out their activities on behalf, and under the authority, of the state, in accordance with the interest of the economy” Ozor, (2004) in his own contribution to the definition of public enterprises-stated that public enterprises meant institutions wholly or partly owned by the government, created outside the framework of civil service, to perform some vital development functions which the deficiencies of the public bureaucracy make incapable of understanding.

To us, public enterprises are those publicly – owned institutions, agencies or organizations run and controlled by the state apparatus for the development of the economy.

Features of Public Enterprises Various definitions of PE, as the rationale for:

A PE as an organization implies that it is an entity with explicit or implicit specific objective. Men money and material are supposed to be utilized in the pursuit of these objectives. In addition, as an organization. PE would be expected have its own internal power or authority structure and its own methods of operation.

A critical dimension of government involvement in a PE has to do with its financial commitment. The capital ownership does not have to be exclusively public. The government may only control the majority of the shares. Leaving other shareholders to hold the remaining shares.

As a corporate body, a PE has a legal personality separate from that of the government that establishes it. It can own property, enter into contracts, and sue and be sued. In recent developments across the SSA countries, this feature is being stressed as a key element of a PE. Consequently, departmental organizations, or regies in francophone parlance, are being surreptitiously accorded the corporate body status.

The entrepreneurial or entrepreneurial like objective connotes business orientation. However, this should not be equated with profit making. The experience in many countries indicates that the aim is to promote efficiency. Cost consciousness, and cost deduction.

The implications of the fact that a PE is part of the government apparatus are numerous. Three of these implications should be highlighted. First a PE is by virtue of its intricate relationship with government an instrument of public policy its primary mission is in

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connection with governmental objectives and programs and is therefore naturally under governmental control. Second by its nature a PE mostly utilizes or manages public resources especially public money. This that attention must be paid to mechanisms for enforcing accountability. Third the combination of financial and economic objective with social and political aims invariably makes it difficult to devise appropriate performance measurement instruments

Resorting to the establishment of an entirely distinct organization is predicated on the need to borrow a leaf from private enterprises organization: This stance is based on the assumption that some private enterprise principles and practices (e.g. commercial law and management practices, can be transferred into public management with positive consequences for performance. Laleye (2002), cited Ozor, (2004) listed the main features and

implications of public enterprises thus: A PE as an organization implies that it is an entity with explicit

specific objectives. Men, money, and materials are supposed to be utilized in the pursuit of those objectives. In addition, an organization, a PE would be expected to have its own internal power or authority structure and its own methods of operation.

A critical dimension of government involvement in a PE has to do with its financial commitment. The capital ownership does not have to be exclusively public. The government may only control the majority of the shares, leaving other stakeholders to hold the remaining shares.

As a corporate body, a public Enterprise has a legal personality separate from that of the government that establishes it. It can own property, enter into contracts, and be sued. In recent developments across the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries, this feature is being stressed as a key element of a public Enterprise. Consequently, departmental organizations, or agencies in francophone parlance, are being surreptitiously accorded the corporate body status.

The entrepreneurial or entrepreneurial-like objective connotes a business orientation. However, this should not be equated with profit making. The experience in many countries indicates that the aim is to promote efficiency, cost-consciousness, and cost reduction.

The implications of the fact that a public Enterprise is part of the government apparatus are many. Three of these implications should be highlighted. First, a public Enterprise is, by virtue of its intricate relationship with government, an instrument of its intricate relationship

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with government, an instrument of public policy; its primary mission is in connection with government control Second, by its very nature, a public Enterprise mostly utilizes or manages public resources especially public money, This means that attention must be paid to mechanisms for enforcing accountability. Third, the combination of financial and economic objectives with social and political aims invariably makes it difficult to devise appropriate performance measurements where profit or losses are not invoked indicating good or bad performance; there are no easy answers to this question.

Resorting to the establishment of an entirely organization is predicated on the need to borrow a left from private enterprise organization and management. This stance is based on the assumption that some private enterprises’ principles and practices (e.g. commendable law and management practices be transferred to public management with positive consequences for performance.

Characteristics of Public EnterprisesPublic enterprises are sometimes called quasi-governmental

agencies. The extent of government ownership and management vary from country to country, and even within the same country. Despite this glaring disparity, the following can be said to be the characteristics of public enterprise. (i) Legal Existence

Public enterprises are corporate bodies that are established by a statute or company law so can sue and be sued i.e. it has a legal personality.

(ii) Ownership Government wholly or partially owns public enterprises.

(iii) AutonomyPublic enterprises are generally restricted to their field of operation or activity,

(iv) Policy-making OrganThe policy-making organ of public enterprises always resides in the Board of Directors and its daily activities executed by public servants.

(v) Supervision

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Public enterprises are always under the supervision of a Government Ministry

(vi) Finance As a result of the report of the Technical Commune on privatization and commercialization in Nigeria, most public enterprises are expected to pay their way/ financially (self financing), and also raise loans. According to Adamolekun (1983), because of the vague manner

with which the term public Enterprises is used in many countries including Nigeria, some students of Public Administration has three broad categories as follows. 1. Statutory Enterprises

These are enterprises that are established by specific statutes, which contain provisions relating to finance and personnel among other things. Statutory Enterprises is further classified into: Table 2.1 Classification of Statutory Enterprises

(a) Public Utility Enterprises.

(b) Development and Finance Enterprises

(c) Welfare and Social Service Enterprises.

Nigerian ports Authority.

Nigerian Industrial Development Bank.

Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria

Nigeria Electric Power Authority now (PHCN)

Central Bank of Nigeria.

Nigeria Television Authority.

Nigerian Railway corporation.

Enugu State Agricultural Development Project

Federal Housing Authority.

Nigerian National petroleum Corporation.

Federal Mortgage Bank.

Enugu State Library

Nigerian Telecommunication Ltd.

Enugu State Rural Federal/ State Health Management Board.

Nigerian Film Corporation

Nigerian River Basins Development Authority.

Federal/State Scholarship Board.

Source: Adamolekun, Ladipo (1983), Public Administration in Nigeria: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspective

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2. State-Owned Companies: These are enterprises that operate under the same company laws that regulate the functioning of private sector enterprises even though they are fully owned by governments. Examples of state Owned Companies are:

(i) Delta Steel Company Limited. (ii) Peugeot Authority Nigeria Limited. (iii) Nigeria Hotels Limited. (iv) Kogi Consumer Shops Limited. (v) Enugu State Transport Company etc.

3. Mixed-Economy Enterprises These are enterprises that are established jointly by the government

as a senior partner (i.e. with majority ownership) with private enterprises. Examples of Mixed-Economy Enterprise in Nigeria are the national oil, United Bank for Africa Plc. Union Bank Plc and Agip Plc etc.

When the classification of the Nigerian public enterprises was subjected to academic analysis, Adamokun (Op.Cit.) is of the view that ‘the above classification is no more than an attempt to structure the discussion of the variety of organizations that come under the umbrella term of public Enterprises as several sources of confusion still persist; This means for example that in Nigeria, the legal distinction between, an enterprises established by statute and another established under Company Law is not constantly respected in the classification of enterprises. Thus, for example, the Nigerian Industrial Development Bank, a bank established to promote industrial development is an enterprise established for identical purposes is registered under company law as a state owned Company. Hence, it must be emphasized here that the classification attempted above is specifically related to concrete realities of the Nigerian experience. Indeed, with the privatization and commercialization exercises in Nigeria, most of these enterprises have undergone serious structuralization that has, affected their classification.

Justification for Public Enterprises The case for the establishment of public enterprises has often been

made on many groups among which are the following: 1. The paucity or in some cases absence of indigenous private sector

that can undertake to provide certain infrastructural facilities particularly in services requiring heavy financial investment e.g.

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railway electricity, ports and harbour airways et cetera Under such circumstance direct government control may be required to ensure that prices are not set above the costs of providing such services

2. Establishment of public enterprises by the state enables it to pursue objectives relating to social equity which the market would ignore notable among which is preventing “the concentration of wealth or he means of production, and exchange in the hands of few individuals, or of a group (Quoted in Adamolekun, 1983.48) Others are provision of employment and ensuring that a great majority of the citizens have access to essential goods and services at an affordable price.

3. Paucity and sometimes lack of private incentives to engage in promising economic ventures due to factors such as uncertainty about the size of local markets unreliable sources of supply and the absence of technology and skilled labour (Obadan, 2000:6)

4. The need to ensure government control over “strategic” sectors of the economy such as central banking, broadcasting iron and steel international air transport shipping et cetera (Adamolekun. 2002:35)

5. State control of key profitable enterprises enables it to generate revenues that will add to available national capital for financing development programs and projects.

6. State ownership of some enterprises is seen as a means of employment creation in a situation where the private sector of the economy offers very limited employment opportunities.

Public Enterprises (PEs) in Nigeria: Origin, Growth and Development According to Ozor, in many developing countries like Nigeria,

ideology has not played so much significant role in the shaping of the economic activities and thanking. The major factors responsible for the rapid spread of enterprises are found mostly in the realms of infrastructural, social and economic considerations. So public Enterprises in Nigeria as in other developing countries are development oriented in nature.

The primary purpose for the Nigeria’s Second National Development Plan (1970-74) was to stimulate and accelerate national economic development under conditions of capital scarcity and structural defects in private business organization.

Henceforth, the public enterprises in Nigeria as well as in other developing countries became active in the sectors such as manufacturing,

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construction, finance service, utilities transportation, agriculture natural resources, etc.

As a matter of fact, public enterprises in Nigeria are a colonial heritage, Ozor (2004) stated that: that “At independence, Nigeria inherited weak infrastructural base which could not support effective post-independence development and expectations. This issue was aggravated by the fact that the indigenous private sector was extremely weak, small and backward”.

Consequently the federal government and the regional governments at that time had to establish lot of public enterprises to aid the economic development of the nation. In line with this situation, Malaya of the African Development Bank observed thus, “African governments had to assume a greater role in the development of their economies in order to consolidate their political independence, to maintain control over national resources and foreign enterprises which tended to be monopolized and to rescue falling once so as to preserve jobs and to ensure provision of essential services”

Similarly, public enterprises are intended to become the motor to accelerate both social and economic development through the provision of the much-needed infrastructural base and essential social services.

The Origin, Development and Growth of Nigerian Public Enterprises

OriginThe origin of the public organizations dates back to the colonial

era: the colonial Nigeria was occasioned, according to Ozor,(2004), by the eighteenth century Industrial Revolution in Europe. The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century, led to the saturation of European market with manufactured goods, resulted from the increased output and the consequent exhaustion of raw materials available in Britain and Europe, led to the scrabble and partition of Africa. In sum, the colonization exercise in Africa was economically oriented.

Then following the capitalist orientation of minimum input and maximum output, the Nigeria colonial government established some public organizations, having as their main purpose, the preservation and protection of British interest. Ake, captured this when he stated that “following the capitalist rationality of minimum input for maximum output, the colonizers invested only in what they had to, and where they had to”. Although Britain was not initially prepared to spend her resources in the development of her colonies, she was compelled to embark on the provision of some

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infrastructure without which the colonial exploitative policies would not have been accomplished.

The Growth and Development of Public Enterprises in NigeriaOzor,(2004), identified and grouped the processes of the

development and growth of public enterprises in Nigeria into four phases. They are:(a) Phase i: The colonial foundation) period (1900- 1960)(b) Phase ii: Independent (Consolidation) period (1960-1970)(c) Phase iii: Oil Boom (Expansion) period (1970- 1980)(d) Phase iv: Economic Recession. Privatization and massive

corruption Period (1980-)

Phase I: Colonial Period 1900- 1960 In order to tap the raw materials badly need by the British people

and also to create a good market for their finished products, the British Nigerian government established some public organization or enterprises in Nigeria. The colonial public enterprises were established in Nigeria to serve the interest of the colonizers and means of evacuating raw materials from the centers where they are produced to the coast for onward transportation to Europe. As Ake(1991) rightly observed, “the colonizer could not exploit the colony’s wealth at no cost at all. In some cases” the extraction of the colony resources entailed some investment in the infrastructural development- roads, water resources, railways electric power, and administrative structures”.

It was under that condition that the nucleus of the Nigerian public enterprises emerged. Some of the enterprises that was established during the colonial era include:

(a) The Nigerian Railway Corporation, established 1955(b) The Kano – Apapa railway was built to facilitate the collection of

cotton, groundnuts and cocoa for export.(c) The Enugu – Port Harcourt line was built to serve the oil trade.(d) The Nigerians port Authority, established in 1954.(e) The Nigerian Airways established in 1957.(f) The Enugu coal mine established in 1911.

Due to lack of Nigerian interest on the part of colonizers, the public enterprises established at the time of independence, were not well articulated to ensure much needed development of the Nigerian economy. This formed the Genesis of the problems of lack of coordination and

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articulation of the Nigerian Public enterprises and the consequential poor efficiency, ineffectiveness and poor accountability characterizing the management of public enterprises in the developing countries in general and Nigeria in particular.

Striking the same direction, while commenting on the nature of colonial railways, Claude Ake (1991), observed: “they were built ad hoc according to the metropolitan interest of the moment and the availability of funds. Michael Crowder sums up the chaos of railway development “the railways were all directed to the coast, with no links between; of different gauges, so that a rationalization of the railway system of West Africa today is impossible”.

Phase II: Independence. Period (1960 – 1970)The disarticulated colonial public enterprises were at independence

inherited by the Nigerian government. Then the Nigerian government realized that her political and independence could not effectively match her economic independence and that economy lacked a home base; also the lack of strong local capitalists to carry out the economic development of the country. In addition to lack of fund and personal, the Government being the only institution that could afford all if takes to bring about the much-needed development had to embark on the establishment of public enterprises.

Recognizing this fact, Ben Turok stated that: “The newly independent third world countries found that their political capacities were not matched by economic power and that they were indeed firmly in the grip of neo- colonialism yet, nationalism had not spent its force and many states set about resorting to state interventions of all kinds to increase their hold over the national economy. The measures led every where to the emergence of a kind of mixed – economy with large state sector consisting of the major industrial and mining enterprises”

In the view of Joseph Lapalombara: “The reasons for heavy public or governmental involvement in the phenomena of economic, social and political changes are as myriad as the kind of development actually underway. In many places, government is the only significant social sector willing to assume the responsibility for transformation”. The government (bureaucracy) husbands the vast majority of whatever necessary professorial, technical and entrepreneurial resources that may be available for a society to change.

These situations made the immediate post- independence Nigerian government to adopt the existing public enterprises established by the

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colonial government, and also expanded and develop them, and also introduced new ones.

In summary, both the Federal and Regional governments of Nigeria became involved in the race to bring the much-needed development, by adopting the colonial public enterprises and equally establishing new ones where they do not exist.

Phase III: Oil Boom period (1979- 1980).The failure of the first development plan with regards to the

development of vibrant economy with a dominant private sector which was necessitated by the weakness of the indigenous entrepreneurs and the mechanization of the foreign powers, made the government to change its policy from that of seeking the private sector as the main engine of development, through the use of public enterprises (Ozor 2004).

With this second National Development plan, the purpose of public enterprises became that of stimulating and accelerating national development under the conditions of capital security and structural defects in the private business organizations. In attempt to give the economy a home base public enterprise that is supposed to be seen as an instrument of promoting the development of an economy, is now the main engine of growth. It has been said that, at independence Nigeria government noticed that her political independence needed to be matched with economic independence coupled with the fact that there is no indigenous capitalist to take the task of transforming the economy, the government has to come in since that is the institution that occupy the commanding height of the resources (both human, material and financial)

Due to the fact that the economy was very buoyant during the period under study, in other words, huge revenues from crude oil characterized the period, the inherited public enterprises were expanded and new ones were created during this period.Phase IV: The Economic Recession (Privatization and Massive corruption) period (1980)

During this phase, the tempo with which public enterprises were expanded and consolidated started to wane. This was because, during this period, the gap between the revenue and costs of these enterprises continued to widen and, in many cases, losses started to appear. Government blamed the poor performance of the public enterprises on managerial inefficiency but, on the other hand, the chief executives of these enterprises tried to explain it in terms of intrusive government policies and obstructive controls, which, of course, were easily discernible. There was

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also blatant massive corruption visible everywhere, including between both sides to the dispute.

However, prior to this period, given the oil revenues, it was for the Nigerian government to conveniently absorb this gap between the revenues and costs of these enterprises as well as their losses by subsidizing them were it not for their profligate spending and widespread corruption. Again, the number and sizes of the public enterprises were small during the early 1970s and which made losses relatively insignificant in view of the bulging oil revenues of that period. Indeed, this inconsistency with regard to the revenues and costs was sustained because the oil sector effectively replaced the public enterprise sector as the main engine of growth during the 1970s. The decline in oil revenues, which occurred during this period, therefore, brought the lapses and the financial burdens of the public enterprise as an engine of growth for the first time on the government.

In recent years, Nigeria’s oil export began to fall causing a dramatic change in government fiscal posture from that of 1.9 million naira surplus in 1975, to that of 1.4 million naira deficit in 1976. By 1983, government budget had grown to 4. 4 billion naira. It had become clear that oil was no longer a reliable source of development funding. As a result, attention is now directed at intensifying efforts to raise revenues from internal and non-oil sectors. As a part of this drive, the poor financial performance of public enterprises which have now become numerous and large in size, came into direct focus (Ozor 2004)

In relation to the state of the Nigerian economy, which made the inefficiency of the public enterprises open and, therefore, vulnerable to attacks and mutations for their eventual privatization, Shamsuddeen Usman, maintained that “this was triggered off by the collapse of the world market price as well as the decline in the volume of crude oil exports; there was worldwide economic recession giving rise to glut in the world market for crude oil. Nigeria depends almost completely on the export of crude oil for foreign exchange earnings”. 15

In other words, the continued deterioration of government fiscal fortunes made government reverse its policy of using public enterprises as an engine of growth and development. This was partly because of their poor performance and partly because of the general poor state of the Nigerian economy. It was this situation that made ex-president Ibrahim Babangida introduce the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in Nigeria, in which privatization was one of its major cornerstone components. It was in this way that public enterprises in Nigeria grew and developed until the present

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stage when the trend reversed to that of privatization and commercialization.

The extent any organization or enterprise achieves the set objectives (co-operate) depends on the organizational structure and management technique adopted by the organization. Put differently, organizations effectiveness and efficiency, is a function of organizational structure and management techniques adopted. In line with this Ozor (1994:49) stated that:

“In order to achieve the objective of any modern organization, its staff or workers must be assigned specific positions with specific roles which should be clearly defined so that they, and others, know their functions. This is known as division of labour. It therefore, follows that their aptitude, talents, skills and other qualities should be taken into account if they are to meet the requirements of efficient management on the one hand and effective administration, on the other. Basically, this is the aim of scientific management in structuring an organization, and it is very basic and relevant to the efficient management of public enterprises in Nigerian.”

Alert to this situation, Burnharm and Barnbeu (1960) stated that, “organizational structures illustrate the span of control of each managerial position and most important of all, it enables the ultimate principle of organization to be observed”. Speaking in the same direction, Nwachukwu, (1988) observed that, “Sound organizational structure involves division of activities into departments, units and sub-unit, defines relationships between the heads and members that make – up the units.

Henceforth, the organizational structure of any undertaking /enterprise has great relevance to its efficiency, because it deals with the essential elements in organization, eg, division of labour, power relationships, responsibility, specialization, and inter-dependence of the parts of the system.

The Structure and Organization of Nigerian Public Enterprises The internal structure of Nigerian public enterprise varies from one

enterprise to another. However, our discussion here would be focused on the fundamental features of structuring and organizing public enterprises in Nigeria.They include:

(1) Board of Directors

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According to M.A Tokumboh (1990) “There is agreement that modern business which brings into venture a number of joint owners, some of whom or possibly all with unlimited liability, the establishment of a board of trusted men to run or oversee the operation on behalf of the owners become unavoidable. In our context, the legal development of this practice is found in the Acts vesting public corporations and private companies. In respect of public corporations, there is usually a provision for boards”.

The board of directors is at the apex of the organizational structure of public enterprises. According to Ezeani (1996) the board of directors is among the principal actors in the management of public corporations. The board of public enterprises plays a key role in its management. The board is appointed by the government from within and outside government circles.

Functions of the Board:Olewe, (1995) stated the functions of the board as:

1. To represent the inertest of the investors2. To serve as the top level policy-making body within the enterprise3. To make such policies which deal with board matters like investment, performance, surplus, (profit appropriations, future development, etc.) For Tokumboh (1990): government-owned companies are governed by the companies Act, 1968. Under these provisions, it is mandatory for every registered company to have a board of at least two directors. Charged with the following duties:(a) To manage the business of the company;(b) To appoint the managing director;(c) To delegate any of their power to a committee of members of the

board of vest all their power in one or more of their body as managing directors. Adamolekun (2004) stated the functions of the board as:

(a) Formulation of polices for the public enterprises, within the framework of board government policies and priorities.(b) Approval of public enterprises budget, monitoring of its

performance, and protection of its management from encroachments of sectional interest.

Emphasizing the position of the board in the public enterprise, management, Ezeani (2006) summarized thus, “the performance of a public enterprise is, therefore to a large extent dependent on the quality of its board”.

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Types of Board (a) Policy Board:

A policy board is that which may have one or two members who are responsible for the management of the enterprise. It is composed of mostly persons from outside the organization with the chief executive as the only internal board member. The Policy Board according to Ezeani (2006) is more widespread than the executive board.

(b) Functional/ Executive Board:

A functional board is composed of members each responsible for a specific management area of the enterprise. Put differently, the functional/executive board is composed of mostly persons who are heads of major unit of the organization with the chief executive as the chairman. There are mostly few outside members appointed to represent the outside interests in the board. Example of Public Enterprise with executive board is Nigerian Railway Corporation. (NRC)

The Size and Composition of the BoardIt is important to note that the size and composition of the board

vary from one country to another as well from one public enterprise to another. The size of the board usually ranges from a minimum of five to a maximum of about twenty-five members. “Generally, the size of the board of any enterprise depends on its scope and strategic importance within the economy” (Adamolekum, 2004) Also, the tenure of the board membership varies from one country to another ranging from two to six years and can be renewed (Adamolekun 2004).

The members of the board are appointees of the state or federal government as the case may be. (2) The secretary to the Board:

The secretary is an appointee of the board, though, erroneously, the secretary is regarded as a member of the board. The board appoints the secretary, determine it’s remuneration and other such conditions as may be deemed fit. And has the power to dismiss the secretary.

Functions: Secretary takes the minutes of the meetings of the board members

at times with the help of his minute’s clerk. He summons meetings in consultation with the board chairman and performs other functions as may

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be assigned to him by the board. According to Ozor (2004) the secretary does not dabble but only liaises with day-to-day activities of the management.

(3) The General ManagerThe general manager is next in the board of directors in the

authority structure of the enterprises. It is the overall head of management and co-ordinates the activities of the heads of various departments with the organizational enterprise.

As Ezeani (2006) put it, “The General Manager supervises the actual operational functions of the public enterprises; He usually possesses professional knowledge of one or more areas of the corporation’s operations. The general manager is appointed by the board of directors. The board may delegate also certain of its powers to the general manager though with some instructions”. Thus, the general manager oversees the day-to-day business of the enterprises (Ozor, 2004).

Since the performance of the enterprise depends on the effectiveness and efficiency of the general manager, several deputies and assistants who are in charge of various divisions and sections of the public enterprise usually assist the general manager.

(4) Administration Department:This is the centre of all activities as well as an indispensable unit of

any organization. It is concerned with the day-to-day routine administration of the enterprise. (Ozor, 2004), the administration department is headed by the administrative manager; the administration department is made up of sections for effectiveness and efficiency. They are (i) General administration(ii) Security section/unit(iii) Public relations section/unit

(i) General Administration:This is concerned with the general aspect of the administration e.g. mails-incoming and out-going correspondence to and from the enterprise the general administration unit is headed by an administrative officer.

(ii) Security Section/UnitA chief security officer who is responsible to the administrative

manager heads this unit. The security section is charge with the responsibility of ensuring the safety of the property of the enterprise.

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Experience shows that the security units of our public enterprises in Nigeria as well as in other developing countries are not adequately discharging their responsibility of ensuring safety of property of the enterprises.

Supporting that view, Ozor, (2004) stated that “However, experience has shown this section does not effectively protect the property of the enterprise as evidenced by incessant cases of missing property pilfering, and cannibalization, rampart in most public enterprises organization in Nigeria.”

(iii) Transport SectionThe transport officer who also reports to the administrative

manager heads this unit/section. This section is made up of drivers, mechanics and technicians and their mates as its main personnel.

The transport unit/section has as it’s responsibility the transporting of all the materials needed by the enterprises – raw materials from outside to the enterprises or finished products from the organization to the outside (Ozor, 2004)

(iv) Public Relations Section/Unit This is the unit of the public enterprises that deals with the public –

the distributors, suppliers, consumers etc. A public relations officer heads the department. The public relations unit is the image-maker of the enterprise, and handles matters that might affect the image of the enterprise and publicizes its activities to the outside world. (Ozor 2004).

5. Personnel Department The personnel department is headed by the personnel manager, and

charged with the responsibility of recruitment, training/orientation, and placement of staff, as well as staff development and welfare. It equally develops and formulates employee welfare policies and programmes and ensures their effective implementation. Finally, it takes intra-and inter-staff relation within and outside the enterprise.

6. Accounts DepartmentAn accountant heads this department. The department is

responsible for all the financial transactions, which include accounting, revenue collection, control and disbursement of funds. The position of the

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accounts department in the general life of any organization is indispensable. In other words, financial management is necessary for the survival of any organization.

7. Production/Engineering/Works Department For enterprise that is into production, production manager, Chief

Engineer in the works department for the enterprise that offers only services, heads this department. This department has the responsibility for carrying out the actual production of whatever the enterprise produces.

8. Marketing/Commercial/DepartmentAt the head of this department is the marketing manager for goods

and commodity producing enterprise, and commercial manager for enterprises that produce services e.g. radio stations, marketing boards etc.

The department markets finished products of the enterprise including service, namely – distribution, advertising, sales promotion. It equally draws an effective and efficient marketing, strategy and planning for the products.

An Organigram of a Typical Public Enterprise in Nigeria

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BOARD OF DIRECTORS

POLICY MAKING

GENERAL MANAGER MANAGEMENT

ADMINISTRATION DEPARTMENT

ACCOUNTS DEPARTMENT

PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT

MARKETING/COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT

GENERAL ADMINISTRATION, PERSONNEL, PUBLIC RELATIONS, SECURITY, TRANSPORT ETC.

ACCOUNTS & FINANCE, REVENUE COLLECTION, ACCOUNTING, DISBURSEMENT, ETC.

STAFFING, RECRUITMENT, PROMOTION, ETC.

GENERAL SALES,PROMOTION OF SALES & ADVERTISEMENT

PRODUCTION


Source: Ozor (2004)

Forms/Types of Organizational Structure The two forms of organizational structure are:

(a) Integrated or Departmental systemIn a departmental system, related activities operating in the same

general field are grouped together into departments maintaining close relations with each other. The line of authority runs from the service to the department and from the department to the chief executive.

(b) Uncorrelated or Independence SystemThis system is characterized by the treatment of each service or

agency as an independent unit not related to other services. The line authority runs from it to the chief executive or the legislature.

Bases of Structuring OrganizationThere are four bases of structuring organization according to

Luther Halsey Gulick (1937:15) as citied in Olewe (1995:281) are: it is good to note that these bases are called the 4 Ps of organization or departmentalization.

1. Purpose: This is structuring of organization by grouping the major functions or goals of an organization or the major objectives to be performed.

2. Process: Process is identified with techniques, profession, skill or specialization. It involves the use of some knowledge. It is not quite easy to differentiate between process and function (Olewe 1995).

3. Person: This principle relates to welfare or the use of skills by members of the department to cater for the society or community or for most of needs of the group served.

4. Place: The place where the job is done or the service or function perfumed may be the basis of a department. A region or an area may have peculiar problem, which lends it a distinctive character.

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This distinctive feature may attract favorable treatment from other areas (Olewe 1995).

Benefits for structuring organization Olewe (1995) stated the advantages of structuring public/private organization as: - That is the advantages of formalized organizations.1. It Provides a Clear and Concentrated Source of Administrative

Authority: Departmental form of organization provides a clear and concentrated source of administrative authority. It provides the means by which legislature is able to exercise an effective control of its operations.

2. It leads to simplification of governmental operation: The functions of a modern government are vast, varied and complicated; it is difficult to have a conception of the scope of governmental operations and the agencies performing them in the absence of an integration of related activities within the same area of service.

3. It Ensures Better Utilization of Facilities: Structuring of organizations leads to a better utilization of certain facilities such as libraries, laboratories, etc. Unlike the uncorrelated system where every agency maintains its own complete organization.

4. It Ensures Better Control Over Funds: Funds allocated to a department do not get siphoned from the consolidated fund of the federation or that of the state. The surplus also earned by the enterprises automatically goes into this fund.

5. It Ensures Avoidance of Conflicts: Structuring of organizations, public enterprises in particular, helps to avoid or reduce conflict of jurisdiction, overlapping of functions, and duplication of organization, plans and activities.

6. It Ensures Efficiency and Economy in the Performance of Activities: Organizational structure ensures efficiency and economy in the performance of institutional or house keeping services. It promotes the unification and standardization of administrative process.

7. It Ensures a High Degree of Public Accountability: The departmental form of organization ensures high degree of accountability especially in the public sector organization where the

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management objectives may at times differ from the co-operative objectives.

According to Olewe, “The departmental system of organization should be uni-functional. This implies that:(a) All those services whose operation fall within the same field

should be included in the department; and (b) No other services should be included in that department.

Problems of Structuring Organization The following are the disadvantages of structuralization or

departmentalization as:1. It Interjects Discordant And Disturbing Elements: Departmental

form of organization interjects discordant and disturbing elements, which complicate and render difficult the proper co-ordination of the services having to do with departments essential function and the standardization of other administrative practices and procedures.

2. It makes demand upon the attention and times: The departmental system makes demand upon the attention and time of the head of department, which should be devoted exclusively to this primary duty.

3 It subjects the Administrative Agency Ineffective: The departmental system subjects the administrative agency to the control of a head that does nothing towards its effective operation.

Administration and Management of Public Enterprises Administration and management is significant instrument for

successful accomplishment of objectives, be it in the public or private organization. As organizations increase (modern) complexities and also environments keep multiplying in complexity, the need for modern effective and efficient management and administration become imperative.

The government, has not only entered very actively in business but also is exerting every effort to ensure the elimination of fallouts, via effective and efficient management and administration. The central goal of management and administration is to improve and encourage people’s participation in the achievement of objectives.It is very obvious that organization pubic or private is a collection of people and their resources for the attainment of common purpose or goal. Then,

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that every development programme, project or policy has an objective to be achieved.

That the achievement of the development objectives requires effective citizen participation cannot be over-emphasized. We should here examine the two concepts clearly: Administration, what is it:

The term Administration according to Olewe B.N. (1995) is derived from the Latin word “ad” and “ministries”, meaning to care for or to look after people, to manage affairs. Administration is a process which permeates all functional areas or collective effort, be it public or private, large scale or small scale, hence of universal nature. Adebayo (1989) refers to administration, as the organization and direction of persons in order to accomplish a specified end”.

To Simon (1947) it is the activities of group’s co-operation to accomplish common goals.

In the words of Presthus (1962) administration is an activity or process concerned with the means for caring out prescribed ends.

Stephen P. Robbins (1985) sees it as the universal process of efficiently getting activities completed with end through other people. That is the process of planning; organizing, leading and controlling that takes place to accomplish the objectives.

Balogun (1983) made an elaborate definition of administration thus:

“We shall regard as administrative, any action that is directed to the analysis of polices, the identification of points and to a substantial degree, the implementation of programmes as well as the efficient allocation of resources in addition to all these calculated decisions. A typical administrative action takes into consideration the enduring and the goals of the organizational need as the environment within which the action takes place.”

To Obikeze et al (2004) Administration is the process of coordinating, mobilizing group activities, combining and harmonizing mobilized effort to achieve organizational goals. It is the conscious, rational and deliberate application of prudent behaviors based on ration principles to direct, coordinate, control, motivate and channel the activities of others to attain a particular goal.

For us here, administration is the total and elaborate processes and activities required for adequately mobilizing an effective and efficiently utilization of organization’s resources so as to achieve the goals and

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objectives of the organization. It could be equally seen as the rationalized activities and process of effectively and efficiently achieving the goals of an organization or group of people.

In short, administration is required or is inevitable in any given situation where a piece of work has to be done, and this piece of work requires the efforts of more than one person to accomplish. So, one can as well state that, administration is the process of coordinating people and resources, so as to achieve a planned objective or goals. It is a deliberate, plan and rational process.

Definition of Management“Management” is the executive function that concerns itself with

the carrying out of the administrative policies laid down by administration. Management can be looked at as a process and as well as people. As people it means those in an enterprise who do things through and with people. That is the management team. As process it is those processes of utilizing, and mobilizing organization’s resources of man, material and money for the accomplishment of objectives.

In line with this Obikeze et al (2005) see management as a process of combining and utilizing or allocating, organizational input-man, material and money, by planning, organizing, directing and controlling for the purpose of producing output (objectives) desired by customers so that, the organizational objectives are accomplished.

To Nwandu, et al, (2000) management is the employment and application of both human and material resources to achieve the objectives of an organization most economically. In the words of Johnson and Raye, (1975) management is the people responsible for directing and running of an organization. To him management is the group of people who manage and coordinate the activities of an organization for the purpose of achieving preset goals.

According to Olewe (1995) “Management is the function in industry concerned in the execution of policy, within the limits set up by the administration and employment of the organization for the particular objectives set before it. Management is a ‘lower-level’ function, which relates to the implementation of the policies and directing operations to attain the objective laid down by administration and therefore, a Doing function. Then, management is subordinate to Administration.

This is represented diagrammatically in the figure below, as stated by Dr. S.C Saksena, (1987) citied by Olewe (1994).

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The relationship between Administrative and managerial functions are illustrated diagrammatically in figures 1.1 and 1.2.

Obikeze et al, (2004) draw the differences between administration and management in tabular form; thus:

Tabular Distinction Basis of Distinction

Administration Management

1. PolicyDetermination

Administration is concerned with policy-making; it determines the goals or the targets to be achieved.

Management is concerned with the implementation of the policy; it is not directly concerned with goal or target fixation.

2. Implementation of policies.

Administration is not directly concerned with the implementation of policies.

Implementation of policies framed by administration is the main job of management

3. Determinative Vs Executive Function

It is functions are Legislative and largelyDeterminative.

Its functions are executive and largely government.

4. Direction of human efforts.

It is not actively concerned with the direction of human efforts in the execution of the plan or policy.

It is namely concerned with the direction human efforts in the execution of the plan and policy.

5. Main functions Planning and organizing functions are involved in it.

Motivating and controlling functions are involved in it.

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Lower Level function;(Doing)

Top level function;(Thinking) Administration

Management


6. Managerial level. It relates to apex or top-level management. Personnel ofthe top-level like the owners or the Board of Directors and in charge of it.

It relates to middle and lower level management. Personnel below the top-level like General Manager or Managing Director are in Charge of it.

7. Men-Boss Relation.

Administration is the Master of industry, which provides the various agents of production and in lieu of this service earns profit:

Management is the servantof Administration; it gets salary ora part of the profitin lieu of its services.

8 Coordination and control.

Administration coordinates finance,production and distribution, it frames the organizational structure and exercises control over the enterprise.

It uses organization for the achievement of the targets fixed by administration.

9. Administrative Vs. Technical

It needs administrativerather than technical ability.

Management requires Technical ability more than administrative ability.

10 Expansion of Functions.

Its function expand at the upper level and decreases in importance at the ********** ?

Its functions contract at theupper level and expand atthe ************* ?

11 Illustrations. The following are designate as ‘Administrator: Instl. Governors, DGs, Directors, Commissioners, Vice-Chancellors,

The following are usually designated as ‘Managers’: General Manager or any Company, Managing Director of a Company, Director of Personnel

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Registrars, Ministers, Income Tax and Sales Tax Officers, (VAT), Chief Justice, et al.

Administration Department, Director of Finance department, et al

1. Planning Function According to Koontz et al (1980) Planning is deciding in advance

what to do, how to do it, when to do it, where to do it, who to do it and even why it should be done. Stoner and Freedman (1992) see planning as the process of establishing goals and suitable courses of action for the enterprise as a whole and for every department or section within it. It requires selecting enterprise objectives and departmental goals and determining ways of achieving them. To Obikeze, et al (2004) planning entails knowing where and when to go in advance and how to get there. Planning therefore is futuristic and endeavors to reduce waste and encourages the greater efficiency in goal attainment. In short, planning helps to determine the objective strategies, policies, procedures; methods, programmes and rules required in guiding the combination and utilization of organization’s human and material resources to achieve the organization’s objectives.

Thus planning makes it possible for things to occur which could not otherwise happen. It bridges the gap from where we are and where we want to go. Planning involves two elements, deciding on the objectives and the means of achieving such objectives. For us, planning is the processes that are required in deciding the goals and objectives of the organization, for and the action or activities for achieving them, who, how, when and where of the actions, with the ultimate aim of maximizing the attainment of organization’s objectives.

2 Organizing FunctionAccording to Anikeze, (2007), organizing simply means arranging

relationships among departments and employees and defining the responsibility each has for accomplishing the job. This is the setting out the formal structure of authority and flow of work in such a way that the work in the various subdivision, sections and branches is carefully arranged, clearly defined and effectively co-ordinated in order to accomplish the objectives of the organization or department.

Abonyi (2005) Ile N.M (1999) see organizing function as bringing together materials, money, machines and internationally dividing task to be performed so as to achieve the objectives of the organization.

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Organizing involves three basic activities or elements.(a) The bringing together money, materials and machines necessary for the work to be done(b) The structuring, which is done by identifying, grouping and sharing of work to be done (c) That is the division of work into mainline activities by which the organization achieves its objectives.

The establishment of organizational relations: that is the delegation of the authority to do the work, the assignment of responsibility and the creation of accountability.

In line with this, Anikeze stated that, “this function helps the organization to be structured, grouped and defines the authority and power relationships and assign responsibilities to each group, individuals and limits within the organization.

Financing Public Enterprise in NigeriaOver the years, the problems of organizational management have been

attributed to inadequate and improper funding. For any organization, private and/or public to adequately accomplish it objectives for which they are meant for, such organization must have and maintain financial base and reliable financial structure.

Speaking in the same direction, Ezeani (2006:220) stated thus,“Public enterprises require adequate funding in order to be efficient and effective. However, because the strong linkage between financial autonomy, funding public enterprises particularly in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, has always been critical issue”.

Criteria or Guideline for Financing Public Enterprises in Nigeria Certain considerations and principles should be borne in mind in the

financing of public enterprises. According to Ebonyi Ozor, the sources of finance for any public

enterprise should be in line with the following conditions:

(a) The laid-down national financial policies: By keeping with the laid-down national financial policies, it is meant

that any activity within a country, be that in the private or in the public sector, should be in line with the national economic policies.

This criterion affects the pubic sector more because its finance and control are in government hand. Since public enterprises are established,

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managed financed and control by the government and its machineries. Their financing must observe the national economic polices of the government.In line with to this situation, Ozor continues: It is even more imperative that public enterprises should follow government guidelines, because it is the national government which has to guarantee external loans of these enterprises, regulate the size and direction of investment in both the public and private enterprises, and give guidelines to these two sectors with regards to foreign exchange conservation during periods of balance of payment difficulties.

In sum, the national government regulates, guide and monitor the economy through its economic and financial polices. Put differently the economic policies of the national government condition the levels and directions of the economic activities in the state, and help to ensure sound, vibrant, and sustainable economy.

(b) Financial autonomy and flexibility: This principle states that, although the public enterprises should

operate within the guidelines prescribed by the government, they should be given some degree of freedom to make their internal financial decisions and adjustments.

(c) Flexible governmental control: This principle states that once major policies with regard to pricing and profit making have been made by the government, the role of government in implementing them should be very minimal. The rest should be left to the individual public enterprise concern without further government intervention.

(d) Coherent and consistent financial behaviour means that the government should ensure the avoidance of unnecessary wastes and thereby conserve scarce resources.

(e) Planned sector allocation of national resources: This principle states that, financing of public enterprises should be in

accordance with the targets of national planning agencies, and plan guideline.Sources of Funding Public Enterprises in Nigeria:The two main sources of fund open to public enterprises include: Internal and External sources of funding.

(a) Internal Funding:These are funds generated internally by public enterprises from trade

surpluses, taxes, dividends, and earnings from sales of goods and services after payment for employed capital.

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This constitutes a very small portion or percentage of public enterprises funding, since the major objective for establishing them is not to make profit. Contributing his view to this, Ezeani, (2006) stated thus, the amount of revenue derived internally by public enterprises is usually small due to the fact that they are not primarily established to make profit”. In this direction Adamolekun, (2004:42) as cited by Ezeani (2006:20) stated that, government’s control over public enterprises tariffs and price constrains their capacity to make profit”.

The major form of internal financing of public enterprises in Nigeria is the plough – Back Earnings or Self-Financing system.

This is a process whereby a public enterprise can plough back its profit for the purpose of expansion. Though, it is clear that most public enterprises operated at loss from the time of establishment till the time they were privatized.

(b) External Funding:The external sources of funds to the public enterprises comprise of funds from the government, national financial institution, local private entrepreneurs and international sources, (Ezeani 2006).

The external sources include: - 1. Government Funding The forms of government funding of public enterprises in Nigeria are: (a) Equity: This is a situation whereby “Government in itscapacity as a shareholder is a joint venture, contribute to increase the capital of the enterprise or to increase its share”. (Adamolekun 2004:42) as cited by (Ezeani, 2006:221).

(b) Subsidies: These are funds given to public enterprises toassist them offset the losses they incurred due to the following reasons. Operation of uneconomic routes; government control of tariffs and prices etc. (Ezeani 2006:221)

(c) Loans: These are funds given to public enterprises by government to ease their financial management problems or to assist them in specific projects or interventions that are of special interest to government. (Adamolekun 2004:42)

(d) Capitalization funds: These are funds provided by thegovernment in order to meet the needs of public enterprises, in terms of equipment, plant, and running capital (Adamolekun 2004:42).

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(e) Grants: Public enterprise received grants fromgovernment. These can be statutory or special grants. Special grants are given for specific projects or activities, whereas statutory grants are regular and mandatory. The statutory grant is also called subventions.

The implication of government funding of public enterprise is that, it make public enterprises management very imprudent in managing resources. As long as they are aware that government must come to their aid incase of losses. Put in the words of Ozor (2004) “those types of advances tend to breed laxity and inefficiency within management because if government is left to bear the profits and losses of an enterprise, the management will not have the same urge to make profits, as when its growth and expansion depend on its own achievement. It is this situation that paved way for their privatization or commercialization.

(2) Private Investment:Another source of external funding of public enterprises is the private

investment or private enterprises. This is the situation whereby individual buy shares in public enterprises, when such is available. Another aspect of private funding of public enterprises is contract finance. This is a situation whereby a private entrepreneur funds a particular project for a public enterprise, e.g. building and is refundable later along with agreed interest (Ezeani 2006:222).

Yet another source of private funding of public enterprise is through private borrowing, by which private individuals lend money to the management of public enterprises for project execution.

(3) Individual Capitalization: This is a situation whereby individual who are wealthy and rich

enough provide the capital needed to float an enterprise without their necessarily, selling share to the public in order to raise money (Ozor 2004:153).

(4) National Financial Institutions: Public enterprises derive their funds from financial institutions in form

of either equity or loans. In other words, public enterprises can raise funds by borrowing from financial institutions, i.e. commercial banks, development banks and industrial development banks. Such loans according to Ozor, are often guaranteed by the government, which established these enterprises. (5) International Funding:

Another source of external funding of public enterprises is international funding, such as foreign private sector (financial intuitions, as well as entrepreneurs), international development agencies and in some cases, foreign government. (Adamolekun, 2004:43).

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Control of Public Enterprises:Although public enterprises enjoy substantial autonomy and freedom

in the management of their affairs, they are still subject to some control (Ezeani, 2006. 218) in his own contribution to the administrative and financial control of public enterprises, in short, the public bureaucracy generally, Berkley, G.E (1978) stated that, “ Although administrators today find themselves blessed with power which their predecessors little dreamed of possessing, they also find themselves subjected to some restraints as well. The other two branches of government have been content to stand aside and let administrators run the country subject only to the board policy prescriptions and rather vague standard regarding the public interest.”

Public enterprises, just like every other bureaucratic organization are established to achieve specific goals. In their attempt to adhere strictly to rules set by the government or those who established it. Control of bureaucracy, therefore means curtailing the excesses of bureaucracy or bureaucrats, which might lead to inefficiency, gross misconduct and general misdemeanor (Uduma, 2003)

Reasons for control of Bureaucracy and Bureaucratic organizations can be summarized thus:The complexity size and nature of modern states have made public servants assume powerful positions of authority that to some extent, that are described as sacred cows i.e., they can do and undo with the stroke of their pen without recourse to the law (Ali, 2002). The basic reasons for their powerful and vantage position are traceable to the principle of permanent tenure, fixed salary and regular promotions the guarantee a life time career for officials.

In shot, we set out to control bureaucracy in order to ensure the following: (a) Since bureaucracy is a creation of an external body such as

government, it becomes apparent that its activities should be supervised or controlled by the government.

(b) The need for supervision is very important in that the power to do well can equally be used to do bad.

(c) Also, as the size and functions of bureaucrat expand so do the power of the bureaucracy, which, if not curbed may be misused. Executiveadministrative powers pose problems of abuse of office for personal and selfish ends.

(d) The need for control arises also to ensure that desired goals are attended to so that wishes of the citizenry will not be violated and that the decisions are not made arbitrarily as to violate individual rights. In

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essence, there is need for control, to act as a safeguard against the dangers of abuse of authority and violation of the liberty of the citizenry ( Uduma , 2003).

Types of Administrative Control The types of control in a bureaucratic organization (bureaucracy):We have two basic types of bureaucratic control. They are the internal

and external controls

The internal control In the words of Obiagbaoso, (1995) internal control simply refers to

“certain organizational arrangements within administrative organizations which are intended to facilitate the task of preventing officials from abusing their office for corrupt purposes and from acting with partiality”.

For us, internal control of bureaucracy simply means, that internal organizational design, meant to condition and regulate the official behaviors and conducts of public office holders, so as to ensure their conducts would be in line with the organizational objectives. This is mostly found in the organization’s structure. That structure of organizations specifies the pouters, authorities, responsibilities or each officer and also the relationships between one position and another. Inshore, it is concerned with the day-to-day running of the bureaucratic organizations. This can as well be called Administrative control.

External ControlAdemolekun, (1983) sees eternal controls as the methods of control

that are imposed on an administrative system by actors who are not normally considered as part of the administrative machine. It is simply the conditioning of administrative behaviors and conducts, by persons outside the organization’s structure. The actors in this case are external to the organizations.

Forms of internal control The different forms of internal control of the bureaucratic

organizations are:

1. In Situational Control:For the proper running of the bureaucratic organizations, bureaucracy

like other associations has its own rules, regulations, connections tradition and codes of conduct. Each of these rules is established to achieve a given end, the satisfaction of public interest. For instance, such rules include general orders,

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civil service manuals, which regulate the conduct of officials and outline their conditions of service. (Uduma, 2003).2. Hierarchical Control:

Bureaucracy is a traditionally, a hierarchical system of organization reflecting a down word flour of command from the head of the ministry or department to the last man below. In the hierarchical nature of the organization constitute strong internal control to the bureaucrats.

3. Financial Control: This is a form of internally controlling bureaucracy or using the

instrumentality of the budget. Budgets put a limit to what the organizations can spend in the various departments.

Forms of External Control There are many external control measures that can be used to check

administrative powers. It consists of parliamentary, public Opinion, public complaints commission and judicial controls etc. It should however be noted that external controls over administration are closely related to the government system in each country. Hence, external controls vary from country to country.

1. Parliamentary Controls: This is the use of legislative means to check the administrative power

of career public officials. Parliamentary controls can manifest itself in the from of question time, letters to ministers, parliamentary committees, etc. specifically, in- Nigeria, the parliament can control administrative powers through confirmation of key appointments and can also set up a committee or Task force to expose corrupt practices, etc.

According to Adamolekun (1983), the overall verdict of the major studies of parliamentary in possible to the citizens against administrative injustices, that administrators are responsible to the citizens; and that administrators are held accountable for the manner in which they spend public funds.

2. Judicial Controls: The abuse of administrative power can also be curbed through judicial

control. The aim of judicial control is ‘to provide judicial remedies to the citizens who are adversely affected by administrative actions contrary to the law. Career public officials as well as Administrative bodies are in a similar way bound to act according to law in the same way as the ordinary citizen. In this vein, if the independence of the judiciary is maintained, it can declare administrative action null and void or ultra-vires where it is observed to be faulty in the manner of performance, action taken without care and improper

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motive’ etc. (Ujo, 1995). The ordinary law courts can hide under the judicial controls. The judicial remedies consist of mandamus, Injunction, order of prohibition Ultra-Vires etc.3. Public Opinion:

This is the use of mass information media like Newspaper, Radio, and Television, open expression of an individual’s feelings, Referendum to condemn, criticize or support certain administrative actions. The objective of public opinion can only be achieved if the media of information is free (Ujo 1995).

4. Ombudsman (like Institution (Public Complaints Commission): This is yet another important external control measure avers the

conduct of administration in that countries, ombudsman-like institutions have the power to investigate wrong doings of public officials against individual citizen. However, its operations vary from country to country. For instance, in Nigeria, it is called public complaints commission. The function, structure and powers of the public complaints commission of Nigeria, are different from that of ombudsman of Sweden. This institution has to some extent controlled the excesses of career public servants in Nigeria, if not for any recorded achievements, its mere existence has prevented some career public servants from acting contrary to laid down procedure and laws.

5. Financial Control: Methods of financial control

Finance is an essential element in the acquisition and use of power. Without finance the Government cannot achieve its policy objectives. The Government, which is unable to justify its own bases of power, cannot effectively provide the good governance and accountability needed by the people. The recognition of the importance of finance as the basis for political power and the opportunities which absolute control offers for its abuse requires that power over finance should be controlled. From this, it means that the control of the finances of Government has attracted special attention in practically every part of the financial instruction (FI).

6. The Legislative Control:There are varieties of controls, which the parliaments have over the

public fund but these varieties are cited here. First, section 80 sub-sections 4 of the 1999 constitution also confer power to each of the houses of the National Assembly to conduct investigations for the purpose of exposing corruption, inefficiency, wastes, within its legislative competence for the states refer to section 128-subsection (1) b (ii). Specific examples worthy of mentioning here of how the Nigerian National Assemblies conduct investigations are the

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parliamentary question Time and public Accounts Committee (PAC) among others.

7. The Independent Auditor: Depending on the country of operation, this office is variously called.

In Nigeria, the officer in charge is called the Auditor General of the federation. The office is independent of the Executive am of Government and its annual reports from the basis of the control exercised by the Legislature over Government accounts. In the 1999 constitution of Nigeria, section 86-87 provide for the appointment of an Auditor-General charged with the responsibility to audit public accounts. For the state, refer to section 126-127 of the 1999 constitution of Nigeria.

8. Financial Instructions (FI): Two other elements of financial control in Government are the

financial instruction and the periodic circulars issued by the Ministry of finance. Both the federal and state governments to establish standard of financial management with a view to ensuring a high degree of uniformity and to maintain judicious expenditure of Government resources use the financial instructions. The circulars issued by the Ministry of finance are generally intended to guide the day-to day operations of Government Units. Also from time to time circulars are issued to amend provisions contained in the financial instructions.

The conclusion that can be made from the financial control in government as they are constitutionally analyzed above can be summarized into four broad ways, which by no means expresses the division of financial power, as follows:(i) Executive Proposal and Execution: The president (Executive)

proposes the programme of expenditure and executes the policies, which the expenditure relates.

(ii) Legislative Approval: The National Assembly considers the programmer and approves or disapprove of the items contained therein; passing an appropriation Act authorizing the withdrawal of funds from the consolidate revenue fund.

(iii) Independent Auditors: An entirely independent official is responsible for the audit of public accounts and for reporting his findings to the National Assembly.

(iv) Legislative Investigation: The National Assembly may investigate the expenditure of finance that arises out of its own legislative authorization.

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From the above, financial powers allocated to the executive arm of Government are subjected to a number of checks and balances by the Legislative arm of Government and the Independent Auditors.

Performance of Nigerian Public Enterprises:The performance of public enterprises in Nigeria has become a subject

of national debate and hence a matter of crucial policy agenda of the governments of this country for the past two decades. This is why many investigative and administrative study groups, commission, committees and bureaus have been set up to resolve the problem of poor performance of these enterprises (Ozor 2004).

There is accuracy problem in trying to assess the performance of public enterprises. The problem arises from the fact that quite unlike private enterprises that are set up with clear cut objective, public enterprises must often do not have such clear –cut objective. In other wards, the objectives of the private enterprises are simply the economic rationality, which political and social aims may be the aims of public enterprises.

Notwithstanding these performances assessment problems of public enterprises that are bedded on the complexities and the dual nature of their objectives effort would be made here to assess their performance so far.

As observed by Obodan [2000:8] while commenting on the poor performance of the public enterprises in both developed and developing countries. He stated that, in widespread doubts as to whether the benefits of public ownership are worth the cost Obikeze etal [2004] state two criteria for the assessment of the performance of public enterprises. Assessment based on the quality of service they deliver and based on their return on investment. They further stated, that public enterprises in Nigeria are grossly inefficient is no longer in contention, virtually all public enterprises render epileptic and unsatisfactory service to the people.

As observed by Maghorr while commentary on the inefficiency of public enterprises, He stated that most Nigerians have been living witnesses to the very poor performance of the public enterprises since independence, these enterprises have not only failed to justify the huge government investment on, and subventions made on, them, but constituted a huge financial burden on the government.

Obadan (2008) citing Paul and Simon as cited in Ezeani[2006]argued that, in country after country, unbridled state expansion has led to the following:

i. Economic inefficiency in the production of goods and services by the public sector, with high cost of production, inability to innovate, and costly delays in delivery of the goods produced.

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ii. Ineffectiveness in the provision of goods and services, such as failure to meet intended objectives, diversion of benefits to elite groups etc.

iii. Rapid expansion of the bureaucracy, severely straining the public budget with huge deficits of public enterprises becoming massive drains on government resources, inefficiency in government etc.

iv. Poor financial performance of public enterprises, reflecting a history of huge financial losses, over stetting and burden of excessive debts.

Ebitu Ukiwe, then chief of general staff in the Babangida administration in one of his press briefings in 1985,as cited in Ozor [2004] stated that, the federal government investment in parastatals was about N 23,000,000,00 [twenty-three billion naira], made up of direct equity of N 11,000,000,000,00 (eleven billion naira), loans of N 10,000,000,000.00 [ten billion naira ] and government guarantee loan of N 1,000,000,000.00 [one billion naira]

He Further added that, the government had also made a total of N 11, 000, 000, 000.00 [eleven million naira] as subsidies to the various parastatals and comprise. Yet, the total recorded dividends received by the federal government amounted to N 934 million [nine hundred and fifty-nine million naira] per year on the equity investment of over N 11 billion [eleven billion naira] giving rise to a gross return of less than 2percent

According to Sanda [1987; 176] particularizing in Nigeria, stated that, the federal government in 1985 admitted that it had invested heavily in government parastatals and companies between 1980 to October 1985, as follows

i. Equity investments N 11,430,077,534,00ii. Loans N 10,424,720,052,00

iii. Guaranteed naira loans N 23,215,267,219,00

Loans guaranteed in foreign currencies DM 2, 128, 706, 062, 0DFL 8, 974, 500, 00US and 16, 200, 000, 00

Umerurike [2005; 215] as cited by Ezeani [2006, 224] noted that the public enterprises in Nigeria had enjoyed the following transfer in 1998 aloneSubsidized foreign exchange N156.5 billionImported duty waiver N 125 billion Tax exemption arrears N 15.0 billion

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Unmerited revenues N29.5 billion Loans and guarantees N 16.5 billionGrants/subvention N35.0 billion

Our assessment on the performance of public enterprises in Nigeria shows clearly that they did not live up to expectations at all. Our next task here is to discuss of the factors for the poor performance of public enterprises with special reference to Nigeria. This is due to the fact that they have satisfied both the basic requirements for developmental.

13.1 Reasons for the poor performance/inefficiency of public Enterprises in Nigeria.The following condition is responsible for the poor performance of

public enterprises in Nigeria and other developing countries. They among others includes

1. Lack of clear and properly articulated objectives:According to Ahmad el- Rufia [2002] public enterprises have served

as platforms for patronage and promotion of political objective and consequently their managers even when working and able to work honestly, suffer from operational interference by civil servant and political appointees. Most of the leadership of our public enterprises is perceived as incompetent and corrupt and they feel accountable only to the official that got them their positions, instead of their customers and the ordinary Nigerian citizens In the view of Ezeani [2002; 224] the social goals or obligations of most public enterprises often conflict with their economic objectives. For instance, some public enterprises are expected to supply goods below lost an effort to meet national employment objectives even when they are already overstaffed. So therefore, they become inefficient and ineffective.

As stated, by [Obikeze et al, 2004] public enterprises are established as business organization that provides essential service. The twin objectives of providing essential service as a public utility and making profit as a business outfit are simply contradictory. This contradiction has been at the root on non-performance of public enterprises all over the world. Making special reference to Nigeria, they maintained that, political office holders who would want these public enterprises to perform well would still want to use them to generate high political good will at the expense of economic rationality. Concluding in this direction we can objectively say, that, locating public enterprises with political considerations and making such consideration pivotal to their operations will definitely not help them achieve their economic objectives. In other words, economic rationality and political rationality are really compatible.

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2. Undue interference from the Government: This has to do with the autonomy of the public enterprises in Nigeria

and the world over. The main reason for the creation of public enterprises is to free them from the day-to-day bureaucratic bottlenecks of the government. However, the actual practice, most political office holders have seen these public enterprises as being directly under them. As a matter of fact, they frequently interfere in their affairs.

Alert to this situation Ezeani (2007) stated that, public enterprises also suffer from frequent political interference. They are often seen as instrument of political patronage by the government in power. The above situations lead to overstaffing, poor choice or product and location, recruitment of mediocre etc.

3. Poor Infrastructures:The deteriorating state of infrastructures in most African countries

also contributes to the failure of the public enterprises as they increase the cost of operation. Examples most public enterprises rely on standby generators, which cost much to purchase and maintain. Also considerations should be made at the poor state of the road etc. In short the poor state of infrastructures would amount to inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the public enterprises both in Nigeria and other developing countries of the world.

4. Lack of control and Autonomy: According to Obadan, (2000); 11 as citied by (Ezeani2006; 225) public enterprises managers suffer from excessive control and interference in this daily operations by supervising government departments. This often stifles managerial initiatives and lead to costly operational inefficiencies and loss of accountability. Further, he stated that, where chief executive officers are administrators rather than enterprising businessman.

5. Lack of competitive environment: Most public enterprises operate as monopolies. And this is not surprisingly when they are faced with the same problems of which affect monopolies. Lack of competitors is the main problem of monopolies, since they are not always in a hurry to either innovate or often better service since they are aware that the customers have no other alternative.

Accordingly, this leads to complacency on the part of management of most public enterprises, resulting in poor service delivery and inefficiency. [Ezeani 2006; 225]

6. Incompetence: For any organization to achieve its objectives it must have people with proven competence. It was base on this fact that max where the proponents for

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bureaucracy stated that candidates for positrons in organizations must be selected on the bars of technical qualification.

The true picture with Nigeria and developing countries is public enterprises recruitment and selection is based on emotive primordial and purely instrumental reason. In short the principle of federal character has also compound the problem hence it has legalized nepotism and segregation in employment in the form of ethnic balancing [Ezeani2006; 257] this has resulted to the gross inefficiency in their operations. 7. Incompetent Management: It is the duty of every organization to pilot its affairs towards the realization of organization’s objectives. It is therefore expected that the management would have the technical or managerial competency, which will assist it in this regard, (Obikeze, etal 2004). The extent any organization meets it objectives/goals to a large extend depends on the technical and managerial competence of the management team. This is so because; they are responsible for the major decisions and their implementations.

The case with Nigeria public enterprises is that their management team is appointed not by merit, but as a way of rewarding party faithful and patronage. These make them square pegs in a round hold, and consequently result to poor management practice, poor performance, and poor productivity and in short, make it difficult, if not possible to realize the objectives of their enterprises concern.

Another problem with the public enterprises in Nigerian is the instability of its management. This is one of the political problems, confronting public enterprises and their management in Nigeria.

In the word of Obikeze and Obi, 2003] since independence in 1960 the country has been ruled by seven military rulers and has had much higher number of coups both successful, unsuccessful and arranges ones. As expected, every new administration, be it military or civilian usually dissolves all boards of public enterprises. They went ahead to say that, whenever these boards are dissolved some top management staffs are usually relieved of their appointments. This has remained a recurring decimal in the management and administration of public sector organization and institutions.

Ejiofor[1984] identified the problems of public enterprises management in Nigeria asi. Lack of properly articulated objectivesii. Uncoordinated development programmediii. Inadequate infrastructureiv. Dysfunctional leadership practice and styles.v. Unmotivated and dispirited work force

Ozor (2004) stated the problems of public enterprises are:

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a) Vague and conflicting objectivesb) Inadequate autonomyc) Inflexibility in decision making processd) Inappropriate capital structure e) Under utilization of assetsf) Absence of good credit and control systemg) Inability to collect debth) Lack of adequate cost control measurei) Inefficient and ineffective managementj) Absence of information and accounting systemk)Absence of financial operational forget

Measures to Improve the Performance and Productivity of Public Enterprises in Nigeria

The following measures if appropriately observed would improve on the efficiency and effectiveness of the public enterprises and in turn increase their productivity and performance. They are:1. The objectives of public enterprises should be clear and specific. This

would make it easy to evaluate and determine their performance and consequent control division.

2. The employment selection and recruitment of board members and other management and operative staffs should be governed by merit and not based on political condition. This would ensure the appointment selection and recruitment of competent and qualified members of the staff to formulate and implement policies and programmes meant to ensure improved performance and efficient management of the enterprises.

3. This should be a reliable and accurate control measure. The adoption of this would ensure high level of and effectiveness in the operators and management of the enterprises.

4. Establishment and development of good motivation techniques. This has the advantage of improving employee’s general moral and commitment to the enterprise objectives and goals.

5. Provision of good and adequate infrastructures. And ensure good and efficient operating environment generally.

6. The autonomy of the enterprise should be maintained and sustain. The level the level of autonomy enjoyed by any enterprise the higher the level of independence and initiative to enjoy by its management.

7. There should be an adequate and clear disciplinary measure to be practice by public enterprise. This would bring unity, order and control into the management of public enterprises.

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8. There should be an established accountability measures, in public enterprise management and organization.

Public Enterprises Reform in NigeriaPrivatization and Commercialization of Public Enterprises in Nigeria

It was in order to give the Nigerian economy a home base and meaningful development that the Nigerian government first expanded the existing, and the created new public enterprises. The tempo was increased in the early 1970s due to many reasons, which include: The failure of the private sector to direct the economy positively and the increasing oil revenues, which enabled the government to create more as well as sustain the existing enterprises (Ozor, 2004)

He went ahead to capture the view of Olu Ajkaiye on the adoption of public enterprise policy of Nigeria.

“It happened that public enterprise policy was adopted when the federal government was endowed with a lot of revenues from the oil sector; therefore, it was possible to establish many new public enterprises and increase investment in the existing ones without financial difficulties achievement during the period (1975- 1980) were so encouraging that the policy of developing a mixed economy in which the public sector would be dominant was enshrined in the national constitution adopted in 1979”.

So, public enterprises policy of Nigeria as well as in other developing countries was adopted for developmental purposes and not on ideological ground. In short, the adoption of public enterprises system of economic development was possible because the state was the institution that has the resources-man, material and financial needs to boast the development of the economy.

Meaning of ReformAccording to the Political Bureau (1987), “the efficacy of the

philosophy and systems we have recommended will depend on their faithful implementation. Nigerians captured the above viewpoint by their instance that it was not the system but their operators that failed us in the past.

Any organization that wishes to survive and grow from time to time usually undergoes some adjustments or reviews. Some administrative reviews are undertaken in order to improve administrative efficiency and effectiveness and to satisfy the needs of the organization itself, that of the workers and society (Ekwealor, 2007).

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Abonyi (2005) stated that “the civil service is the instrument with which a country develops or regresses”. At a time for the civil service, there exists the need to change the form, procedure, structure etc. of the civil service for more efficiency and in turn fuel the fires of the country’s development. Doing otherwise, that is refusing to change (the form, structure procedure etc.) will either stagnate or regress the country in the question of development”

Contributing to the need and importance of administrative reform, Uduma (2003) stated that “the civil service is at the center of the machinery for the government of the people he further pointed but that at is strategically central to any major issue that concerns the administration of any state; and thus the need for reforms that will help in battering the lot of the civil service in Nigeria.

By reform, we mean to improve a system, an organization, etc. by making changes to it. This administrative reform simply means to improve or change the administrative systems, practices and procedures with the aim of improving the levels of efficiency and effectiveness in service delivery and productivity.

Objectives of Administrative ReformThe civil service is a permanent institution of public policy making

and implementation. The functioning of the government largely depends on how efficient its civic service is. Put differently, the success or failure of most government programmes is associated with the civil service.

Nwizu, citing Mosher identifies the following as the objectives of administrative reform:a) The need to change operating policies and programmes b) The need to impose administrative effectivenessc) The need to improve the performance, qualification, job satisfaction and

welfare of the personnel d) The need to respond to or to anticipate criticism or threats from the

environment.Abonyi (2003) also identifies the following as the goals of administrative reform:

i. To enhance traditional “administrative efficiency in the senses of saving money through from simplification, procedure change, duplication, reduction and similar organization and methods approaches.

ii. Reduction of perceived weaknesses such as corruption, favoritism, political spoils and so on

iii. Changing a particular main component of the administrative system so as to meet some idea image. This includes a large variety of main goals such as introduction of a merit civil service planning, programming,

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budgeting, system, moving towards automated idea processing and integrated data and information banks, increasing the utilization of scientific knowledge.

iv. Adjusting the administrative system to advance over-riding societal objectives such as accelerated modernization or war

v. Changing the division of labour between the administrative system and the political system; for instance, in the direction of reducing the power of the senior civil servant and making it a more obedient servant of the political processes of increasing the professional autonomy of the administrative system and strengthening influence on policy.

vi. Changing the relationship between the administrative system and the population or selected population segments. For example, this can be effected through relocation of decision centres (centralization versus decentralization), democratization” in the sense of participation and democratization which ensures that personnel composition is reflective of various population segments. Ali Yusufi Bagaji (2002) pointed out the following reasons for

administrative reforms:

Better alternatives: Human beings always assume that there are better alternatives.

Reforms therefore are aimed at revising or changing an existing way of doing things or practice in an organization or country, which to human way of doing things or practice in an organization or country, which to human beings are the better alternatives. What one can imply from above is that administrative reforms are important tools used to being change in the administrative system of a country.

Obsolete System: The ideas behind administrative reforms are based on the assumption

that administrative reform becomes necessary when the existing systems are out of tune with the political, economic and social change within a society.

Change in the Environment: Reforms can occur as a result of political, economic and social winds

of change in the social environment or it can be deliberate or planned. For example, the change in the United States of America (USA) has affected the change from permanent secretaries in Nigeria to director-general. Deliberate administrative reforms can be as a result of government setting a committee on the re-organization of local governments system, public service or even parastatals.

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Reforming Public Enterprises Beginning in the 1980s, some developed countries, led by Britain and

New Zealand, embarked on a major overhauling of PE sectors. In Britain PE reform was pushed through a comprehensive privatization program, and New Zealand combined privatization with commercialization. PE reform efforts that were subsequently launched worldwide in both developed and developing countries combined aspects of the British and the New Zealand approaches. In the different countries, PE reformers seek to achieve a combination of the following objectives: To ensure profitability by avoiding trading losses To avoid liquidity crises and rising debts To restructure and rationalize the public sector in order to remove the

dominance of unproductive investments To prevent PEs from being an ever-increasing burden on the government

budget and to facilitate their access to capital markets To ensure positive returns on investments in restructured enterprises and

improve the managerial and operational performance of those enterprises that will remain in the public sector

To initiate the process of the gradual cession to private sector of PEs that, by the nature of their operations and other socio economic factors, are best performed by the private sector

To create a favorable investment climate for both local and foreign investors

To provide institutional arrangements and operational guideline that would ensure that the gains of the reform program are sustained in the future

To encourage wider sharp ownership, especially among the lower income groupsWith regards to personnel (Staff) management reform in public

enterprise Adamolekun (2005) noted that” Every SSA country that has implemented public enterprise reforms in the 1990s has adopted aspects of the following three main new directions in managing staff. Disbanding central government coordination organs and strengthening

PE autonomy: with the drive toward privatizing PEs or making them profit oriented or more efficient, reforms are being put in place to ensure debureaucratization and review of staff pay and service conditions. Even though reforms have led to retrenchments in the numbers of PE workers and have created anxiety or fear in many quarters, they have also brought considerable motivation and job satisfaction to staff in the commercialized PEs and in those that were privatized.

Promoting improved industrial relations: Governments no longer dictate staff policies. Collective bargaining is conducted on a tripartite basis (PE

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management/ board, worker’ union, and government) to adopt new conventions on staff matters. In most cases the ability to pay (affordability) determines the content of the agreements.

Encouraging employee shareholding: in order to develop workers’ commitment, governments now encourage workers to own equity in the ventures. This creates a better environment for promoting efficiency in PEs. In some countries a percentage of the shares being sold are reserved for the workers. For example, in Nigeria 10 percent of the equity being sold is slated for distribution to the employees of the concerned PEs. South Africa, Tan Zaria, and Zimbabwe have adopted similar arrangements.

Types of Public Enterprise Reforms

The most common types of reforms are Privatization and Commercialization.

It is very clear that the performance of these state owned/ public enterprises could not justify the plans of the state in bringing the much-needed development; Even the investments made on them is not equally justify by their performance.

Alert to this situation. Augustine Otiji, maintained that:“The bane of the Nigerian public enterprises has been that of undefined roles. It is confusing to play a welfare role and at the same time run a profitable venture; the image of the public enterprises is so bad that it has come to symbolize inefficiency, red tapism, lack of initiative, and corruption, this may not be totally justified but it reflects apparent dissatisfaction with public establishment”.

Thus, it is no doubt that our government is over-burdened and public enterprises are in a state of disarray; hence the only viable option left is to privatize them.

Therefore, the Federal Military Government in 1986 introduced the privatization policy, which is an element of the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). With this policy, public enterprises in Nigeria entered a new historical odyssey

What is Privatization? Privatization is the process of transfer of ownership, interests and

control in an enterprise from government to private sector, (Muktah Ahmed) According to Olabode Olaniyan,

“In the Nigerian context, privatization involves the government divesting itself of its controlling interests in various industrial and service

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sectors of the economy and allowing significant private participation in its place with the intention of creating a more competitive climate and profit orientation within these sectors”. The Technical Committee on Privatization and Commercialization (TCPC), “ privatization is narrowly defined as transfer government shares in designated enterprises to private shareholders, comprising individuals and corporate term to describe a variety of policies which encourages competition and emphasizes the role of the market forces in place of statutory restrictions and monopoly powers.

Olewe (1995) sees privatization as “the relinquishment of part or all of the equity and other interests held by the Federal… Government or its agency in enterprises whether wholly or partly owned by the Federal Government, and “privatize” shall be construed accordingly.

According to Adam et al (1992) the term privatization has been used to describe an array of actions designed to broaden the scope of private sector activity or the assimilation by the public sector of efficiency- enhancing techniques generally employed by the private sector. The UNDP Guidelines on privatization (1991) defined it as the mechanization of public sector activity, that is, the subjection of micro economic decision-making to market forces, since this is a feature of profit oriented private sector activity.

Reasons for Privatization in Nigeria (1) The Poor State of the Nigerian Economy:

The privatization of public enterprises in Nigeria, according to Ebonyi Ozor, was made inevitable by the poor state of the Nigerian economy. He went further to state/ point out that the Nigerian economy was largely dependent on foreign exchange earnings from crude oil declined because of the oil glut in the word market starting from 1980s

To make this fact clearer, he cited the elaborate contribution made by Shamsuddeen Usman concerning the poor state of Nigeria economy and the consequent privatization policy.

“This was triggered off by the collapse of the world market prices as well as the decline in the volume of crude oil exports: there was world wide economic recession, giving rise to glut in the world market for crude oil: Nigeria depends almost completely on the export of crude oil.”

In summary privatization could simply mean the response to the harsh economic realities confronting the country.

(2) Developmental FadAs a matter of fact, the entire worked is moving toward capitalism.

Capitalism is a market society where the economic decisions of what, where

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and how to produce are left for the market forces. This system in the word of Obikeze et al (2004) frowns at state ownership of means of production

So Nigeria is not left out of this global restructuring that sees capitalism as the best and quick means to development. So, the privatization policy in Nigeria could be seen as response to world economic and recognition and restructuring, which conceived private sector as the main engine for economic development and growth.

(3) Inefficiency of Public EnterprisesAnother reason for the privatization of public enterprises in Nigeria, as

well as in other developing counties of the world is the inefficiency or poor performance of these enterprises. According Obikeze, et al, (2004) over the years government enterprises have become so inefficient, optimized by the epileptic services they render to the public.

Public enterprises were established to aid economic development sequel to the weak economic structures inherited from the colonial government and the absence of any strong indigenous capitalists and local entrepreneurs strong enough to pilot the economic development of the country. It is unfortunate, that these enterprises have not only been unable to justify high hopes and expectations reposed on them but also appeared of managing efficiently, huge financial resources hither to appropriated to them for their supposed crucial role.

(4) Political Interference Public enterprises as governmental/state -owned ventures should be

accountable to the government, the early proponents of government’s ownership of enterprises argued that a socialized industry could be self supporting and economically successful if it were free from political interference. Though, public enterprises should be accountable to the government, the day-to-day decision-making should be left to the enterprises managers. This is not true in practice; public enterprises in Nigeria as well as in other developing countries is subject to a wide range of statutory and administrative controls as well as less-formal modes of intervention and interference even in such routine matters as staff recruitment and discipline. The interference and /or influence of government extend, well beyond that which is necessary to ensure the enterprises fulfil the economic, financial and social objectives (Ozor 2004). Henceforth politicians see the establishment of public enterprises as a sure source of political power since it gives them the opportunity to award contracts to their friends and supports and diver state funds to themselves and their political parties, to appoint their friends and supports to the board membership of such enterprises.

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(5) Mismanagement:Another reason for the poor performance of public enterprises, and

their consequent privatization has been that of gross inefficiency and ineffectiveness, in terms of the quality and quantity of goods and services offered by them and in terms of poor

Objectives of Privatization in NigeriaObadan,(2000) summarized the objectives of privatization as:

(1) Improving economic efficiency (productive, allocative and X-efficiency produced by the enterprises) against the background of poor economic performance of PEs. Improved efficiency is to be reflected in lower product prices and improved product quality.

(2) Broadening ownership of business through wider shares and assets ownership, thus creating popular capitalism and fostering economic equity.

(3) Generating new investments, including foreign investment.(4) Enabling PEs to access market, capital and technology, and expose

them to market discipline.(5) Reducing fiscal deficit through increased tax revenues or enterprises

output, reduction in central government transfers to the enterprise sector and receipts from privatization sales.

(6) Developing the capital market and deepening the financial system.(7) Providing the opportunity to introduce competition.(8) Reducing government interference in the economy and shifting of the

balance between public and private sectors, as well as developing the private sector and promoting market forces in the economy.

Forms of Privatization

The privatization takes place in many forms, but the four basic forms would constitute the focus of our discussion here on the various forms of privatization.They are:

1. Divestment2. Delegation3. Displacement4. Decentralization

(1) Divestments:This means shedding of an enterprise or assets. This requires a direct positive act by government and is generally a one-time affair. (Nwanegbo, 2005).

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According Ezeani (2006) sees divestment as the transfer of state-owned assets to private ownership; or an enterprise may be liquidated or sold.

Types of Divestment Divestment by sales: This can be done through any of these four ways:* by selling the enterprise or asset to a single buyer.* by issuing and selling to the public.* By selling the enterprise to the managers or the employees.* By selling the enterprise or assets to its users or customers.

(ii) Divestment by free transfer:This also can be done through given it a way to the employees, the users or customers the public at large or to the prior owners.

(iii) Divestment by Liquidation: This method of divestment can be through shutting down and liquidating a state owned enterprise which the government feels it is not doing fine.

Delegation:This implies transfer of control of state assets or activities to private control/management eg. The government in this case delegates to the private sector part or all of the activity of producing goods and services but remain responsible for over-seeing the result.

Forms of Delegation are:

Delegation by contract: This form of delegation, the government contracts its activities to private organization. In short, is a method whereby the government places an inefficient public enterprise under private management for a specific period of time. The main goal of this is to improve performance through importation of foreign technical and managerial manpower to the leadership position of the enterprise concern.

This involves temporary privatization as ownership of assets remains with the PE, and ownership of assets remains unchanged.

Delegation by Franchise: This is a form of privatization whereby the government awards private

sector organization the right to sell a service or a product to the public.[ Delegation by Grant:

This is a situation by which the government arranges for a private entity to do the work and subsidy.

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Delegation by Voucher: In this case the government gives out the service in a sector and this

time around subsidizing the recipients or beneficiaries of the service instead of the service provider.

Delegation by Mandate: Under this form of privatization, the government mandates the private

sectors to provide the servic3es of their expense.

Displacement:This is simply an act of the government being displaced from the

center of an activity. It is when the government agencies are unable to provide the required service and the private concern stepping in to provide such services while in the process, the government let their own concern to be pushed aside (Nwanegbo, 2005).

Put differently, by displacement, the government passively allows the private sector involvement in former public activities, including build, operate, transfer and similar projects.

Forms of Displacement:Displacement by Default:

This occurs when the public withdraws patronage from the public enterprise to private sector due to the inability of the public enterprise to provide the required service or required standard of service.

Displacement by Withdrawal: By this form of privatization, the government itself engages in

deliberate withdrawal or what can be called “Load Shedding”. Put differently, the government voluntarily withdraws from the provision of a particular service and allows only the private sectors to provide the required service.

Displacement by Deregulation: This is a system of privatizing public enterprise by willingly removing

the strings of restriction, which makes many state-owned enterprises and government activities monopolistic. Such restriction prohibits the private sector from participating in the industry and competing.

Decentralization: Decentralization implies the shift of decision-making to agents

operating in accordance with market indicators, together with the introduction of private sector ownership and incentives (maintaining state ownership and

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ultimate control), such as performance contracts, statement of intent and framework document.

i. By divestment Sale

Free Transfer

Liquidation

(1) to private buyer(2) to the public(3) to employers(4) to users or customers1. to employees2. to users or customers3. to the public4. to prior owners (restitution)

ii. By Delegation ContractFranchise

GrantVoucherMandate

1. Publicdomain (Concession)2. Public assets lease

iii. By Displacement DefaultBWithdrawal Deregulation

iv. Decentralization Transfer of decision—making to agentsPerformance contracts, framework documents etc.

Forms of Privatization Table Source: Adapted from Savas (1992: 822).

Methods / Techniques of PrivatizationThe methods adopted as identified and discussed by Ezeani (2006) are:

Sale of SharesThis takes the form of methods or techniques available to the public

through the stock exchange, or sale of government shares to private investors through competitive means, usually through competitive means, usually through open competitive tender(Obadan, 2000: 24). The sale of shares has the following advantages. (1) It is fairly transparent: (2) It helps to prevent the problem of concentration in a few hands, of wealth and income that may result from other methods, such as private placement. However the man problem with this method is that the absence of well-developed capital markets could constrain the effectiveness of mass privatization. It is importance to mention that the sale of shares could also take the form of pre-emptive rights sale such as private placement of shares and direct sales to private investors without previous advertisement of the opportunity to enable other potential investors to

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submit proposals (Obadan) 2000:24) The pre-emptive rights sale is non-competitive and could be non-transparent.

Sale of Assets This method is adopted when an enterprise is financially distressed

and the option of sale of shares is thought to be likely unattractive to investors. The sale of assets can be implemented through competitive sale by public auction or through non-competitive sale direct sale of assets to a private investor) The latter method has been criticized as being non-transparent. It is worthy to note that the sale of some assets represents partial divestiture. While full divestiture is achieved when the enterprise has wounded up formally and all the principal assets have been divested Obadan. 2000:25)

Management or Employee Buy-OutsThis method or technique targets specific groups of potential buyers

employees or management of designated enterprises (Obadan, 2000:25) These groups buy the shares or principal assets of an enterprises either through a competitive process or a non-competitive process or a non-competitive process and the end result is usually full privatization.

iv. Equity DilutionEquity dilution is of two types. The first is equity dilution through new

capital that is, through sale of new shares to private investors. Thus although the equity held by government remains unchanged in absolute terms it now constitutes a smaller proportion of the total the second form of equity dilution is through debt equity swap whereby government held equity is diluted when the privately held debt of an enterprises is converted to equity. Thus method can be useful in reducing an enterprise debt ratio (Obadan, 2000:25)

v. Joint Ventures A joint ventures is a new company whose share capital is subscribed

by the government in the form of assets transferred from an existing but financially distressed public enterprise and partly by private investors in the form of each or in kind “ (Obadan, 2000:25) joint venture is useful in a situation where a distressed enterprise is political and or practically difficult to sell or an enterprise services are economically important but need injection of new investment capital

vi. Liquidation This technique involves the closure and winding up of an incorporated

enterprise in accordance with procedures under insolvency laws. This exercise results in full divestiture.

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vii. Management Contracts This is a method whereby the government places an inefficient public

enterprise under private management for a specific period of time. The contractor is usually paid a fee for services rendered. A good example is the two-year management services agreement signed in 1979 between the federal government on behalf of the Nigerian Railway Corporation (NRC and the Rail India Technical and Economic Services (RITES) A similar agreement was signed in the same year between the Nigerian Airways and Dutch Royal Airline (KLM) Again in 1981 an agreement was negotiated with an Indian management consortium- the Metallurgical Engineering Consultants of India (MECON) in the area of steel development.

The main goal of these agreements was improved performance through the importation of foreign technical and managerial manpower to leadership positions in the above mentioned enterprises (Adamolekun 1983:54-55) Management contract involves temporary privatization as ownership of assets remains with the PE and ownership of Shares remains unchanged (Obadan 2000:26) This method has some disadvantage: first contractors usually do not assume risk and losses borne by the state; secondly the fact that a contractor is paid a certain fee regardless of performance can make them to become complacent and to make inadequate efforts to improve efficiency and overall performance

viii. LeaseThis is a method whereby a private operator assumes custody of some

or all of the assets of a public enterprise for a specific period and uses them in a productive manner and for a fee. Like management contract, this method is temporary privatization as assets ownership remains with the public enterprise and ownership of shared do not change. However unlike management contracts under the lease method, the private party pays the government a fee to use the assets assumes commercial risk and losses are borne by him. He is therefore, under more pressure to improve the performance of the enterprise.

ix. Concession This is a contractual arrangement whereby a private operator is

awarded a license to provide specified services for a certain period of time and for a fee. This is a temporary privatization of the service as assets ownership remains with the public enterprise and shares ownership remains unchanged. This method is usually used to condition the natural monopoly status of large public utility enterprises, in such areas as electricity water and telecommunications.

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x. TransfersThis is a method whereby the unutilized assets of an inactive public

enterprise is transferred to another enterprise in need of such assets but lacking the funds to acquire them (Obadan, 2000: 27) In contrast to a sale, a transfer involves no financial consideration and normally applies to enterprise which are completely owned by the government According to Obadan (2000:27):

A transfer of shares occurs when a government cedes ownership to another institution without financial consideration. The reason for the transfer may be to warehouse the shares for later direct or indirect sale to the public.

The shareholder’s consent is required before transfer is affected, if the enterprise in question is not completely owned by the government:

It is important to mention that the decision as to which of the above methods of privatization is to be adopted depends on a number of factors such as the objectives of the privatization programme the enterprise’s financial condition and performance record, and the ability to mobilize private sector resources (Obadan, 2000:27-28)

A number of Privatization methods have been adopted by governments of African countries; the main privatization methods used in Africa together with the number of reputed completed transactions are presented in Table 11.2.

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Table Eleven.2: Privatization Methods Used In Africa Method of Privatization No of reported

completed transaction Sale of sharesi. Public floatation ii. By competitive tenderiii. To existing shareholders with pre-emptive rights iv. Non-competitivev.Management/employee Buyouts vi. Sales by Open Auction

Share DilutionsDebt Equity SwapsJoint Ventures Sales of Assets competitive basisSales of Assets Non-competitive basisFormal LiquidationsTransfer at Nil value Transfers to Trustees for follow-on divestiture Restitutions Leases

91912157

853471.286

61039501385521.0911219

48126

ConcessionsManagement ContractsMergers Methods not reported

4532450

Total 3.146Source: World Bank African Region Privatization Database cited in White (2000:39)

Privatization Methods and Their Outcomes Oliver Campbell while and Arita Bhatia (1998) Stated the outcomes of the

privatization methods, in the table below. Privatization Method and Their Outcomes

Transaction Note Outcome

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type1. Sales of shares

Whatever process is adopted: A sale may result in government

remaining as the majority shareholder A transfer of ownership control takes

place when government becomes a minority shareholder (usually judged to have occurred when government ownership is less than 50 percent).

Full privatization occurs when government disposes of all of the it hold

A government may hold shores directly or indirectly through a state-owned holding company. In looking at the extent of privatization, government indirect ownership should be taken into account. Sales of shares refers to shares with voting rights. There are no reports of sales of nonvoting shares.

Partial privatization Majority privatization

Full privatization

Competitive sale

Shares owned directly or indirectly by the government are offered for sale to private investors through competitive means –usually through open public tender, but occasionally through prequalification or short listing of suitable potential investors. On occasion, eligibility criteria are set –for example, to ensure the broadening of ownership or to secure a technically qualified core investor core investor.There are no reports of shares sold through an open public auction.

Public flotation

Shares are offered to the general public through the stock market. Some referred to as an initial public offering or simply a public offering.On occasion eligibility criteria are set in order to broaden ownership or to avoid a concentration of ownership.May be linked with a private placement.Although there is a degree of competition when subscribing for shared offered

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through a public flotation, applicants are not competing on price. Hence a public flotation is categorized as a separate sale method.

Preemptive sale

Shares are offered for sale to existing shareholders in accordance with the rules set out in the enterprise’s charter.

Some misunderstanding can occur when a government sells equity interests in a company whose shareholders have preemptive rights because the public is unware of either the existence of the rights or what those rights may means in terms of the price to be paid to acquire shares from the outgoing shareholder. Preemptive right sales are noncompetitive sales. They are classified separately because of the legal right assigned to the existing private shareholders, which precludes competition (at least without their prior agreement).

Usually results in majority or full privatization

Noncompetitive sale

A deal is negotiated for a sale of shares without using competitive means to select the new private shareholders. Frequently includes private placement and direct sales to private investors without previously advertising the opportunity for other potential investors to submit proposals. This type to sale is normally regarded as nontransparent. Widely used for any of the following possible reasons: (1) desire to grasp an opportunity to sell to an interested investor: (ii), an urgent need to initiate action on a company (either because of its distressed condition or its strategic importance); (iii) desire to avoid the opportunity cost of delay that a competitive procedure may involve; and (iv) corruption.

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2. Sales of Assets

The sale of assets is selected as the method of divestiture when an enterprise has become dormant or is financially distressed and it is considered that an offer for sale of shares would fail to generate investor interest. A previous attempt to sell the shares may not have occurred.

Sale of some principal assets represents partial divestiture.

Since creditors have certain legal rights, the sale of principal assets of a financially insolvent company should not occur without the prior agreement of the major creditors, including any secured creditors, and creditors and preparation of a schedule of verifiable creditors to establish how sale proceeds should be used to retire debt according to legal preference. Despite these requirements, some assets sales appear to have taken place regardless of the rights of the creditors, presumably on the basis that much of the enterprise’ s debt was directly or indirectly owed to government. Caution is required in this connection, as claims from creditors might arise after the assets are sold. Disregard for adherence to insolvency law and procedures might render government liable to those creditors for the full amount of outstanding debts. Subsequent legal claims could therefore be potentially more costly. Assets offered for sale normally comprise only the physical assets included in the enterprise’s balance sheet as fixed assets or stocks, although on occasion they can include exploration and mining rights, copyrights, and patents. For enterprises with multiple facilities the assets are sometimes sold in lots corresponding to the geographic locations where the enterprise had its operations. Strictly speaking, the assets are privatized but the enterprise is not After the sale of the principal usable assets has been completed,

Full divestiture is achieved when the enterprise is formally would up, but for practical purpose, full privatization is considered to have occurred when all of the principal assets have been divested.

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some assets (which usually include debtors) as well as all of the liabilities still remain with the enterprise and the enterprise as a legal person continues to exist. A formal winding up process is therefore required.

Competitive sale by open tender

Through press advertising and other means of communications, the assets of an enterprise are offered for sale to private investors. Price is normally the determinant for selecting the successful bidder. Occasionally, especially for major production assets, technical competence and financial strength may additional criteria for selection.

Competitive sale by public auction

Through press advertising and other means, the public is notified of the date of the public auction at which the assets are to be sold to the highest bidder.

Noncompetitive sale

Direct sale of assets to a private investor. This method has been widely used, with consequent concern among, some stakeholders about transparency and fairness.

3.Management or Employee Buyouts

Acquisition by management or by employees generally of the shares or principal assets of an enterprise.Can be through either a competitive process (with or without the management or employee team being given preferred terms) or a noncompetitive process. There can be confusion as to how to categorize an MBO. We distinguish between a management/employee buyout (MBO), as defined above and employee participation. Employee participation, although probably on concessionary terms, is the same as a sale of shares. It may occur as part of a negotiated sale of shares to private investor or alongside a public flotation when a small block of shares is

Usually full privatization

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reserved for employees. 4. Transfers Transfers can relate to assets (although

transfers of assets are rare). In both case, they normally can be applied only when the existing public enterprise is wholly government owned. A transfer, as opposed to a sale, implies no financial consideration. A transfer of shares or assets from an enterprise of shares or assets from an enterprise that is not wholly owned by the government often requires the agreement of the other shareholders and, in the case of a transfer of assets, agreement of the major creditors,

Transfer of assets

A transfer of assets might be considered appropriate when a public enterprise is inactive and therefore has unutilized assets while another enterprise is in need of such assets but lacks the funds to purchase them. Them transfer enterprise undergoes partial divestiture. However, privatization would not have occurred since the transferee would almost certainly be a public enterprise, too. Privatization will occur only if the transferee is in the private sector. The rights of creditors also have to be carefully considered (see notes on sales of assets).

Transfer of shares

A transfer of shares happens when a government cedes ownership to another institution without financial consideration. The reason for the transfer may be to warehouse the shares for later direct or indirect sale to the public, or so that the government can provide an additional revenue source to a government-sponsored institution which takes over full responsibility for portfolio management. For example, shares may be transferred to a local municipal authority or state pension fund which, as owner would derive

187


dividend income from the investment (or later realize cash by selling the shares). The warehousing of shares for subsequent sale to the public can be effected through a privatization trust or an investment fund. In the case of a privatization trust, shares are later sold to the general public through public offerings or to targeted sections of the community. In the case of an investment fund, shares or units in the fund itself are offered to the public or to specific sections of the public. Normally shares transferred to a trust (whether public or private) or to a privately managed investment fund are considered to represent a change of ownership (privatization) if the government ceases to exercise any ownership rights. A transfer of shares from an enterprise that is not wholly owned by the government would likely require the agreement of the other shareholders.

5.Equity Dilutions

An equity dilution occurs when an enterprise’s share capital is increased, with the new share capital subscribed by private shareholders. The equity held by the government, although unchanged and the same in absolute terms, becomes a smaller proportion of the total.

Partial majority privatization will occur, depending on the proportion of shares held by the government in the expanded equity

Debt-equity swaps

Government-held equity is diluted when the privately held debt of an enterprise is converted to equity.This method may affect ownership and management of the enterprise, but there is no transfer of funds; additional capital is not necessarily introduced into the

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enterprise, and the government does not receive any proceeds. Hence, while this method is suitable where the sale of an enterprise’s shares might be politically difficult, it would not be applicable as the sole privatization method if the enterprise required additional investment capital. An equity dilution through a debt-equity swap can be useful in reducing an enterprise’s debt ration and, when used, is often done in conjunction with another privatization method.

New capital issue

The share capital of an existing enterprise is increased by private shareholders subscribing new, additional capital to the enterprise. The government does not sell the shares it holds.The enterprise continues to operate as the same legal entity. An equity dilution through new capital can be useful when for political reasons, a government does not want to be seen to be divesting an y or all of its equity interest but nevertheless wants to privatize an enterprise in need of capital investment by introducing majority privately held capital.

6. Joint Ventures

The term joint venture is sometimes used in a sense different from the classical 50.50 temporary business arrangements. In the context of privatization, a joint venture has come to mean a new company whose share capital is subscribed partly by the government-in the form of assets transferred from an existing but financially distressed public enterprise-and partly by private investors (typically in cash but sometimes also in kind). The existing public enterprise cease operation and the new successor company takes over, usually without a break in business activities. Because a new legal

189


person (the new company) is taking over, persons employed by the existing public enterprise, even if employed immediately by the successor company, will have to be paid their end- of-service benefit entitlement. The existing public enterprise still has to be wound up through a formal liquidation process. This method is suitable for an enterprise that has some or all of the following characteristics: provides services that are economically important and need significant improvement; is politically and / or practically difficult to sell; and is in need of investment capital.

7. Restitution

Restitution is a return of assets or shares to former owners from whom they had been acquired by government through nationalization or confiscation without adequate compensation. This is sometimes referred to as deconfiscation. A negotiated payment from the former owner to reacquire the assets or shares may accompany a restitution if significant investment has been made by the government since acquisition.

Normally regarded as full privatization.

8. Liquidation

The closure and winding up of an incorporated enterprise in accordance with procedures under insolvency laws.

Involves the appointment of a liquidator who realizes all assets and applies proceeds toward setting the enterprise’s liabilities according to legal preference. Since liquidations are almost invariably applied to insolvent companies that have cease productive activity, unsecured creditors are likely to receive little or nothing.Contingent liabilities, notably employee end-of –service benefits, become actual

Full divestiture when the enterprise is wound up.

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liabilities when the resolution to put the enterprise into liquidation is passed.

9. Lease In return for an agreed fee (rent), a private operator is given custody for a specific period of time of some or all of the assets of a public enterprise to employ them in a productive manner. Ownership of the assets remains with the enterprise, and ownership of the shares remains unchanged.

Temporary privatization of the business takes place and lasts as long as the lease arrangement.

Often applied to enterprises that have proved difficult to sell, either for political reasons or because of market conditions.Lease rents should accrue to the enterprise. Rents may accrue to the government if the enterprise is wholly government-owned and the government has undertaken to settle the enterprise’s liabilities.

10. Concessions

A concession is a contractual arrangement whereby, in return for a negotiated fee a selected private operator is awarded a license to provide specified service over a certain period of time. Ownership of the principal assets remains with the enterprise, and ownership of the shares remains unchanged.

Concessions are normally awarded following a competitive tendering process. The concession agreement sets out the right and obligations of the service provider, including minimum service standards. This method is well suited to parts or all of an enterprise with some or all of the following characteristics: provides service standards. This method is well suited to parts or all of an enterprise with some or all of the following characteristics: provides services that are economically important and need

Temporary privatization of the service takes place and lasts for as long as the concession lasts.

191


significant improvement; is large and usually enjoys a monopoly position ; is politically and / or practically difficult to sell; and is an need of investment capital.

11. Management Contracts

A management contract places a public enterprise under private management for a specific period of time for which the contractor is paid a fee. The fee may be based partly on performance. Ownership of assets remains with the enterprise, and ownership of the shares remains unchanged. The private manager has extensive autonomy, as set out in the contract. Often employed in situations where there is a need to turn around a company in readiness for eventual privatization .

Temporary privatization

A Comparison of the Institution Framework For Privation in Ten Countries (1995)

Country Leadinstitution(s)

Powers Constraints Other institutions involved

Benin Commission Technique de Denationalization and Cellule du project d’ Assistance Aux Enterprises (6 staff)

- Commission hires consulting firms to carry out technical studies - Cell executes privatization transactions

Liquidation process is too long (3-9 years)

Council of Ministers (which must approve every privatization transaction) Tutelle ministries

Burkina Faso

Privatization commission (a committee of ministers) and permanent Secretariat (4 professionals)

Reviews bids for valuation -Selects winning bids -Analyses offers -Authorizes Permanent Secretariat

Tutelle ministries

192


to initiate negotiations -Signs deeds of sale

Ghana Divestiture implementation Committee (DIC) and Permanent Secretariat (10 professional staff and advisers)

-DIC Secretariat plans and implements selected privatization transactions

Committee lacks authority to execute transactions; can recommend but not approve transaction that require government approval

-State Enterprises Commission -Ministry of Finance -Sector ministries -Ghana Stock Exchange

Sector ministries

Non –Performing Assets Recovery Trust

-Sector ministries oversee major transactions -Trust liquidates and sells assets, negotiates, reschedules or sells debt to third parties, and participates in the privatization of tradable enterprise within its portfolio

Kenya Parastatal Reform Programme

- ESTU Selects enterprises

ESTU has no legal status and

- Ministry of Finance-Holding

193


Committee (PRPC) and its Executive Secretariat Technical Unit (ESTU) (3professional staff)

for PRPC approval -PRPC recommends method of privatization

does not deal with all transactions

companies (DFLs)-Stock Exchange Commission -Line ministries

Madagascar

Commission Independante de- Privatization (CIP); Direction General pour la Privatisation (DGGP)

-Formulates legal framework -DGGP participated in the initial privatization transactions until 1993 when the program was suspended

Interference from Government and vested interest groups and DGGP’s lack of full mandate resulted in ad-hoc privatizations outside DGGP’s purview

-Office of the president -Tutelle ministries

Mozambique

For large enterprise: Interministerial Committee for Restructuring of Enterprises (CIRE) chaired by the PM with Minister of Finance is deputy; privatization Executive Commission (CEP) and its Technical Unit, UTRE

-CIRE advises Prime Minister on UTRE’s work -CEP prequalifies bidders, recommends and evaluates bids, selects winners and negotiates deals -UTRE reviews CEP’s decisions, analyzes each enterprise

-

194


For small and medium enterprise: departments within individual parent ministries; technical work is handle by units mostly in GREI (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries)

Nigeria Technical Committee on Privatisation and Commercialisation (TCPC), subsequently succeeded by the Bureau of State Enterprise, reporting directly to the President

-Most decisions other them valuations for public offerings made by TCPC

Encountered some resistance from line ministries Restricted to federal enterprises

-Securities & Exchange Commission -Private sector technical advisors -Federal sector ministries -State governments

Togo Ministry for Industry and State Enterprises

-Clear mandate for privatization and / or improving state enterprises

-Ministry of Finance -Ministry of Planning & Industry -Secretary of Public Enterprises

Uganda Privatization (8 Professional staff) under the Minister of

-Handles all matters relating to Privatization

No legal status-cannot sue or be sued

-Line ministries

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State and Finance (Privatization)

Holding companies

Zambia Zambia privatization Agency (ZPA) (12 broad members, of which only 3 are from government, 32 professional staff and 6 full –time advisers)

-Executes privatization transactions -Monitors redundancies -Approves disposal and lease of assets in all SOEs to be privatized

Holding companies (until dissolved)

-Cabinet (approves privatization method) -Private firms, who assist in valuations, bid evaluations and negotiations privatization Trust Fund -stock Exchange

Enterprises in which Equity Held Shall Partially be Privatized

Enterprises

Telecommunication Sector1. Nigeria Telecommunications plc.2. Nigeria Mobile Telecommunication Ltd.

Electricity Sector

MaximumStrategies InvestorParticipations as a Percentage afterPrivatization

40%

40%

40%

Maximum FederalGovernmentParastatal asPercentage afterPrivatization

40%

40%

40%

NigeriaIndividual Participation as Percentage afterPrivatization

20%

20%

20%

196


1. National Electric power Authority

Petroleum Sector1. Port-Harcourt Refinery (i) Port-Harcourt Refinery (ii)2. Kaduna Refinery and Petro-Chemicals 3. Warri Refinery and petro- Chemicals4. Eleme Petrochemical Company Ltd5. Pipeline Product and marketing Co. Ltd 6. Nigerian Petroleum Development Company limited

Fertilizer Companies1. Federal superphosphate Fertilizer Co Ltd.2. National Fertilizer Company Nig. Ltd.

Machine Tools Nigerian Machine Tools Company Limited

Gas Nigeria Gas Company Limited.

Steel and Aluminum Sector1. Jos Steel Rolling Mill Limited.

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

197


2. Katsina Steel Rolling Mill Co Limited 3. Oshogbo Steel Rolling Co. Limited. 4. Ajokuta Steel Company Limited 5. Delta Steel Company Limited.6. Aluminum Smelter Company Limited

Mining and Solid Mineral sectors 1. Nigerian Coal Corporation and Subsidiaries2. Nigerian Mining Corporation and Subsidiaries3. Nigerian Uranium Company Ltd4. Nigerian Iron-Ore-Mining Company Ltd

Media Companies 1. Daily Times of Nigeria Plc and Subsidiaries

2. New Nigeria Newspaper Ltd

Insurance Companies1. NICON Insurance Company Plc2. Nigeria Reinsurance Plc

Transport and Aviation Companies1. Federal Airports Authority of Nig.

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%40%

40%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%20%

20%

198


2. Niger dock Limited.3. Nigeria Airways Limited

Paper Companies1. Nigerian National Paper Manufacturing Company Limited Iwopin2. Nigeria Newsprint Manufacturing Company Limited Oku Ibokun3. Nigeria Paper Mills

Sugar Company1. Sunti Sugar Company Limited 2. Lafiaji Sugar Company3. Nigerian Sugar Company Bacita

Miscellaneous 1. Nigerian Postal Service2. Nigeria Railway Corporation3. Nigerian Industrial Development Bank Ltd4. Nigerian Agricultural and Co-operative Bank

5. Nigerian Bank for Commerce and Industry Ltd

6. Nigerian Aviation Handling Co. Ltd

40%

40%

40%

40%40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

40%

20%

20%

20%20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

20%

199


7. Nigerian Unity Line8. National Inland Waterways Authority

9. Carson Bermuda Ltd.10. Hyson (Nig.) Ltd.11. Abuja Environmental 12. Abuja Water Board 13. National Emergency Reconstruction Fund.14. Nigerian Ports Authority 15. Electricity Meter Company Ltd. (EMCOL)16. In’I Trade Fair Complex, Lagos.

40%

40%

40%40%

40%40%

40%

40%

60%

40%

40%

40%40%

40%40%

40%

10%

20%

20%

20%

20%20%

20%20%

10%

20%

Enterprise in which Equity Held Shall Be Fully Privatized

Infrastructure utility

1. Unipetrol Plc2. National Oil and Chemical Co.Ltd 3. African Petroleum Plc

Cement Companies 1. Ashaka Cement Company Plc 2. Benue Cement Company Plc 3.Northern Nigeria Cement Company Plc4.Nigeria Cement Company Limited5.Calabar Cement Company Limited 6. West African Portland Cement Plc

Commercial And Merchant Banks 1. Afribank Nigeria Plc

Federal Government Ownership 40%40%40%

30%30%30%10%40%27%

Post Companies privatization Government Ownership

NilNilNil

NilNil Nil Nil Nil

200


2. Assurance Bank Plc 3. ESB International Bank Plc (Shares owned by Parastatals)4. International Merchant Bank Plc5. NAL Merchant Bank Plc

Agro Allied1. Ayip-Eku Oil Plaim Company Plc2. Opobo Boat Yard 3. Nigeria Romania Industries Limited Motor Vehicles And Truck Assembly Companies 1. Anambra Motor Manufacturing Co. Ltd 2. Leyland Nigeria Limited 3. Nigeria Truck Manufacturing Company 4. Peugeot Automobile of Nigeria Limited5. Volkswagen of Nigeria Limited6. Steyr Nigeria Limited

Hotels1. Nigeria Hotels Limited2. Festac 77Plc

Miscellaneous 21. Savannah Sugar Company Numan2. Central Packages Company llupeju Lagos3. Chemical Company of Senegal. Dakar 4. Swaziland Sugar Company Swaziland 5. Premier Breweries Plc (Holding by Nigeria Industrial Dev. Bank For Commerce & Industry)6. Ahamadu Bello Stadium, Kaduna7. Liberty Stadium, Ibadan 8. Nnamdi Azikwe Stadium Enugu9. National Arts Theatre. Iganmu 10 NICON Hilton Hotel 11. Abuja International Hotel12. Sheraton Hotel, Abuja

25%25%25%

35%35%35%35%35%35%

47%100%

100%40%10%10%

20%100%100%100%100%100%100%100%36%36%36%36%36%36%

Nil

Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Nil NilNil

NilNilNilNil Nil Nil

NilNil

NilNil Nil Nil

Nil Nil NilNilNil Nil Nil NilNil

201


13. Dresser Nigeria Limited 14. Solus Secholl Nigeria Limited 15. A.C.M Nigeria Limited16. Baker Nigeria Limited17. Sedeo Forex Nigeria 18. Schlumberger Testing Products Services 19. Schlumberger Wire Line Company20. Dowell Schlumberge Nigeria Limited21. Key Drill Nigeria Limited 22. Board Nigeria Limited 23. D.C.P. Limited 24. Save sugar Company Benin Republic25. Oniybolo Cement, Benin Republic26. Ayip Eku Oil Palm Limited

36%36%36%36%36%46%43%60%

NilNilNilNilNil Nil Nil NilNil Nil Nil Nil Nil

Source: Privatization Handbook (2000:37) 2nd Edition,Abuja: Bureau of Public Enterprises

Commercialization of Public Enterprises:The policy of privatization and commercialization are tools of

economic reform (Olisambu, 1993). While privatization has to do with partial reduction or total withdrawal of government interest in public enterprises for private sector ownership, commercialization on the other hand, means recognizing such public sector enterprises to make them profit oriented and free from being run on government subvention and free from frequent government intervention in terms of management. Commercialization according to the TCPC is ‘the reorganization of enterprises wholly or partially owned by the Government in which such commercialized enterprises shall operate as profit making commercial ventures without Government subvention’.

The commercialization programme is broken down into two categories, full commercialization and partial commercialization. Full commercialization means that enterprises so designated will be expected to operate profitably on a commercial basis and be able to raise funds from the capital market without Government guarantee in the running of their business and may be subjected to the general regulatory power of the Federal Government.

Partial commercialization means that such enterprises so designated will be expected to generate enough revenue to cover their operating expenditures. The Government may consider giving them capital grants or finance their capital-intensive projects.

Commercialization can be rightly described as a novel idea in the Nigerian economic management. Whereas privatization entails a variety of policies, which encourage competition and emphasizes the role for market

202


forces in place of statutory restriction and monopoly powers, commercialization entails the reorganization of enterprises fully or partially owned by Government to make them operate as profit making commercial ventures without subvention from the Government. In privatization Government divests its shareholdings. In commercialization Government retains its shareholding. Aikhomu (1992) puts the distinction succinctly, while privatization entails the alienation of Government interest in the affected enterprises, commercialization of public enterprises whether full or partial will not entail any divestment but will characteristically entail dismantling of all forms of Government protection, insulation of public parastatal against domestic and foreign competitors. It will also call for significant withdrawal of Government interference in their management with parallel concession of parastatal autonomy.

The commercialization enterprises subject to the regulatory powers of the government should be able to first fix rates. Prices and charges for goods and services rendered. Secondly, capitalize assets. Thirdly, borrow money and issue debentures stock, and finally, sue and be sued in their corporate names.

The main Thrust of the commercialization program is to: * Provide enhanced operational autonomy.* Evolve a more result oriented and accountable - management based on

performance contact.* Upgrade the management information system of the affected

enterprises.* Ensure financial solvency of the public enterprises through effective

cost recovery, cost control and prudent financial management.* Provide competitive condition of service in order to enable public

enterprises to attract, recruit and retain the best available personnel.* Remove bureaucratic bottlenecks and political interference through

clear role definitions between the supervisory Ministry, and Board of Directors and the management of public enterprises.

* Restructure and rationalize public enterprises to make them more efficient, effective and cost conscious under the change of goal oriented management and staff whose future is linked with the fortune of the organization they operate.

* Check the present absolute dependence on the treasury for funding by otherwise commercially viable public enterprises through realistic capital structures, which will enable them to approach the capital market to fund their operations without Government guarantees.

Method of CommercializationIn order to arrive at decisions relating to the commercialization of

specific enterprises, the TCPC took certain specific steps. First, between

203


November 1988 and March 1989, there were diagnostic studies done by sub-committees, which undertook comprehensive review of the operations of the affected enterprises covering their financial, operational, technical, and organizational and management aspects.

In the second stage, the findings and recommendations of the sub-committees were examined by the TCPC. Some tentative conclusions were reached which then formed the basis of consultation with the Honorable Ministers of the supervisory Ministries. After series of meetings, agreements were reached on such issues as structures of reforms, capitalization and staff rationalization, etc.

In the third stage, there was a brain storming session organized by the TCPC. This took place in May 1989 under the chairmanship of Gamaliel Onosode, chairman of the 1982 presidential commission on parastatals. The forum provided an opportunity for knowledgeable Nigerians from the financial sector, the academia, commerce and industry and Chief Executives of affected enterprises to brainstorm on the findings of Diagnostic Study Groups.

In the fourth stage based on the work in the preceding three stages, the TCPC submitted a memorandum to the National Council of ministers in August1989 in which it sought and obtained the approval of the Council on some critical issues such as: The role of the Supervising Ministries. The role of the Bard of Directors. The role Management. Procedure for the appointment and removal of Board of Directors. Procedure for the appointment and removal Chief Executives and

Management staff; and Conditions of service for the commercialized enterprises.In the fifth stage, the then vice president, Amiral Augustus Aikomu inaugurated 29 implementation sub-committees on November 29,1989 to implement a 16 point mandate for a transition programme to prepare the affected enterprises for operation on strict business lines. Specifically the 16 points comprised:- Updating of annual accounts and reports of enterprises where necessary.- Revaluation of assets where necessary.- Improvement in the Management Information System at enterprises level.- Capital restructuring to prepare the enterprises for market reception.- General de-bureaucratization of the affected enterprises.- Review of staff conditions of service including remuneration.- Repairs and rehabilitation of enterprises physical facilities to put them in

good working condition.- Staff audits and job description for the major responsibilities.- Development of performance criteria.

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- Review of administrative and financial accounting procedures to conform with the requirement of commercial operation.

- Debt resolution and settlements.- Review of tariffs and funding arrangements where necessary.- Securing various approvals necessary to give effect to the reform

measures.- Program of staff training and re-orientation of staff at all levels.- Designing reporting systems to meet internal, external and other

obligations.- Any other structural changes necessary to prepare the enterprises for

operation on proper business lines. The implementation sub-committees submitted their reports on August

31, 1990 to the TCPC. In the sixth stage, the TCPC undertook a synthesis of the reports of the implementation sub-committees with the recommendations of the Diagnostic study Reports to develop the reforms package for commercialized enterprises. These were then passed on to the Federal Military Government for approval before they were made public. In the process of putting together the reform package, the TCPC developed two separate but complementary documents to finalize the commercialization programme. The documents are:1. A framework for commercialization, which addressed some 25 critical issues, common to all affected enterprises. The implementation committees were able to work on the basis of this framework pending the approval by the Federal Government of the main reform package for each affected enterprise.

2. Separate reforms package specific to each affected enterprise. The specific reform package is a synthesis of the transition period reports of the initial implementation sub-committees, the recommendations of the Diagnostic study Groups and the various consultations held with the individual Ministers responsible for each enterprise.

All these stages climaxed in the performance contract which TCPC signed with these individual commercialized enterprises: Performance contracts, according to Verr (1992) ‘Are formal protocols negotiated between the Management of a public Enterprise and Government acting as the owner of the enterprise and as the overseer body of the enterprise. Intentions, obligations and responsibilities of the two parties related to the Management of the Enterprise during the duration of the performance contacts (generally three to five years), including performance level expected from the enterprise are supposedly, freely negotiated and clearly set out in the protocol.

Verr (op cit.) has traced the origin of performance contracts mechanism to France where it was first designed and named ‘contracted enterprise. This name was later changed to Cooperate Plan in the seventies. Since then, other countries have adopted the mechanism, which has been

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widely used in France. Following the endorsement of this mechanism, the world Banks as well as other donor agencies and many third world countries which rely heavily on these institutions, also adopted the performance contracts mechanism as the management of public enterprises.

As Verr (1992) pointed out; ‘the performance contract concept encouraged by donors, including the World Bank, spread to the developing world, first to Francophone Sub-Sahara African in the eighties, then, under various designations, to North Africa and blurred relations with governments in the developing world appear as primary candidates for the use of performance contract mechanism, which has been or is being implemented by public enterprises in Senegal, Cameroon, Mali, Zaire, Kenya, Morocco, Tunisia, Mexico, Uruguay, China Korea and now Nigeria.

The Objectives of Privatization and CommercializationThe objectives of the privatization and commercialization program as

spelt out by Decree No 25 of 1988 are:* To restructure and rationalize the public sector in order to lessen the

dominance of unproductive investment in that sector.* To re-orient the enterprise for privatization and commercialization

towards a new horizon of performance improvement, viability and overall efficiency.* To ensure positive return on public sector investments in commercialized

enterprises.* To check the absolute dependency on the treasury for funding by otherwise

commercially oriented parastatals and so encouraged the approach to the Nigerian Capital Market.

* To initiate the process of gradual leasing to the private sector of such public enterprises, which by their nature and type of operations are best performed by the private sector.

Some Partially Commercialized EnterprisesSome partially commercialized enterprises are:

(1) Nigeria Railway Corporation,(2) Nigeria Airports Authority, (3) Nigerian Security Printing and Mintting Company LTD, (4) All the River Basin Development Authorities. (5) National Provident Fund, (6) Ajokuta Steel Company LTD, (7) Delta Steel Company Ltd, (8) Nigerian Machine Tool LTD, (9) Federal Housing Authority, (10) News Agency of Nigeria.

Some Fully Commercialized Enterprises The fully commercialized organizations are as follows:* Nigerian national Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) * Nigerian Telecommunications LTD, (NITEL);

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* Associated Ores Mining Company LTD;* Nigerian Coal Corporation;* Nigeria Mining Corporation;* National Insurance Corporation of Nigeria;* Nigeria Re-Insurance Corporation;* National Properties LTD;* Tafawa Balewa Square management Committee;* Nigeria Ports Authority; - (re-named Nigeria ports PLC).

The administrators of these privatized and commercialized public sector Organizations have been automatically transformed into managers, skilled in scientific management, speaking management language, thinking in managerial concepts, and working in accordance with management models like target setting, performance measures, strategic management, cost-cutting et al.

Technical Committee on Privatization and CommercializationThe Technical committee on privatization and commercialization

(TCPC), was established in 1988 (sec. 3(2) & (3) ). It is empowered to work out modalities for the autonomous operations of commercialized parastatals or organizations. Their relationship with the government through relevant ministries is on a similar basis as that management with shareholders.

Organization and composition of TCPC The Technical committee consists of a chairman and seven other

members to be appointed by the president. The members of the technical committee are drawn from both the economy and required to be persons with detailed knowledge and wide experience.

Tenor/ Terms of referenceThe members of the Technical committee are appointed on such terms

and conditions as the President may deem fix in the circumstance (sec.3 (4))It may be worthy of note here that the first chairman of TCPC is Dr.

Hamzet Zayyad.

FunctionsThe functions of TCPC (sec. 4 91)) are stated below

To advise on the capital restructuring needs of enterprises to be privatized or commercialized under the law in order to ensure a good reception in the stock exchange market for those to be privatized as well as to facilitate good management and independent access to capital market;

To carry out all activities required for the successful public issue of share of the enterprises to be privatized including the appointment of stockbrokers, solicitors, and other experts to issue.

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To approach that the appointed issuing houses, the Securities, the exchange To advise the Government, after commission with the Securities and

Exchange Council and the Nigeria Stock Exchange on the allotment pattern for the safe of the shares of the enterprise conveyed in accordance with section 7 of the decree;

To oversee the actual sale of shares of the enterprise concerned by the issuing houses in accordance with the guidelines approved by the Federal Government;

To submit to the Federal Government from time to time for the purpose of approval, proposals on sale of Government shares in such designated enterprises with a view to ensuring a fair price and even spread in the ownership of the shares.

To ensure the success of the privatization and commercialization exercise taking into account the need for balanced and meaningful participation by Nigerian and foreign interest in accordance with the relevant laws of Nigerians;

To ensure the updating of the accounts of all commercialized enterprises with a view to ensuring financial discipline.

From time to time, by the president, whenever the committee is of the view that any enterprise is not suitable for disposal by public issue of shares, the committee is required to recommend to the Federal Government the mode of disposal of such enterprise. It is required to seek and obtain the prior approval of the Federal Government for price of any share issue in respect of any designated enterprises and the pattern of its allotment.

Special ReportThe Technical committee is required from time to time to submit to

the Federal Government details of its implementation proposal for security and approval (9(1) & (2)).

The committee is required to submit a report on its overall activities every 6 months.

Annual ReportThe Technical Committee shall within 3 months after the expiration of

the year, prepare and submit to the Federal Government a report of activities during the proceeding year (sec 11). This shall Include the report of a copy of the audited account of the committee for that year and a copy of the auditors’ repot on the accounts.

Sub-committees

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The TCPC may appoint such number of standing and ad-hoe sub-committees as it thinks fit and may require such sub-committees to consider and report on any matter with which it is concerned (sec. 11 (1-3).

Every sub-committee shall be presided over by a member of the sub-committee (Ibid).

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS (I.G.R)

As Abonyi (2005) noted that in any political structure, there are bound to be various levels of government in existence. Domestic public policy is implemented not only by government but governments thus the administration of single public policy often involves many funding sources and public administrators interacting through all levels of government. This networking as Asogwa, (2009) noted is called inter-governmental relations.

Government like a living organism is composed of various parts and these parts interacts among themselves so as to keep the system functional at all times. This structural - participating of government is found in both unitary and federal systems, and structures. Though, this structuring is not prominent in the unitary structure the other levels that do exist owe their fate to the central government, and as such could take any form aid shape given to it by center. This structural - functional relationship between more in a federal of governments manifest more in a federal structure. Abonyi (2005), noted that;

“In a federal structure where these levels of government are more defined, the constitution defines the power of each level, thus making them more or less independent of one another. But for the particular reason that they all work under one structure”

Okoli and Onah (2002) citing K C. Wheares noted that:“the theoretical model of federalism argues that each unit of the government within such a structure should operate independently within statutorily or constitutionally defined spheres of comphence” the model further argues that although the different units within such structure are

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relatively independent, yet because they operate within a single national sovereign structure they are coordinated with one another.

Based on this assumption, therefore, some parts or units in the structure /system cannot perform its constitutionally assigned functions effectively without the total co-operation of the other parts or units. As Okoli (2005) observed this assumption also presupposes a symbolic level of relationship whereby the success or failure of some parts depends on the degree of mutual co-operation of the other parts or system. Thus series of financial, legal, political and administrative relationship must be established among these parts or level of government for efficient and effective functioning, resulting from mutual and cooperative relationships and inter dependency.

Udenta (2007) noted that no matter how democratic a political system is, it must not be a flat organization. There is a hierarchy and hierarchy involves relationships of rights and responsibilities. For efficiency effectiveness of any multi-tiered government federal organization or institution, communication among tiers is necessary. As Herman (1999) puts it, in modern societies with federal systems and a much higher degree of inter-dependence between all levels of government (including local government, communications between the levels of government is of crucial importance. This communication between the levels of government in a modern society is called inter-government relations:

Our major task here is to examine the various meanings attached to inter-government relations (IGR).

The Meaning of Inter-Governmental Relations (IGR)Accordingly, just as any other concepts in social sciences, a plethora

of definitions can be found in the literature on the subject of inter-governmental relations. Each of them, according to Oghuishi (2007), is a variation on a common theme.

Inter-governmental relations in the words of Nwosu,(1980) is a plethora of formal and informal relationships and transactions that develop among levels of government within a nation- state. Inter-governmental relations according to Olugbemi (1980), is a system of transactions of behaviour patterns among managers of hierarchically structured levels of government in a state. To Adamolekun (1983), it is the interactions that take place among the different levels of government with a country. Obi (2004) in his own part sees IGR as the complex patterns of interactions, cooperation and interdependence between two or more levels of government. IGR involves the between of cooperative relationships between various levels of government in a federal governmental system (Elekwa, 1995).

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According to Onwusi (2009), inter-governmental relations refers to the structure, process of transaction interconnections and co-operation among the tiers or arms of government and their organs, agencies etc. They exercise their power and perform their functions in a political system.Malkin (1976) defined intergovernmental relations as the series of legal, political, and administrative relationships established among units of government and which possess varying degrees of authorities and jurisdictional autonomy.

For us, inter-governmental relations is taken to refer to the sum total of the patterned system, of the structural interactions, transaction, interdependence and cooperative relationship between and among the units or levels of government and their organs and agencies in a given political system.The Need for Inter-Governmental Relations

An inter-governmental relation is primarily meant to ensure a co-operative coordinative and mutual relationships and co-existence among the levels and arms or government in a given political system. In her own part, Okoli (2005) noted that the essence of IGR is to develop high level of coordination among various tiers of government in the heading and implementation of policies and programmes for national development such as:-

i To promote peace and harmony among the three levels of government. ii To enhance the emergence of cooperation’s rather than competition in

federalism.iii To ensure effective and efficient utilization of available human and

material resources among the various levels of government.vi To accelerate the achievement of self-reliant economy.v To minimize inter-governmental conflict among the various levels of

government.vi To solve problems of rural and urban poverty, ignorance and suffering of

the people.vii To foster greater national integration via the activities of the three levels

of government.

Why IGR Manifests More in a Federal StructureOkoli et al (2002) stated the following eight factors:

i imperfection of function distribution; ii the areas of concurrent functions needing cooperation; iii need to by-pass the rigidity of the judiciary; iv the possibility of incidents of flood, draught, earth-quakes etc. in a

federal system;v a need for national economic integration;vi the situation where states or a unit of the federal set-up have

responsibilities with no capable resource base to shoulder them.

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vii a condition where a unit or a section affects the citizen of other units or states; and finally,

viii a situation whereby there is special need for integrating programmes on a nationwide scale?But as many as these reasons could be, the authors summarized them under two reasons viz:

1. The definition and sharing of goals of the state and the resources to accomplish them, the goals of the state being system maintenance and socio-economic welfare;

2. the bi-or multi-lateral self-interest pursuit in the areas of joint business undertakings, personnel and information exchange, grant of extra territorial rights in service delivery, and the pooling and co-ordination of resources and efforts to achieve greater economy and effectiveness in operation. The significant of IGR between the federal and other levels of

government is felt more when the federal government’s Socio- economic and political development programmes influence the activities and programmes of other levels of government. According Ugwu (1998) this situation brings to focus an emphasis on co-operation, co-ordination and collaboration among the various levels of government to ensure efficient and satisfactory implementation of such federal inspired and initiated programmes at all the levels of governments

Classification of IGRInter-governmental relations can be classified into horizontal, vertical or triangular

Horizontal Relations This is the type of relations existing between equals or the same

levels of government; such as relationship between states or between local governments. Put clearly, in Nigeria these are those relationships or interactions between thirty-six states of the federation (state relations) or among the 774 local governments (local-local relations).

Vertical RelationsThis is the type of relation occurring between the officials of

central units of government (federal and smaller constituent units (states or local governments) put differently,

It is the relationship between different levels of governments in Nigeria, vertical relations are the relations between:-the federal and state, state and local governments, federal government and local governments.

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Triangular RelationsThis may involve two local governments with a single federal or

state agency or two federal or state agencies with one local government.

Structure and Patterns of Inter-Governmental RelationsEven though IGR is commonly associated with a federal system

of government, it is also applied in a unitary state, where it is referred to as the interactions between the national government and the sub-national government units. In some countries with unitary system of government, only one category of sub-national units exists and is commonly referred to as local government. In such states, Adamolekun (1983) noted, the IGR refers to the interactions between the central (national) government and the local government units and it is called central-local relations. In some other unitary states, sub-national government units exist at two levels: the local and regional levels. Here the pattern of interactions includes central-regional, central-regional –local, and central-local, and inter-regional, regional-local and inter-local relations.

In a federal state or system like Nigeria six patterns of interactions exists. They are:

i. Federal-state relationsii. Federal-state local relationsiii. Federal-local relationsiv. State-state (inter-state) relationsv. State-local relationsvi. Local-local (inter local relations.)

The nature of our federal system makes it necessary for some kind of working relationship between the national government and the 36 states and 774 local governments (Asogwa, 2009). Thus a Complex network of relations does exist among the three levels of government in Nigeria.

Basically these relations are found in four areas- administrative, political financial and economic. So, the level of governments enjoys, administrative, political financial and economic relations.

Federal – State Administrative RelationsThe administrative relation between the Federal and state

governments in Nigeria takes the following forms :

(a) Control of interstate commerce: The federal government through the exercise of its constitutional

authority enforces law with the help of its agencies that controls and ensure standard of interstate commercial activities. Example:- The National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC),

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As noted by Asogwa S. M. (2009): these organizations have their field workers all over the federation and their offices opened in the 36 States of the federation.

(b) Joint Use of Officials Sometimes the federal government commission state public

servants to help in carrying out certain national assignments or programmes. e.g. The Use of State officers to as supervisors and enumerators by National Population Commission (NPS) Also, State heath officials are recruited to participate in federal heath schemes or programmes etc.

(c) Research: Date Collection and research is another of area of federal state

relation. To cope with the complex raising needs of the nation federal government established research institutes in some states. e.g. project Development Agency (PRODA). Asogwa (2009) noted that the results of researches carried out by these agencies are made available to states and local governments to solve pressing problems and improve their performance.

(d) Conferences and Meetings:The Federal Government Ministries/ Departments organise

conferences and meetings in which State Government officials are invited. Such gatherings afford the officials opportunities to discuss Social, political and economic issues in which they have common interest. We have had many of such conferences like the National Conference of the Minister and Commissioners of Finance meetings of Secretaries to Governments of the Federation, the National Conference of Minister and Commissioners of Works, Meetings of Accountant-Generals of the Federations. Agreements are usually entered into at the end the conferences and meetings.

(e) Public Order and Security: The Nigerian police Force is a national service, which is

organized and administered by the Federal Government. Members of the force are deployed to all the states of the federation to maintain peace and security for public safety and public order. The Nigerian police force is charged with sole responsibility for the prevention and detention of crime, the apprehension of offenders, the protection of life and property etc. in carryings out these statutory roles, the force requires the cooperation and assistance of State Governments. (Asogwa, 2009).

It was in recognition of this onerous task that in 2005 the Enugu State Government handed over to the State Police Command 13 Brand New Toyota Hilux Pick-up Vehicles and cartons of state-of –the art

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communication gadgets as way of supporting community policing initiative of the state police command.

Also in 2005, the Imo State Government donated fifteen (15) Brand New Vehicles to Security Agencies operating in the State, including the Nigerian Army. These cooperative arrangements have helped in empowering the police capabilities to fight crimes in the states.

(f) Administrative circulars and guidelines on salary structures for State Public Service employees, the Nigerian Constitution, are prepared by the Federal Government:

State Governments are expected to implement these guidelines. Also the remuneration for political office holders in the States which includes the Governor, Deputy Governor, Commissioners, Special Advisers, Legislators, is determined by the Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission (RMAFC) which is a Federal Agency (Third Schedule, Part 1, Section 32 (d) of 1999 Constitution) (Asogwa, 2009)

(g) Disaster Management: Another form of cooperation between the federal government and

the states is on the management of natural disasters, like landslide and tremor, erosion, flood etc. The National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA), which is a federal establishment, has continued to collaborate with States where such disasters had occurred with a view to helping the affected communities. The Agency delivers emergency relief materials to the victims through their state governments. It is also the responsibility of the agency to provide the guidelines on how these materials are shared and transmit same to the state.

(g) Training: Another Kind of co-operative arrangement is training: Some

federal establishments Organize technical training for state government officials. For example, the Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit (Due Process) in the Presidency, has continued to embark on training, education and technical assistance for state government officials on the need for due process guidelines of openness, competition, transparency, optimal cost, efficiency and value for money, in respect of awards of contracts. This is in pursuance of public procurement reforms going on in the country.

Federal –State Financial Relation:Financial relations between the federal and state manifest in two

major areas statutory allocation and Grants Grants

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Loans/BorrowingsIt is important to note here that the external sources of local

government fund tend to underline the independent of local governments (Local Government Autonomy). This is because the federal and state governments respond directly to the popular saying that “he who pays the piper dictated the truth.

a. Statutory AllocationsThis can also statutory allocation is a system whereby the local authorities have a direct share of either specific items or the total, nationally deceived revenue (Ezeani, 2005).

As Okoli (2005) noted, it is the share of revenue from state/central government as fixed by Law. Inshort, it is contributions made by the central /state governments to assist local governments in providing public services.

The 1999 constitution guaranteed legal basis for the existence of local governments in Nigeria and provided for it’s statutory funding.The federal government, provide 20, percent of consolidated federal Revenue to the local governments whileThe state governments are obliged to allocate 10 percent of their internally generated revenue to their local governments.

The allocation of revenue (Federal Account) etc (Amendment) decree, 1984 stipulated that funds in this Federation account shall be shared among the various levels of government as follows:Federal government - 55%State government - 32.5%Local government councils - 10%Fund for the amelioration of ecological problems - 1%Fund for the development of mineral producing areas - 1.5%Furthermore, the amendment decree (1984) on Allocation of Revenue also approved allocation from Federation Account to local governments on the following basis:(a) Equality among local government -40%(b) Population of local government each state - 40%(c) Primary school enrolment - 15%(d) Internal revenue generated efforts - 5%However, states were given option to vary above formula as their peculiar circumstances dictate. For example, Lagos adopted the following formula with slight variation in the percentage, thus:Equality - 40%Population - 40%

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Internally generated revenueEfforts by the councils - 10%Social services provided by the Council - 10%

After the inauguration of the National Revenue Mobilization, allocation and Fiscal Commission on 6th September, 1988, the commission proposed a vertical revenue sharing which was approved by the armed forces ruling (AFRC) and came into effect on January 1990.Revenue Distribution Formula

Commissions Recommendation

AFRC Approval

Federal Government State governmentLocal governmentSpecial funds

47%30%5%8%

50%30%15%5%

Source:Again, in his 1992 Budget Speech General Babangida the former Head of State effected some adjustment to the Revenue sharing formula by reducing state governments share from 25% to 24%.The graphic picture of the vertical revenue sharing formula from 1981 is as hereunder.

S/N 1981 1989 1990 1992 1993

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1.2.3.4.

Federal Government State governmentLocal governmentSpecial funds

Federal CapitalTerritoryStabilizationSaving (d) Derivation(e) Development of oil producing areas(f)General ecological

5534.510Nil

NilNil Nil 2

1.51

5532.510.02.5

5030155

16.5Nil 2

1.5-

502520.05

10.5-

1.5-

48.5242075

10.5-1

32

Total 100 100 100 100 100Souurce:The Report of the National Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission.

The Revenue Mobilization, Allocation and Fiscal Commission in the National Interest Newspaper of 27th March 2002, proposed a very revenue sharing formula following the nationwide outcry and agitation for the review of the existing formula which is apparently acclaimed to be skewed in favour of the federal government and did not address adequately the peculiar handicaps of the federating units.

The new formula recommended by the revenue Mobilization and Fiscal Allocation Commission to the National Assembly is as follows:Equality among local government - 40%Population of local government each state - 40%Primary school enrolment - 15%Internal revenue generated efforts - 5%

The chairman of the commission, Engineer Hamman Tukur, stated that the new revenue sharing formula had taken cognizance of population growth rate urbanization, rapid growth in the number of states and local governments, diversification of economic activities such as agriculture and exploitation of the country’s solid minerals and environmental issues.

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On the issue of zero allocation affecting majority of local governmentthe commission chairman noted that the office of the Accountant General of the Federation had been advised to stop further deductions from the distributive fund until the National Assembly approves a new revenue sharing formula.

Principles of Revenue Allocation Formula in NigeriaAsogwa (2009) identified and discussed the following principles, a

revenue allocation in Nigeria.1. Derivation.2. Even development.3. Independent Revenue.4. National interest.5. Need.6. Continuity of government services.7. Minimum responsibility.8. Financial Comparability.9. Equality of states.10. National minimum standards.11. Equality of access to development opportunities.12. Absorptive capacity.13. Fiscal efficiency14. Enrolment.15. Land mass and terrain.16. Population.

Derivation PrinciplesThis principle of Derivation asserts on equity grounds. This means

that the State from which the bulk of the revenue is obtained should receive an extra share above what every other States receives. The 1999 Constitution has provided that thirteen percent (13%) of federal collected revenue be shared amongst the States from where such revenue is obtained.Even Development

This principle requires that growth and development should be spread so that serious inequalities or imbalances are reduced in the federation.

National Minimum StandardThe principles of Minimum National Standard asserts the maintenance

of minimum national standards in education, agriculture, health etc with the aim of lifting each unit in the federation at least up to that minimum and, if possible beyond it.

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Equality of Access to Development OpportunitiesThe Principles of Need, even Development and Equality of are

variants of the same principle and can be appropriately satisfied by the same measures.

Absorptive CapacitiesThe Principle of Absorptive Capacity is formulated to represent the

capacity of a State to make proper use of funds. It advocates that funds should, on grounds of efficiency, better go to those States best able to use them. However, if this principle is followed to its logical conclusion, it will lead to widening of the gaps in the level of development.

Fiscal Efficiency Fiscal Efficiency reflects not only the ability to raise taxes, and collect

them; it reflects the structure of the tax base itself as well as the overall administrative machinery of government. This principle emphasizes that we should minimize the cost of our fiscal administration.Enrolment

This principle recognizes the use of school enrolment (both direct and inverse enrolment) as a basis for inter-state revenue sharing. This is also known as the principle of social development factor.

Land-Mass and TerrainThis principle is designed to take care of developmental needs,

inclusive of growth and expansion arising from the availability of adequate land. Adequate land mass and terrain is important for growth, expansion and generation of economic wealth and well being of the human population. On terrain, the principle recognizes the fact that. For instance, it costs more to execute projects in the Niger area region than in would cost to embark on the same projects in the Niger area region than in would cost to embark on the same project elsewhere in Nigeria.

Independent RevenueThis principle is an efficiency inspired principle, which is intended to

galvanize each level of government to be able to raise and keep some revenue for its use.

National InterestThe highest level of government to intervene and transfer funds to

lower levels, to serve various considerations uses the principle of national

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interest residually. Both economic and political interest are put into consideration.

NeedThis principle has been used for inter-state allocations of revenue in

Nigeria. This has been used more to raise the level of the deficient or unadvanced State than to push forward the level of the relatively advanced states.

Continuity of Government Services and Minimum ResponsibilityThe principle of Continuity of government services is similar in

content to the Principle of Minimum Responsibility of government. Both principles suggest that each level of service being provided should not be allowed to fall below a certain norm and standard.

Financial ComparabilityThe principle of Financial Comparability is a procedure to be

undertaken in the process of revenue allocation. The principle maintains that any review of revenue allocation system should compare the financial position of the units participating in an allocation: the level of independent revenue or tax efforts of the units.

Equality of States The principle of Equality of States is justified in the context of the

principle of minimum responsibilities for each unit in any level of government. In other words, a minimum set of responsibilities is common to each state irrespective of size or capacity of each local government council within a State.

Tax EffortTax Principles of Tax Effort is designed to encourage State to make

maximum use of their tax capabilities. It is, in essence, part of the principle of independent revenues. If the system of taxation is sufficiently progressive, this principle will aid efficiency while being equity neutral. Principle of Population

This principle places much emphasizes on the population of the component units. It is assumed that the more people reside in an area, the greater the socio-economic, physical challenges confronting the areas. Therefore, more money would be needed to tackle these challenges. The fallout form this principle is the politicization of population census in Nigeria and the resultant controversies. It is generally believed that the higher the population of a component unit, the more revenue allocation that would accrue to that unit (State or Local Government). It is however important to observe than Section

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162(2) of the 1999 Constitution adopts the following revenue allocation principles: population, equality of States, internal revenue generation, land mass, terrain, population density and derivation.

Grants Grants otherwise known as grants-in-aid are financial aids, which are

given by the central or state governments to the local government in their provision of the public services.Ezeani stated that grant-in aid is defined as the sum of money given by the federal or central government for use by the lower layers of government such as the state and local governments in the provision of goals and services.

Grants may be conditional on unconditional. They are conditional if given for the provision of specific goods and services, and unconditional if they can be used by the recipient government for any legal purpose (Obinna, 1995:67). The principal objectives of federal government grants-in-aid to local authorities are:a) To promote the equal provision of particular social services such as

healthy education police highway development etc, in all parts of the state by removing the imbalance in the resources available to the various local authorities for financing of these services.

b) To encourage the achievement of common standards in certain areas of local government functions where values are national rather than parochial;

c) To induce the receiving local authorities to incur expenditure on particular projects which, if left to their independent and improved judgements, would not have been given any priority in their budgets. In this respect the grant is used as a lever to stimulate new services in the national interest.

d) To compensate local authorities for the loss of any portion of their ordinary revenues consequent upon a change in the enabling statute or regulations carried out to fulfill the political, social or economic philosophy of the party in control of the central government (Okonjo, 1979:173)It is important to note that grants are paid after the federal government

has satisfied itself, by direct or intermediate inspection or enquiries that the prescribed minimum national standard of efficiency in the maintenance of the particular service concerned has been attained especially, if granted under certain conditions.

Types of Grants-In-AidThe following types of grant existed for local governments in Nigeria.

They are

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Block grant Percentage grant /Specific grant Matching grant Equalization grant

Block Grant This is given in order to augment the local government internal or

independent revenue. It is an annual payment made by the control or federal government to it’s local government on a basis related to the number of persons or tax payers in each local government (Ezeani, 2005).

This grant is not tied to a specific service. The rationale for these grants according to Ezeani (2005) is the recognition of the fact that a local authority, for one reason or another has lost some sources of revenue to the central authority. Thus it is compensatory.

A major advantage of this type of grant as recorded by Ezeani (2005) is that the amount payable to each local government is certain. Therefore there is a firm basis for budgeting and planning by both central and local governments. The major disadvantages of this type of grant are that it is inelastic and could until revised, make it difficult for the local governments to improve or expand their social services.

Percentage Grant/Specific Grant This according to Ali (2002) occurs in situation in which

the central government may decide to pay for a certain percentage of recurrent cost i.e. cost of maintaining a number of public services, teacher salaries, health services, etc. Thus a specific or fixed amount of money is given to a local government for a specific purpose (Okoli, 2005).

Ezeani (2004) states that percentage grant is usually given for a specific service to encourage a local authority to provide the service or facility at a nationally acceptable standard. It is given as a percentage of the total expenditure incurred by local authorities on a given service.

Advantages of this Type of Grant Include:(a) It is simple to operate and hence popular the world over. (b) As a matching grant, it encourages the local government to invest more

in the development and improvement of services.(c) It is elastic, promotional and hence encourages the local government to

raise more funds internally to expand their services(d) It has a reasonable degree of certainly once the government is

politically and financially stable.(e) It encouraged community development projects. This community can

avail themselves of the grant once they complete their projects such as

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school and post office buildings on time, mainly before the end of the year.The major disadvantages of this type of grant are that it encourages uneven development, because it makes the rich local government richer and the poor poorer. Put differently, weather local government can afford to invest more in the grant earning services and projects, hereby attracting more grant revenue to it’s treasury than is the case with poor council.

(c) Equalization Grant This is the type of given to poor or back ward local government to enable them catch up developmentally. It is meant to encourage the poor local government to embark on the provision of developmental programmes and projects, thereby, making for each development. The major idea behind this is to compensate poor local government.

As Ezeani (2005) puts it, “The equalization Grant is paid as an aid to less economically privileged local government whose revenue will not be enough to finance and maintain a particular essential service. The government therefore pays a subsidy to meet the excess of expenditure over revenue. Accordingly, under equalization grant, the cost of special but expensive services of national importance, which the local government has to render, is taken account of.

The major advantage of the equalization grant is that it fosters even development of basic infrastructures which encourages the dispersal of industrial and employment generating project through it’s assistance to poor local governments and industrially depressed or sparsely populated.

Merits and Demerits of GrantsAsogwa, (2009) citing Obi (2004) stated the following as the merits and demerits of grants:

S/N Merits of Grants Demerits of Grant 1 Grants provide a strong

fiscal relationships between the central government and subordinate units

Grants could be a very good source of intergovernmental conflict

2 Grants provide subordinate tiers with funds required to support capital-intensive projects

Unlimited number of grants could becomes very complex for subordinate tiers to handle hence, could pose administrative problems to

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them. 3 Grants permits the federal

government opportunity to balance resources between poor and rich states and redistribution the wealth of the nation

If grants are not properly coordinated, they tend to be submerged. When this occurs, grants in aid could lack clearly defined purpose (s) or objective(s)

4 Grants, particularly project grants, encourage local initiative and local research

Subordinate tiers could over rely on federal grants, if this happens, it may lead to lack of exploitation of local sources of revenues.

5 Grants could provide technical assistance to subordinate tier which ordinarily they could not have afforded on their own

Grants- supported project take a very long time to complete due to slow rate at which funds are released. The projects could also last for short time in which case it could be haphazardly implemented or abandoned half way.

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Federal grants permit the injection of national values, ideals, standards and help to curb up ethnicity because a non-indigene of a state could represent Federal Government in another State other than his/ her own States of origin without being discriminated against.

The forms acceptance to the federal officials. Otherwise, the application forms could get stocked.

7 In an attempt to remedy the fiscal inadequacies of subordinate tiers, created by hard economic situation

Grants in the form of categorical grants do not leave much discretional powers to the subordinate

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and unbalanced natural endowment, the Federal Government uses grant system as a means of expanding its nation powers. This is because central governmentsometimes set up policies and guidelines which sometime affect areas which are known to be the exclusive preserves of the sub-units.

units with respect to expenditure. This is based on the fact that Federal Government strictly supervises the expenditure and implementation of such projects under categorical grants to ensure that States and local Government comply strictly with guidelines provided.

Federal-State Political Relations

The political relations between the Federal and State Governments are many and unavoidable. This is because politicians at the national level-the President, the Vice-President, Senators, Members of the House of Representatives etc.- start their political journeys from their respective States. These political office holders are expected to register with the State branch of their parties. Candidates vying for the office of the president must win elections in each of at least two-third of all the States in the federation. (Asogwa, 2009)

The 1999 Constitution provided for the establishment of State Independent Electoral Commission “to organize undertake and supervise all elections to local government councils within the State”. However, in carrying out these constitutional duties, the SIEC is expected to work in collaboration with the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) on the compilation of and the register of voters. This is a complete political relationship between the federal and state governments. (Asogwa, 2009)

Equally worthy of mention is the role of State Governments in facilitating the conduct of elections into political offices. This is done through their assistance in the provision of office accommodations to the INEC (federal Agency). The States also provide security and other logistics during conduct of elections.

Federal-State Economic Relations The Federal and State governments have continued to embark on

joint ventures. Some social services a jointly carried out by the two levels of government: education health and rural infrastructural services etc are among the areas of intergovernmental economic relations in Nigeria.

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Another case in point is the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC). The NDDC has formulated the Niger Delta Regional Development Master Plan which is a comprehensive action plan on the development of the Niger Delta the implementation of this plan commenced with the creation of the partners for Sustainable Development Forum (PSD). The PSD is a forum of the nine Niger Delta States (Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta; Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers), It also includes other stakeholders in oil business in the Niger Delta region. The forum is aimed at facilitating collaboration and harmony of the Niger Delta Regional Development Master Plan (NDRDMP) and the State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy (SEEDS) of the nine Niger Delta States. (Asogwa, 2009)

In 2006, the former President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, flagged off the ethanol project in Agufa village in Jigawa State. The ethanol project is a joint venture between the Jigawa State government and the NNPC (federal agency). Jigawa State government provided 10,000 hectares of land for the planting of industrial sugar cane spread across the wet land areas of 10 local governments in the state.

Interstate Relations Interstate relation is another aspect of the federal government of

Nigeria application of the principle of federalism that is important to students of public administration. The states not only need to be harmonious in their relationship with the federal government, but as quasi-sovereign entities they should also have mutual co-existence. They must find ways of establishing joint partnership endeavours. They must establish ways of settling disputes in a satisfactory manner without resorting to violence. Occasionally in Nigeria, since the issue of constant state creation by the military, there has been an avalanche of boundary disputes between ones state government and another. But recently, occasioned by civility and good neighborliness, some of the angry youths who are being used as tools for war have resorted to sheathing their swords. For example, on several occasions, there have been settlements of boundary problems between the Abia State government and their Akwa Ibom State counterpart, without resorting to violence. Such peace efforts have been brokered by the states’ chief executives. Even recently there was the recovery of about 28 oil walls hitherto owned by the government and people of Abia State from their Rivers State counterpart amicably settled without resorting to violence or war.

The range of problems that can arise as a result of different policies is enormous. They include coordination of road construction, one state discrimination against non-residents or former residents of another state, on issues of jobs, welfare, public housing, higher education granting of

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permits to engage in commercial exploitation of states’ business during revenue sharing’s political manoeuvre, state have been seen to be working in harmony. It was in one show of love, care and cooperation such that saw the establishment of the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) for the interest of the states of the Niger Delta area of Nigeria’ that have deposits of crude oil, which coincidentally create about 90% of Nigeria’s foreign exchange earning. Even the states that have one thing or the other in common over the Kainji Dam have also argued for the establishment of the power-producing commission, a parallel body to NDDC, because the nation’s electric power generation is sustained by the Kainji Dam.

Another form of co-operation has been show over the attempts by speakers of different state Houses of Assembly to form a kind of pressure group for protection of the interest of their members and the establishment of mutual co-operation. This of course has been more prominent in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic. Another form of cooperation by states has further been manifested by compacts. This is a situation where one or two states can tackle a common problem, such as pollution, health hazards the protection of natural resources and wildlife; and dealing with traffic congestion and transportation in a metropolitan area.

Another form of interstate cooperation is the formation of interest groups, whose main interest is to project groups that affect the state’s chief executive. Recently, a committee of state governors rose from a meeting to put together a think-tank that can ensure that the immunity of state governors is not violated by the collaboration of the federal government and the law enforcement agencies. For example, the failed abduction of the Governor of Anambra State, Dr Chris Ngige, by a detachment of the Nigeria police force from Zone 9 has made this cooperation and coordination imperative.

Another form of cooperation manifests itself on the basis of economic determinism. As a result of the dwindling returns from the federation account by the federal government, the nine oil producing states resorted to the introduction and implementation of the politics of resource control as well as the abrogation of the onshore-offshore dichotomy in the sharing of revenue by the federal government. This has been one of the Achilles’ heels of the Obasanjo administration since assumption of office in 1999,

Federal - Local Government RelationsThe local government is constitutionally recognized as the third

tier of government in Nigeria and enjoys some level of freedom and autonomy in the conduct of its activities. However, the autonomy is not absolute as it maintains some fiscal, functional and administrative relations with the federal and state governments.

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Fiscal RelationshipBy virtue of section 162 (3) of the 1999 constitution, it is the

national Assembly (an arm of the federal government) that determines the amount of money from the federation account that goes to the local governments in the country. also by virtue S. 162 (5) of the constitution, it is the same National Assembly that prescribes the amount that goes to the states for the benefit of their local governments from the amount standing to the credit of the local governments in Nigeria from the federation account.Thus the fiscal relationship between the federal and the local government is that it is the federal government that determines the amount that goes to the local government from the federation account.

Functional Relationship:The functional relationship between the federal, state and local

governments is captured by section 2 of the Fourth Schedule to the 1999 constitution which provides for the functions which the local government can perform concurrently with other tiers of government. They include provision and maintenance of primary education, adult and vocational education, provision and maintenance of health care service and such other functions as may be conferred on the local government by the State House of Assembly.

Administrative Relationship:There are a host of relationships between the federal and local

governments which are administrative in nature. They include the following:- Law enforcement, peace and security for an effective administrative platform to exist in a local government there must be law and order peace and security. It is the police, at times, the armed forces that assist the local government in this wise. Even in the enforcement of bye laws, protection of their treasures, and other properties, collection of their legitimate revenue the local government need the service of federal security agencies,

- Poverty alleviation programmes: Majority of the poor in Nigeria are residents in the rural area where

the local governments operate. The poverty alleviation programmes therefore provides a veritable platform for the federal and local governments to relate administratively,

- Access to Development partners: the donor agencies that operate in the country can hardly go to rural areas and being to relate with the local governments without clearance from the federal government. It is the federal

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government that therefore gives access to those donor agencies to the local governments.

- Capacity Building and Training: capacity building for such as the one we are undergoing now re facilitate by the federal government through the office of the secretary to the government.

State and Local Government RelationsThere are many ways through which the local government relates

with the state government. They include the following: 1. Establishment: Though the constitution under section 7 (1) guarantees a system of democratically elected local government, the state government is saddled with the power to make the law that will, provide for their establishment, structure, composition, functions and finance. The implication of this is that local governments are creatures of the state governments notwithstanding their being listed in the constitution with their functions. In this direction, Nwabueze contended, “if state government has the constitutional power to establish local government and to define its structure and functions, it clearly and necessarily implies that local government is a mere agency or a creation of the state government”. The effect of this provision is that it detracts from the autonomy and status of local government as a third tier of government.

2. Fiscal: section 162 (6) and (7) of the 1999 constitution provides that each state shall operate a joint local government account into which shall be paid in money from the federation account and 10% of the state internally generation revenue for sharing to the local government within the state in keeping with the prescription made by the state house of Assembly. It is under this fiscal relationship that a lot of states manipulate the finances of the local governments.

3. Economic Planning and Development: section 7 (3) of the 1999 constitution requires the state House of Assembly to pass a law establishing Economic Planning Board to facilitate the participation of the local governments in the economic planning and development of the state, especially in their areas of jurisdiction, which are mutually beneficial to both the state and the local governments.

4. Joint Funding of Projects: in view of the lean resources available to the local governments, some viable governments could be jointly finance by the local governments and the state. Such collaboration can bring rapid development and transformation of the local government concerned.

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5. Administrative: the administrative relationship between the local government and the state manifest in the supervisory role of the state government over the local government. The state uses such organs like the ministry of local government and chieftaincy affairs as well as the local government service commission to supervise the local governments. The local government service commission does the recruitment, posting discipline etc. of local government staff while the ministry of local government supervises the elected officials of the local government. In some states the law empowers the commissioner to make, from time to time, instructions to be complied with by the local governments.

6. Legal Service: the state government through the ministry of justice deploys state counsels to assist the local governments in the drafting and processing of their legal documents including bye-laws, as well as appear for them in courts.

7. Training and Orientation: The state exposes both the elected officials and the career officers in the local government to training and orientation. This is normally done through either the ministry of local government or local government service commission.

8. Conduct of Elections: It is the state independent electoral commission (SIEC), an organ of the state government that conducts elections into the local governments.

Relationship among Local GovernmentsThis involves relationship between two or more local government

councils interacting, co-operating and collaborating in a manner mutually beneficial to them in the performance of their functions. These relationships are mostly consummated in the following formal and informal fora.The formal fora include the following:-

Monthly joint local government accounts meeting, Ministry joint local government/chieftaincy affairs meeting with

local government officials. state economic planning board meeting local government service commission Office of the auditor-general for local government etc.

The informal fora include the following:- 1. national union of local government employees (NULGE)2. association of local government of Nigeria (ALGON)3. conference of leader/speakers of legislative council

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4. Trade Fairs, Seminars and Workshops.

Institutional Framework for Managing IGR in Nigeria In some federal administration systems, a number of administrative mechanisms have been devised for managing inter-government relations.

One approach is the use of periodic conferences of political leaders and appointed officials. Matters related to finance and economic policy usually dominate the conferences. In Nigeria. Such conferences and meetings include, the conferences of Governors (Governors Forum) and conference of Speakers of State Houses of Assembly.

As observed by Asogwa S. M (2006) all these conferences emphasis both federal –State relations and state relations. Also Local Governments have created an informal arrangement through which the express their views on national issues bothering on local government. A good example of such plat form is the Association of Local Governments of Nigeria. (ALGON) Important to note also is that there is Annual Conference of Chairman of Local Government. The conferences equally are based on bilateral bargaining and negotiations.

In like manner, since 1999 there have been conferences of Secretaries of State Governments (SSGs) and also the meetings of State commissioners of Finance. These conferences and meeting are aimed at ensuring Comparative federalism.

The section 150 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria established two National Councils whose functions are inter-governmental in character. They include (1) Council of state (2) National Economic Council. Council of State

The views of the states of the federation are represented on the council of state whose membership also include all State Governors.

Under section 6 of Third Schedule (part 1) of 1999 Constitution, the council has the responsibility to advice the president on the following matters: National Population Census, Prerogative of Mercy award, of national honours and maintenance of Public Order within the Federation. In addition to the above functions, the council is also responsible for advising the president with respect to the following commissions: the Independent National Electoral Commission, the National Judicial Commission and the National Population Commission.

The National Economic Council The National Economic Council was also established in the

constitution as a mechanism for the co-ordination of Inter-governmental relations in respect of Economic matters. Membership of the council

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comprises the following: the Vice President (as Chairman), the Governor of each State and the Governor of the Central Bank of Nigeria. The council has the power “to advice the president concerning the economic affairs of the Federation, and in particular on measures necessary for coordination of the economic planning efforts or economic programmes of the various Governments of the Federation”.

The above bodies- the National Council of State and the National Economic Council –were both also provided for in section 140 of 1979 Constitution.

There are other provisions contained in the 1999 Constitution, which issues relate, to some extent, Intergovernmental Relations.

National Council on Establishments The National Council on Establishment (N.C.E.) was set up by

the Governments of the federation in 1957 to facilitate inter-governmental consultations establishment matters and to avoid unnecessary disparities in the salary structures and conditions of service in the Civil services of the Federation. With the creation of 19 States within the Federation, the need for an inter-governmental consultative body which will ensure harmonization of salaries and conditions, become more imperative because of the confusion which wide disparities of conditions can create

Composition of the Council The Council has two tiers:

(i) The Ministerial meeting(i) The Meeting of Permanent Secretaries

Before October 1, 1979, the membership of the Ministerial meeting consisted of Commissioners in charges of Establishments and service Matters in the various Governments of the Federation with the Federal Commissioner for Establishment as its Chairman. The Permanent secretaries usually accompanied the Commissioners to the Ministerial meeting as advisers. But with the adoption of the presidential System of Government on October 1, 1979. Some Governments of the Federation level constituted it into either a Department or a Division the Office of the Head of Service. Consequently the composition of the membership of the Ministerial meeting is now heterogeneous consisting of Commissioners as well as Head of services with the Vice-president of the Federation as its Chairman.

The Council performs the following functions: (a) It acts as a consultative body for the Government of the Federation in matters pertaining to staff establishment salary structures

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grading and conditions of service with a view to achieving some degree of uniformity in the Civil Services. Matters on consultations are held include salaries, grading, and conditions of service and of service.(b) The Council also serves as a pool of information on all establishment and service matters for the Government of the Federation. Each Government is thus expected to forward relevant document, circulars, statistical information, etc, to the Council.

Procedure of the CouncilMeeting of the Council are held three or four times a year, as the

volume of business may dictate. When any subject is to be brought before the Council for consideration, the initiating Government first addresses a memorandum to the secretary of the Council setting out the proposals in details. The secretary circulates copies of the memorandum to the other Government before the subject matter is due to come up for consideration at the Meeting of Officials of the Council. The Secretary records the minutes and conclusion of the Council on the subject matter. The conclusions reached are then recommended to member-Government for adoption. Any conclusion touching on policy or of a fundamental character is referred to the Ministerial Meeting for further consideration and approval.

The Federal Ministry of Intergovernmental Affairs and Special Duties Before now, there had the problem of promoting the systematic

study, analysis and monitoring of the Nigerian federal system. This led to the call for the establishment of a National Advisory Council on IGR to advise on jurisdictional disputes and possibly, monitor how local governments and state governments share responsibilities in respect of subjects described as the joint function of the two levels of government (Adamolekun, 1989).

However, as a further step toward the provision of “sustainable framework for integrated planning and collaboration amongst the three tiers of Government for a more transparent, effective and efficient service delivery to the people” the Ministry of Intergovernmental Affairs and Special Duties was created in 2003 in the Presidency. Before then, there existed a Directorate of States and Local Government Affairs under the office of the Vice- President.

The duties of the Ministry inter-alia, include the following: - Monitoring the performance and utilization of States finance;- Promoting and organizing seminars, workshop and conferences

on the issues relating to States Administration;- Serving as link between the Federal Government on one hand and

the State Governments on the other hand;

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- Handling of all relevant matters referred to it or emanating from the Federal Government relating to States; - Examining petitions and complaints from the States;- Undertaking capacity building for the State Governments;- Ensuring physical monitoring of performance of States;- Serving as an organ through which the States could be easily reached

in a coordinated manner by UN Agencies National and International bodies;

- Review of model Procedure for Local Government Administration – Financial Memoranda, Scheme of Services,

- Digest (Year Book); - Development of statistical data for the measurement of development

of rural areas; - Manpower development through training programmes for Local - Government staff;- Processing of Complaints and Petitions on Local Government - structure and administration; - Formation of legislation on Local Governments; - Appraisal of all Local Government projects and programmer to

ensure prudence in the use of resources;- Inter-Agency relations, that is, among the three tiers of Government,

Donor Agencies and NGO;- Analysis of returns on Income and Expenditure Profiles of Local

Governments; - Appraisal of policies and Local Government Budget and

Development plans;- Liaison with International Bodies on Local Governments, example:

Commonwealth - Local Government Forum;- Serving as repository of data on States and Local Governments for

development planning, policy formulation and measurement; - Identifying deserving people for award of National Honours;- Identify and recommend prisoners for presidential Pardon; etc.

Problems of Inter-Governmental Relations The Political Setting:

The intrusion of military in Nigeria politics, and the delimitation of Nigerian political structure into states from the initial three regions marked the new federalism in Nigeria body polity. The concentration of national wealth at the centre, greater leadership initiative by the federal government, and the dependence of other tiers of government, created the setting of a

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master-servant relationship. The effect is that it destabilized the federation by changing the balance between central and state powers, it results in the political over burden of the centers and it killed state initiative for generating more revenue from its own independent sources but in being original in her economic and social development programmes.

The Constitutions: Frequent constitutional changes in Nigeria brought about changes in

the functions and jurisdictions of the three tiers of government. In the 1963 constitutions, the regions have considerably autonomy in the management of their wealth and revenue generation and also had absolute powers in the creation of local governments. The 1979 constitution and the military decrees modified this position by giving federal government greater power in the control of nation’s wealth and removing the absolutism of the state in local Government Issue. Neither the federal nor the state government alone can abolish a local government or amend its laws except as provided by the constitution. In spite of the change, the 1999 constitution has reverted to the states the power to create local government, obscure the presidentialism of local government.

State of the Economy: The state of the economy of a country depending on its base and

distribution determines relationships within the state. The economy determines whether the IGR will be centrifugal or centripetal. Any way, once a country is buoyant and distributes is resources equitably things usually improve, but when the opposite prevails administrative set backs occur impending the smooth functioning of the various tiers.

Personality Trait:

The personality of the leader at any point times is bound to affect his reactions to IGR. Military regimes usually bring in elements of autocracy in the relationship between the various levels of government. This explains why institutional arrangements made by a given pattern of IGR may not matter as they are sometimes violated to suit the whims of the leader. This is why Babangida unilaterally directed that 5% increase in state allocation from federal account should be directed to local government and that local government should use such money in funding primary education. This is also the case in which federal government delineated the federation in to states without constitutions with the states, also Abacha’s order that 5% of local government federal allocation should be used for the up keep of traditional rulers and even appointed chairman and members of caretaker

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committee for local governments without due reference to local government laws and guidelines.

The Regime in Power:There is no gainsaying the fact that the government in power either

civilian or military allows subjectiveness of influence IGR at particular points in time. Accordingly, even in periods of crisis lots of funds and time are wasted without achieving a reasonable degree of crises management.

The Position of Court of IGRIn a federal situation, disputes are inevitable and Nigeria has not

been an exemption. Disputes that anchor on constitution especially between the center and the regime are the exclusive reserve of the supreme-court, because the court is position to determine the legally of both federal and state laws and declare either null or void. As such supreme-court is the custodian of the federal constitution. In discharging these functions the Supreme Court is fund wanting. Nigeria has not developed a solid body of constitutional jurisprudence, and one of the factors responsible has been the trickle of cases decided reasons include reluctance by the government to go to court largely because of the restrictive way in which it dealt with cases which came before them and also the fear of judges that an active interventionist policy of interpreting the constitution in a liberal spirit would lead to open confrontation with politicians and the consequently weakening of judicial authority. The victim of this position is the citizen.

Political Instability:Political instability is an impending factor that has greatly affected the

various levels of inter-governmental relation in Nigeria. Another is resource a control. Emanating from federal government exclusive control of most lucrative sources of revenues such as custom and exercise, taxes on oil and large chunks of the revenue, all this gave room for national centered relation in Nigeria IGR

The Use of Ad-hoc and Unconstitutional Measures: this unconstitutional and ad hoc measures usually bring strains in the administration of IGR and local relations. Examples include the appointment of PLOs (presidential liaison officers) by the NPN government in the second republic.

Other impediments could be summed up as:

9. Attitude of civilian regime10. The nature of the workings of the presidential system of government.

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11. The distortion of the presidential system12. The distortion of the presidential system

Merits and Demerits of Inter -Governmental Relations: Onwusi, G. (2009) identified and discussed the following as the merits and demerits of inter-governmental relations. They are:-

Merits1. It avails the various levels of government the avenue for collaborative efforts aimed at providing services to the people. For instance, during the Abacha regime, the local governments in Nigeria under the auspices of ALGON collaborated with the federal government to provide one Toyota Prado-Jeep to each of the divisional police stations in the country for the purpose of providing security for the people.2. It avails the officials of different or same levels of government the opportunity to meet, interact, rub minds, exchange ideas, compare notes and assess their weaknesses, strengths, and potentials so as to cope with and tackle their problems.

3. Access to assistance from international donor agencies are made easier for the local governments through relations with either the federal or state governments.4. Given the lean resources available to the local government councils, inter-government relations avails the local government councils avenue to partner with the state government or among themselves to co-sponsor viable developmental projects, e.g. construction of roads that cut across the partnering local governments.5. It also avails the local government councils the opportunity of presenting a united and common voice on issues that affect them and also on national issues, both to the federal and state governments. For instance, now that inputs are being sought for constitutional amendment, the local government councils can under the auspices of NULGE or ALGON make a common and united input on the constitutional amendment, especially as it relations to the status of the local governments under the constitution.6. It avails the local government councils the opportunity of interacting for peace and security. By interacting among themselves, they can tackle their security and boundary problems, by relating with the federal government they are availed the services of the security agencies for the maintenance of peace and order and also enforcement of their bye-laws.7. It makes for standardization and uniformity in local governmentadministration. By relating with the local government affairs office of federal government, the ministry of local governments and the local government

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service commission, some measure of uniformity is achieved in local government administration.8. It enhances the capacity of local government administration officials. Both the federal and state governments organize workshops, symposia and training programmes for local government officials aimed at development and enhancing their capacity to administer. This workshop is one of such trainings.

Demerits These advantages notwithstanding, relations between the local governments and other levels of government have some disadvantages which tend to impact negatively on the viability of the l.ocal government. Amongst them are the following:-- It is the national Assembly (an arm of the federal government) that

decides how proceeds from the federation account are to be shared between the three tiers of government. It is also the president, acting on the advice of the revenue mobilization, allocation and fiscal commission that initiates changes in the revenue allocation formula. Equally of note is that, it is the national assembly \that determines what proportion of the state internally generation revenue that is paid to the local government (S. 162 (7) 1999 constitution). The result of all this is that the federal government take the greater chunk of the revenue, not minding that more than 65% of Nigerian live in the rural communities and as such should have higher share of the revenue accruing to the country. This leaves the local governments with lean resources to carry out their programmes.

- Another area that impacts negatively on the viability of the local government is the operation of the state joint local government account as provided by section 162 (6) of the 1999 constitution. Experience has shown that:a) A number of states do not pay into the joint account the required

10% of their internally generated revenue thereby contributing to making the resources of local governments meager.

b) A number of states even tamper with the federal allocations accruable to the local governments through unwanted deductions

c) A number of states house of assembly hide under section 7 of the constitution to make laws that detract from the constitutionally guaranteed democratic practice at the local government level by giving the house of assembly power to sack democratically elected local government officials.

d) Because state independent electoral commissions (SIEC) conduct elections into the local governments. The governors tend to

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determine who becomes what in the local government administration instead of the electorate.

e) Another area that impacts negatively on the viability of local government is the execution of joint projects. Most of these are at the behest of the state government and deductions are made from the local government funds finance such projects, not minding whether the projects are needful for the local governments.

f) On internally generated revenue, reports indicate that some state governments are usurping some revenues sources and items that rightly under the constitution belong to the local governments. This seriously affects the economic viability of the local governments.

g) Also the operation of universal basic education board in the states provides avenue for some states to make unjustifiable deductions from the funds of the local governments in the guise of deducting the salary of primary school teachers.

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CHAPTER FOURTEEN

MILITARY GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS IN NIGERIA

Originally, the military is not trained in the art of governance. The military is trained in the art of security, and to protect a sovereign state from external aggression. But this is not the case in Nigeria. After the independence, the Nigerian military meddled into politics.

Before discussing of military in Nigerian politics, it will be germane to attempt working out a contextual definition of the subject-matter. Scholars

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in the field have divergently defined military rule. A few will suffice. In his opinion, Nwankwo (1998) opined that “a military regime is the type of government formed by seizing state power by force. According to Ofobuike (2009), it was stated that “when the leadership of the state is directed under the leadership of any member of the Armed Forces who has as his deputies the preponderance of his colleagues (comrades – in – army), we define such rulership as military rule.

Military rule is a type of government that comes to power through unconstitutional means of use of force. Here what differentiates military regime and civilian regime is the means through which power is acquired while the military take it by force through use of guns and while civilian regime comes to power through election. This is what makes military rule an aberration, unconstitutional and a rape of democracy.

Characteristics of Military RuleIn every Military regime, certain characteristics are common. These

include:1. Political power is acquired unconstitutionally – use of force 2. Rules by Decrees/Edicts.3. Suspension of the constitution.4. Centralized government.5. It is always dictatorial and the rule of law is violated.6. Fusion of powers: The two powers of government are fused.7. Intolerance of opposition and criticisms.8. Coup and counter-coup.9. Use of civilians in administration.10. Government policies and programmes are coercely implemented.11. Absence of party polities.12. Fundamental human rights are usually violated.

An Overview of the Reasons for Military Involvement in Nigerian PoliticsThe wind of democratic reform blowing across the world and Africa

in particular is a welcome development and necessary in the quest for a new world order. Unfortunately, attempts at democratization in Nigeria and Africa at large have often been thwarted by Military intervention. To give credence to this, Emezi and Ndoh (ed.) 1998 noted that “efforts by many African Countries to institutionalize democratic government have met untimely death by predictable and unpredictable praetorian juntas. They noted that Nigeria has made two democratic experiments in the first and second republics which failed to survive another democratic succession”. This is epitomized in the Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu and Mohamadu Buhari respectively. These coups and counter coups have left indelible mark in Nigeria’s politic .

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Accordingly, some scholars are of the opinion that though the military is no more in Nigerian politics, the mantle of leadership is still characterized by these unrepentant desperados though in civilian garments. They argued that the military has gone in their uniform (karki) but present in civilian dress. In their opinion, this has left nothing but corruption, underdevelopment, political violence cum gangsterism and sluggish socio-economic development in Nigeria’s political history. However, this experience has motivated the critical minds to ask questions concerning the reasons behind military incursion in Nigerian politics. As a result, scholars have identified both remote and immediate reasons why the military left their primary assignment and meddled into politics. Some analysts have concentrated their analysis on the organizational characteristics of the armies while others have persuasively argued that these were largely irrelevant, emphasizing that military behaviour is largely determined by social and political conditions of society which they are operating. According to Samuel Humtington cited in Emesi and Ndoh (ibid p.76), the actual political character of the military intervention is also decided:

“as societies change, so does the role of the military. In the world of oligarch, the soldier is a radical, in the middle class world, he is a participant and arbiter, as the mass society looms in the horizon,he becomes the conservative guardian of existing order. The extentto which a politicized officer corps plays a conservative or reform role in politics is a function of the expansion of political participation in society, he argued”.

Supporting this view is the general proposition by Sunday Olagunju cited in Emezi and Ndoh (ibid p.77) that military intervention reflects urban and intellectual discontent as well as a vacuum of power and infrastructural under-development within recently independent states like Nigeria, which being at the same time the product of the characteristics of a particular military sub-communities and their leaders.

Nonetheless, efforts at generalization of the reason for military intervention are difficult. This is because apart from this framework approach to deduce the reasons, experience in Nigeria and Africa at large tends to suggest that there are other causes. The military is part and parcel of the society and tend to believe that they are the custodians of the national interest of their state and to that extent should save them from degeneration of law and order. Therefore, any time the civilian regime derelicts from their constitutional duties it is the onerous responsibility of the military to save the body polity from total collapse. As a result, the army has always justified their reason for incursion into politics. Commenting on the first military coup in Nigeria, Ademouega

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(1981) stated that politically, we believed that our immediate step would be to correct the worst anomaly of the 1957 constitution, breaking down the country into smaller units or states. In other words, he noted that the four Regions which existed till January 15, 1966 were to die instantly and on their dead bodies were to emerge fourteen states, each of which would be conterminous with to of the former twenty-six provinces of the federation except Sokoto and Oyo state which were to be conterminous with one province each. Economically, he further stated that “we agreed that we had an extreme form of capitalism in Nigeria in 1965, which was not good for a newly emergent nation”. The revolutionary military coup plotters believed that the civilian regime of that era has not lived up to her constitutional duties, hence the coup d’ tat of January 15, 1966. From these premises, one can analytically infer that the coup plotters came to salvage the country from total economic and political meltdown. It is noteworthy that this phenomenon is not only evident in civilian versus military regimes, but also among military regimes. This can be exemplified in the coups and counter coups after the first military intervention in Nigeria politics.

Sequel to the above point of view is a point raised in a discussion tagged “Nigeria’s Table of Contents” (cullied from website) which noted that “in developing countries, however, the military has not only intervened in the political process and overthrown the constitutional civilian authority, but it also often has established its supremacy over elected politicians. Even in those countries where the military has become almost a permanent feature of politics, military rule is still considered as aberration and symptomatic of a malfunctioning political system. In Nigeria, which typifies the scenario just presented, military rule was usually seen as a “rescue” operation necessary to save the country from civilian ineptitude. Of these coups, only those of January 1966 and December 1983 were against civilian governments. Several explanations of military intervention have been added to those given by the coup plotters themselves. Whereas the latter have cited economic mismanagement and corruption, other explanations have ranged from continuation of ethnoregional politics by military means to the personal ambitions of officers. Buttressing this vantage point, it was noted that the immediate reasons for the first-coup, however, concerned the nation wide disillusionment with the corrupt and selfish politicians, as well as with their inability to maintain law and order and guarantee the safety of lives and property. During this initial stages, Nzeogwu and his collaborators were hailed as national heroes. But the pattern at killing in the coup gave it a partisan appearance killed were the Prime Minister, a northerner, the premier of the Northern Region and the highest ranking northern army officers; only one Igbo officer lost his life. Also killed Uwas the Premier of the Western Region who was closely allied with the Northern peoples congress, N.P.C. undoubtedly, it

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was agreed that the coup was sectional and against a particular region – the North. This gave rise to ethnic tension and consequently, the first military coup was labeled an “Igbo Coup”. The North in retaliation opposed the new constituted military government of General J.U.T Aguinyi. Ironsi. It was at the height of Northern opposition to Unitarism (a policy of Ironsi regime) that the counter coup of July, 1966 took place. Most top ranking Igbo officers, including Ironsi, lost their lives. The status quo of Northern dominance was restored. This ethnic consciousness cum sentiments occasioned by the first military coup, undoubtedly, triggered the second military intervention in Nigeria politics. As if this will solve the problem, the ethnic tension increased and the political situation was nothing to write home about. The relationship between the Federal government and the Eastern region was a strained one. Coupled with the mayhem against the Igbos in the second military coup, in September Colonel Gowon summoned an ad hoc constitutional conference to deliberate on the country’s political future. Most regional delegates to the conference, with the exception of those from the Midwest, recommended a confederal system to replace the federal system. The delegates from the Eastern Region insisted that any region wishing to secede from the federation should be allowed to do so. The conference ended abruptly by increased killings of Igbo, in the North and the heightening of tension between the federal government and the Eastern Region. As a result, a summit of military leaders at Aburi in Ghana was held to resolve the disagreements. The summit recommended the establishment of a base confederation of regions. The Aburi agreement became a source of contention and the genesis of the Nigeria Civil War that almost tore the nation apart. (ibid).

In the opinion of Emezi and Ndoh (op. cit. p. 97) it was noted that electoral rigging, leaders unwillingness to relinquish power when necessary, suppression and repression of public Opinion and opposition are all problems that provide fertile ground for military intervention in Africa. In their words ”The coup d’ tat that terminated both the first and second republics in Nigeria came shortly after general election came”. The forces of under – developments are here accepted as one of the reasons for military intervention in Africa since there is preponderances at military regimes in the third world countries at Asia, Latin America, Africa, Middle East etc.

The ambition of the military to acquire political power is yet another reason for the militarization of Africa politics. In Nigeria for instance, people now lobby much to join the armed forces because of their belief that such is the surest way to political power. This ugly phenomenon has led to institutionalization of military intervention as the alternative to civilian democracy. Apart from Nigeria experience, the military in other African countries in the past, sometimes has no justifiable reason for intervening in

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politics but only to fulfill their life ambition which is seen as adventurous. (ibid, p. 77).

Other immediate causes or factors that ignited the military intervention in Nigeria politics include:

Inflation of the population results of May, 1962 and November, 1962 Creation of mid – western region Action group crisis of 1962 The crisis in 1964 Federal Election Western Regional Election of 1965 Foreign influence Influence of other coups. (Anyalele, 2009).

First Military Intervention in NigeriaFollowing the breakdown of law and order and the general

disillusionment in the political affairs of Nigeria, the military broke into politics in January 15,196. the coup was led by Major Kaduna Chukwuma Nzeogwu. Other co – coup plotter include Majoe Emmanuel Ifeajuna, Adewale Adamoyega, Major Anuforo, MajorOkafor and Chukwuka etc. (Admoyega, 1981). This first military coup toppled the government and killed the following people: Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, the Prime Minister, S. L. Akintola, the Premier of Western Region, Festus Okotie – Ebo, the Minister of Finance, Lieutenant – Colonel Unegbe, Brigadier Maimalari etc. the coup brought to power Major General Johnson Thomas Umunnakwe Aguiyi Ironsi who was originally targeted to be killed in the coup. As the case may be this regime brought a change in the status quo.

The Structure of Ironsi’s GovernmentAs the Head of State of Nigeria and Commander – in – Chief of the

Armed Forces of the federation, General Aguiyi Ironsi, immediately he ascended the throne suspended the constitution, dissolved the national as well as regional legislatures, banned all political parties and finally introduced a unitary form of government under the highly centralized military organization, hierarchically structures (Ofobike, 2009). This was facilitated by the Decree No 34that Ironsi promulgated. He introduced the Supreme Military Council (SMC). This was the highest government organ and was composed of Army Chiefs, the Attorney General of the Federation and the Inspector General of Police and his deputy. The powers of the three organs of government were fused together and this terminated the separation in functions of these organs.

In his regime, the four Regions had their military governors. Ironsi appointed ministers and empowered the military governors of the region to appoint commissioners. The military governors co-opted into the central

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government and were responsible to the Head of State, hence a unitary system of government.

The Second Military CoupThe fist military coup was tagged an Igbo coup. The North believed it

was targeted against them. This was as a result of some reasons. The leader of the coup was an Igbo man. Secondly, those who lost their lives were mainly Northerners final is the fact that the toppled government was that of Northern People’s Congress (NPC) mainly a party for the North. However, the coup displaced the North in the rulership of the newly independent Nigeria. Given the already charged atmosphere; this actions reinforced northern fears. As the North was less developed then the South, a unitary system by Ironsi could easily lead to Southerners taking over control of everything as a Northern spokesperson put it. It was at the height of Northern opposition to Unitarism what the countercoup of July, 1966 took place. This was organized by Northern elements in the Nigerian Army. As the case may be most top-ranking Igbo officers including Ironsi lost their lives. The coup brought to power Lieutenant Colonel (Later General) Yakubu Gowon, a Christian from the middle belt.

The Structure of Gowon’s RegimeThe government of Gowon on assumption of office immediately

reinstated the federal structure on which Nigeria’s independence was established. Apart from this, Gowon in anticipation of Eastern secessionist bid made move and split the four Regions into twelve states. This expanded the scope of his government thereby establishing State government with allotted functions. There were Federal and State relations and inter-government affairs as embedded in true federalism. Aside this structure of government under Gowon was basically Unitarian. At the apex of government was the all-military Supreme Military Council (SMC), which was the law making body for the entire federation. Its decrees could not be challenged in any law court.

According to Ofobike (ibid p. 215) General Yakubu Gowon toed the steps of his predecessor in establishing the Supreme Military Council, appointing of military Governors to each of the states except East Central State where Mr. Ukpabi Asika was appointed Sole Administrator. Most members of the SMC under Gowon were State Governors.

Like his predecessor, Gowon made use of an organ called Federal Executive Council (FEC). This was made up of military officers. Like all military regimes, Gowon made use of civilians. These civilians were members of the Federal Executive Council.

The states created by Gowon also had commissioners appointed by the governor. The states were practically reduced to administrative units of the federation, which in several domains made uniform laws for the country. The

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basic structure was military federalism (Nigeria Table of Contents, culled from website).

The Achievements of Gowon’s RegimeIt is a conventional truth that military rule is an aberration and should

not be tolerated in any form, but the regime of Gowon could be associated with these achievements.1. He reinstated Nigerian federalism.2. He split the four Regions into twelve states. The states are: Benue

Plateau, East Central State, Kano State, Kwara State, Lagos State, Mid-Western State, North Central State, North-Western State, North-Eastern, Rivers, South-Eastern and Western State.

3. He allayed the fear of domination by given the military a say in Nigeria politics. Six out of twelve states were given to the minority groups in Nigeria. This is a demand they have been making since the 1950s. This made the minority group not to have supported the Igbos in the civil war. To attest to this, “many of the federal troops fought the civil war known as the Biafran war to bring the Eastern Region back to the federation, were members of minority groups” (Nigeria Table of Contents, culled from website).

4. Sequel to this is the abolition of Regionalism and creation states in Nigeria that gave the minority a say.

5. In accepting Biafra unconditional cease-fire, Gowon declared that there would be no victor and no vanquish. In this spirit, he initiated the policy of three (3Rs) viz: Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Reconciliation. The oil boom of 1973 enabled his regime to undertake these tasks.

6. Gowon’s regime issued a nine-point transition program that was to culminate in handing over of power to a civilian government on October 1st, 1976. the agenda of the transition included the reorganization of the armed forces, the completion of the establishment of the twelve states announced in 1967, a census, a new constitution and elections.

7. Gowon promoted national unit thereby establishing unity schools. He also introduced the National Youth Service Corps (N.Y.S.C.) in 1973 in order to promote understanding among the bickering ethnic neighbours. The NYSC. Is a community institution that requires one year service by each Nigerian immediately after graduation from University or other institution of higher learning. This effort is geared towards National integration and unit.

8. Occassioned by the oil-boom, federal government was encourage to take on some responsibilities formally allocated to the states,

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especially in the area of education. These include universal free primary education. The federal government also took over the following institutions as federal parastatals: University of Benin, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu etc (Ofobike ibid, 181).

9. Nigeria joined OPEC during his regime.10. His regime also played a very important role in the establishment of

ECOWAS.11. His administration embarked on major infrastructural projects to

transfer control of the economy from foreigner to Nigeria. The Nigeria Enterprises Promotion decree of 1972, which was expanded in 1977, stipulated that only Nigerians could participate in certain categories of business. In those in which foreign involvement was permitted, controlling shares had to be owned by Nigerians. This is a credit to his regime.Nevertheless, inspite of all these laudable achievement, Gowon regime was accused of corruption and ineptitude by his successor who overthrew him as he traveled to Britain.

Nigeria Civil WarGoing by the speeches and intentions of the military in their effort to

restore Nigeria which in their opinion was devastated by the preceding civilian regime, Nigerians believed that the military has come to ameliorate the plight of the citizenry. But lo and behold, this was not the case as in 1967, the civil war that tormented Nigerians for 30 months broke out. The civil war was undoubtedly, caused by actions, inactions and reactions among the military political louders of post Ironsi administration. To establish this fact, Ademoyega (1981) put it thus:- “suddenly, Ironsi was swept off-the stage and the Northern rebels refused to accept the authority of Brigadier Ogundipe, who was the man next in rank to Ironsi. They also refused to accept Rear Admiral Wey of the Navy and Colonel Adebayo who was next to Ogundipe. Instead they insisted on having Lieutenant-Colonel Gowon, because he was a Northerner. He noted that Ojukwu saw that this was dangerous for the continued unity of Nigeria. Therefore, he quickly made up his mind that, “if the North which was either bent on secession, would not go because the power had now returned there, and it would not stay unless the power remained- there, the East had no need to remain in that political association called Nigeria”. As can be deduced from above, this is the factor that triggered the separatist agitation in the mind of Ojukwu. Undoubtedly, this secessionist attempt by Eastern Nigeria culminated in the horrible Nigeria Civil war. Moreso, the killing of the Igbos in the July 29, 1966 coup and other riots that follows, the emergency of Gowon as the Head of State and the immediate rejection of his administration

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by the Eastern Region under Ojukwu cum the personality clashes between Gowon and Ojukwu were reasons behind the outbreak of the civil war. However, Ojukwu not only rejected his administration but also disagreed with Gowon on the ideology for the State Nigeria. Ojukwu wanted a confederation as was agreed in Aburi conference but the Head of State, General Gowon declined. Ojukwu rejected Gowon’s government on the ground that the death of Aguiyi Ironsi has not been announced, consequently, the post of the Head of State and Supreme commander had not yet become vacant. Secondly, Gowon was not rightfully entitled to the headship of the government. In other of seniority, after Ogundipe and Adebayo, ther were still three other Lieutenant – Colonels before Gowon. There were Imo, Effiong and Njoku, all from the Eastern Region. Ademoyega also stated that if any single event could be so termed it was that Setember – October ***** stayed throughout the Northern Region and directed in the main against the Ibo’s, that made the civil war inevitable (ibid).

Following the declaration of the Republic of Biafra by Lt. Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu, the federal government under the headship of Gowon decided to take a police action to quell the secession of the Eastern Region, thus, on July 6, 1967, the civil war broke out. The war continued with several attempt to stop it but to no avail. The civil war continued to ravage the state Nigeria until the end of 1969 when Ojukwu fled from Biafra. Consequently, on January 10, 1970, Lit. Colonel Effiong made a treaty with the federal government. On January 13, 1970, General Gowon accepted the peace treaty and the horrible 30 months war ended. This was based on “No victor, no vanquished”. Subsequently, the federal government engaged in social mobilization programme of the post civil war. This can exemplified in the policy of “3R” which stands for Rehabilitation, Reconstruction and Reconciliation of the post civil war in Nigeria (Nwankwo, 1999). Murtala Mohammed Regime

The result of every military coup has been proved to be another coup d’ tat. Upon the civil war (Biafran war) and General Yakubu Gowon efforts to return Nigeria to civil rule, his regime was truncated while he was out of the country. In 1975, Gowon was overthrown by Muhammed in what is described as a palace coup. The coup that was tagged “bloodless” and was masterminded by Murtala Muhammed and consequently brought him to power. His predecessor Gowon was said to have traveled to Kampala, Uganda for an O.A.U. meeting when the military coup occurred.

Structure of his Regime

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It is worthy of note that every military regime in Nigeria can be identified with little modification in the structure of government of its predecessor. As a result, Murtala Ramat Mohammed according to Ofobuike (ibid, p. 217) introduced three organs of government at the federal level. These include the Supreme Military Council, National Council of States, and Federal Executive Council. The Supreme Military Council was reconstituted in his regime. He also allowed Executive Council at the State levels.

Although Murtala Mohammed retained the framework of military federalism; he removed state governors from membership of the Supreme Military Council. Consequently, he created the National Council of States in which they were included at the center. Because this body was chaired by the head of state and subordinate to the SMC, its creation underscored the subordinate position of the state governments. This arrangement enabled the head of state to exert greater control over the state governors than had been the case under Gowon.

The Achievement of his regime1. He created seven states making Nigeria a federation of nineteen (19)

states. These include Anambra, Benue, Gongola, Imo, Kaduna, Kano, Kwara, Lagos, Midwest, Niger, North central, North Eastern, Ogun, Ondo, Oyo, Plateau, Rivers, Sokoto and South Eastern states. The creation of the seven states was based on the recommendation by Justice Ayo Irekefe committee set up by the regime.

2. Murtala Muhammed alse set up a panel under Justice Akintola Aguda to consider whether a new federal capital should be created because of the congestion in Lagos. The panel recommended Abuja in the Southern part of the former Northern Region as the site of a new capital. Consequently, the capital of Nigeria was later moved to Abuja though not in his regime.

3. He “purged” the public service ministries, universities, parastatals and other government agencies at the federal and state levels of individuals accused at being corrupt, indolent or inefficient. In opinion of Chukwuemeka (2006:190) it was stated that this brought about the problem of inefficiency in the bureaucracy.

4. He established the corrupt practice Investigation Bureau in December, 1975 to rid the country of corruption, laziness, idleness and waste.

5. He inaugurated a Constitution Drafting Committee (CDC) comprising 50 eminent Nigerians. He also conducted election into the constituent Assembly.

6. He awarded the contract for the dualization of Port-Harcourt – Aba – Umuahia – Okigwe – Enugu road in September, 1975 (ibid) commenting on this, Ofobuike (Op. Cit. P. 219) noted that the dual

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carriage “express” roads were constructed in the North, the East and West of Nigeria to facilitate communication and to ensure easy mobilization of forces to checkmate any attempt by any section of the country to secede from Nigeria.

7. His regime introduced many Agricultural Research Institutes. These include:

a. Cocoa Research Institutes of Nigeriab. Forest Research Institutec. Kaniji Lake Research Instituted. Lake Chad Research Institutee. Leather Research Institutef. Cereal Research Instituteg. National Agricultural Research Instituteh. National Root Crops Research Institutei. Veterinary Research Institute

(Okanya, 1993 cited in Chukwuemeka, op. cit. ) 8. His regime also built Unity School.9. Sequel to this is his efforts in awarding scholarship to South African

blacks to promote their awareness in the struggle for Independence. Thus, the regime play a significant role in decolonization process in Africa as epitomized in support under Nelson Mandela era (Ofobuike, Op. Cit.)

The Obasanjo RegimeThe regime of Murtala Muhammed which according to some scholars

was received by Nigerians with so much expectations did not last long, at least to fulfill the expectations of the people of Nigeria. Inspite of the goodies purportedly coming to Nigeria via Murtala Mohammed administration, the regime was brought to an abrupt end by a coup masterminded by Lieutenant Colonel Buka Suka Dimka. Ofobuike noted that Dimka’s ambition was to oust Mohammed and enable Gowon, his tribe’s man return and re-assume his leadership of the country. Unfortunately, the plan did not work as intended. Ofobuike asserted that the exist of Murtala Mohammed called for the ascendance of his then second in command, the Chief of Staff Supreme Headquarters, Lieutenant General Olusegun Obasanjo. Thus, Obasanjo became the military head of state from February 1976 – 1979. In his maiden announcement, Obasanjo pledged to pursue with vigour the policies that he and his predecessor formulated. However, Obasanjo maintained the structure of administration initiated by his predecessor. Chukwuemeka noted that on assumption of office, Obasanjo reaffirmed the government’s desire to return the country to civilian government on the scheduled date and went about it with devotion. This transition programme as was initiated by Murtala Muhammed

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was carried out by Obasanjo and consequently, civilian rule was restored by his regime. In 1979, Obasanjo handed power over to Shehu Shagari, as a civilian president.

The Achievements of Obasanjo AdministrationIn addition to its methodical conduct of all the stages of the transition

to civilian government in 1979, the Obasanjo government initiated numerous reforms in public life. Attempts were made to introduce greater probity in the activities of civil servants and other public officials. The main vehicle for this process was the establishment of public complaints commissions in all the states of the federation and in the capital. Despite the publicizing of particular cases of abuse of office and corruption, little progress was made in stopping the spread of this cancer in the society and economy. The Obasanjo administration expanded the economic indigenization program started under Gowon. It also used the Land Use Decree of 1978 to rationalize the country’s haphazard tenurial systems, to reduce the crippling land speculation and curb the frequent litigation over individual and communal property rights. It was hoped that these reforms would facilitate the acquisition of land for modern agricultural purposes.

In a similar vein, the Obasanjo regime launched Operation Feed the Nation to counter the rapid rise in food exports. Though, these programmes were unsuccessful, it was a right step in the right direction and worth commendation.

Other achievements include:1. The establishment of the Federal Electoral Commission in October,

1976. Politically, this is a must in any transition to civil rule. The electoral body did screen and register political parties’ aspirants etc. in the 1979 election that ushered in the Second Republic.

2. He lifted ban on politics and about 52 political associations were formed which after screening five political parties’ were formed to contest in the general election of 1979. these parties were: National Party of Nigeria (NPN), Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), Nigerian Peoples Party (NPP), Great Nigeria People’s Party (GNPP), People’s Redemption Party (PRP).

3. His regime introduced Universal Free Primary Education (UPE).4. His administration conducted election into constituent Assembly and

its subsequent inauguration in October, 1977 to debate and adopt a new constitution fro the country.

5. Local government was reformed in his administration.6. The tail of his achievement is in the successful handover of power to

civilian administration in October 1, 1979 (Chukwuemeka, op. cit.).

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The Buhari RegimeThe institution of democratic regime in 1979 gave hope to Nigerians

that the era of military rule has gone. But, little did we know that the worst is yet to happen. Upon the civilian nature of 1979 democratic expedition, the Shagari regime was accused of mal administration. As it is always the case, the military on ground of ineptitude, bribery, corruption, profligacy, embezzlement of public fund, mismanagement of the economy and elections rigging interalia ousted the civilian regime of the second republic. This brought the government of Gen. Mohammed Buhari on 31st December, 1983 (Ofobuike, (ibid). Thus, Gen. Buhari became the Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Federal Republic of Nigeria while Idiagbon assumed the position of the Chief of Staff Supreme Headquarters.

In broad outline, the structure of the government under Buhari regime remained essentially the same as it was under Murtala Muhammed and Gen. Obasanjo. At the apex was the Supreme Military Council (SMC) and the subordinate bodies were the Federal Executive Council and the National Council of States (Nigeria Table of Contents, culled from the website).

Achievements of Buhari regimeLike every military regime before the regime of Buhari, many

achievements can be identified with them. In Buhari regime, the case is not different. His regime impacted on the Nigeria citizens in some ways. A few will suffice. The Buhari government investigation and detained the top political leaders of the Second Republic, holding them responsible for economic excesses of the previous regime. Constraints were placed on various groups, including the Nigerian Medical Association, which was outlawed and the National Association of Nigerian students, and it promulgated two decrees that restricted freedom of the press and suppressed criticism of the government. Buhari’s controls also extended to his efforts to deal with the problems of “indiscipline” in the areas of environmental sanitation, public decorum, corruption, smuggling and disloyalty to national symbols such as the flag and the anthem. He declared War Against Indiscipline and specified acceptance forms of public behaviour such as a requirement to form queues at bus stops. Commenting on this social mobilization programme, Ofobuike noted that the two major areas of their concern were the introduction of the War Against Indiscipline (WAI) and the institution of the Environmental Sanitation Agency (ESA). While WAI tackled the problem of indiscipline by arresting and detaining “corrupt” politicians who were accused of siphoning the state treasury, the ESA helped to maintain clean environment throughout the states of the federation as each state Governors was mandated to establish it in their

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states. Ofobuike further stated – that WAI tackled the teething problem of drug trafficking. The Decree to that effect imposed death sanction on drug trafficking offences. Such drugs were cocaine and heroine. People who were caught were tried immediately and executed.

In the area of the economy, Buhari regime introduced a comprehensive package of authority measures. It closed the country’s nland borders for a period to identify and expel illegal alien workers and placed severe restrictions on imports and heavy penalties on smuggling and foreign exchange offences. Chukwuemeka noted that Buhari committed 44% of Nigerian’s earning to service external debts and succeeded in restoring some measure of credibility in the country (culled from website).

Despite the increased efficiency with which Buhari and his associates tackled the multi-faceted national crisis, the regime’s inflexibility caused discontent. Most of his policies brought adverse effect on the citizenry. The austerity measures made it difficult for local industries to procure essential imported raw materials, leading many of them to close or to operate at greatly reduced capacity. Many workers were laid off and government itself retrenched many workers to increase “cost effectiveness”. The negative implication of all those were high inflection, rise in price of basic food items and life became increasingly difficult, even for the affluent (Chukwuemeka, ibid). The Buhari regime was seen as draconian and authoritarian in nature. So many interest groups were outlawed and freedom of press tempered. Chukwuemeka noted that this was to avoid public outcry and criticism. For this and many more was the main justification given for the over through of Buhari by General Babangida in a palace coup on August 27, 1985

The Ibrahami Babangida RegimeThe military coup of August 27, 1985 terminated the regime of

Muhammed Buhari and brought to mantle of leadership of General Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida.

Structure of his governmentUnlike the precious military regimes, the regime of Babangida brought

a lot of changes in the political arrangement of Nigeria. A few examples will suffice. According to Ofobuike (Op. Cit.), when Babangida came to power, he abandoned the institution called the Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed forces of Nigeria and designated himself “president” of the Armed Forces Ruling Council *** ipso facto “president” of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. In a more detailed note, Chukwuemeka noted that on assumption of office, Babangida dissolved the Supreme Military Council and in its place set up the Armed Forces Ruling Council (AFRC). He also dissolved the Federal Executive Council and the National Council of States and replaced than with a

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new National Council of Ministers and National Council of States, comprising ministers and state governors respectively. Chukwuemeka further stated that he was the first military Head of State to go by the title president. The policy making structures that existed from Aguiyi Ironsi regime to Buhari was changed by Babangida (ibid).

Achievements of Babangida RegimeThe regime of Ibrahim Badamosi Babangida like I said earlier

introduced a lot of changes in the political arrangement of Nigeria. There were a lot of social mobilization occassioned by his belief that Nigeria was in total disarray and needed total overhauling. He made brilliant policies in areas of politics, economy, agriculture, socio-cultural me*** of the country. The policies, though, some are unsuccessful affected the lives of Nigeria positively. Some of these major achievements include:1. State creation: Babangida regime divided Nigeria further into a 21

and subsequently 30 states structure in 1987 and 1991 respectively.2. His regime initiated the programme of National Directorate of

Employment. This was Babangida’s effort to creat jobs ameliorate the problem of unemployment in Nigeria. In his opinion, Chukwuemeka noted that the establishment of NDE was sequel to the peoples cry for unemployment creation.

3. Directorate for Social Mobilization: Chukwuemeka noted the Directorate was established in 1987 by Decree 31. The aims of the Social Mobilization includes: Mass Mobilization for Self Reliance, Social Justice and Economic Recovery (MAMSER). political education, mass education etc. (ibid).

4. Babangida initiated the programme of Mass Transit. Chukwuemeka stated that the urban mass transit programme was launched in 1988 at the peak of transportation crisis in the country. He noted that it was to solve the increasing urban transportation problem.

5. His regime initiated a civil service reform. This reform introduced fundamental changes in the civil service structure. Thus, the minister was both the chief executive and accounting officer, instead of the permanent secretary who hitherto was the chief executive and accounting officer. This made the appointment of a permanent secretary politically and the permanent secretary has to go with the government that appoints him (ibid).

6. His regime established the National Population Commission. Chukwuemeka noted that the National Population Commission was established and given the odious task of conducting a population census, which according to him was among other preludes to herald his handover in 1995.

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7. His regime initiated the youth employment and vocational skill programme.

8. Babangida administration established the Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI). Chukwuemeka noted that this directorate was set up by Babangida to make life better for rural dwellers.

9. He established National Electoral Commission. This commission took the place of Federal Electoral Commission that was established earlier by other military regime.

10. The regime of Babangida established the Peoples Bank to minimize the sufferings of the masses by providing them with easy credit encouraging economic self reliance and inculcating banking habits at the grass roots 9ibid).

11. The National Revenue Mobilization Commission recognizing the big problem of revenue sharing in Nigeria. Babangida in 1987 created this Commission to work out new formular for revenue sharing. However, another interesting aspect of Babangida’s administration is the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP). SAP was an all encompassing policy of Babangida’s regime with the view of structurally attacking the fundamental issues in Nigeria economic history. The policy though, not a success have been **** by some. According to Okanya (1993) cited in Chukwuemeka (ibid) the policy was well articulated Nigeria Modeled Programme of adjustment. Chukwuemeka noted that the programme was a bold attempt to diversity dependent totally on oil and imports to an industrially self reliant one. Despite all this and many more laudable achievements of Babangida administration, the regime collapses as a result of what can be called a regime failure. Babangida in an attempt to transit Nigerian from military to civilian administration planted a seed that not only killed his administration but also threaten the peaceful co-existent of Nigeria as a corporate state. This was exemplified in the crisis after the Babangida annulled the June 12 election that was said to have been won by Moshood Abiola of the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The observers of the election opined that the election was the most free and fair election in the history of Nigeria and such, nothing would have warranted the annulment of such an election. Nonthe less, this particular case of annulment of June 12 election and the sub-sequent denial of Abiola (and Yoruba people) the chance to rule Nigeria and other remote causes saw the end of his regime. The up heaved ragged to the extent that Babangida was forced to resign and in his place an Interim National Government (ING) headed by Chief Ernest Shonekon. Chukwuemeka noted that the Interim Government was not

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what the people wanted; he noted that the people wanted Moshood Abiola at the Social Democratic Party who was believed to have won the election against Ibrahim Tofa of the National Republican Convention (NRC). Consequently, on 17th November, 1993, the Interim Government was toppled by another military coup led by Sani Abacha who was a member of that Interim National Government.

Sani Abacha RegimeThe coup of 17th November, 1993 brought to the mantle of leadership

General Sani Abacha who was a member of the Interim Government chaired by Chief Ernest Shonekan. When Abacha came to power, unlike Babangida he called himself Head of State not the president of Nigeria. The government of Abacha was unacceptable to Nigeria, hence the freshness of the June 12 crisis. Abacha tried to appoint top Nigerian politicians into his cabinet so as to legitimize his government but all to no avail. Chukwuemeka noted that this was not to be as the demand for the revisitation of the June 12, 1993 presidential election which was cancelled continued to persist. However, Abacha did take so many people-oriented actions just to make his regime a success but all to no avail. The illegitimate and unpopular nature of Abacha regime resulted in massive industrial strike by organized labour especially in the petroleum sector. Chukwuemeka noted that general strike of all trade unions were order of the day. By the time PENGASSAN joined the strike, commercial and social activities had been halted in parts of the country. Fuel scarcity was a common phenomenon during Abacha regime. Nigerians were sleeping in their cars in long lines at filling stations, waiting to buy gasoline. Commercial vehicles were pulled off the roads and commuters were stranded at bus stops. (Ibid) Abacha regime was nothing to right home about. Mismanagement of the economy by the government resulted in the closure of many industries and a general curtailment of economic activity. Chukwuemeka noted that Abacha’s regime heralded rising cost of living and dramatic increases in unemployment.

Upon all these abnormalities in the system, Abacha regime was intolerant of opposition and misdeed of any form. Anybody or group of persons found wanting was severely dealt with by the government. To give credence to this Chukwuemeka noted that in November, 1993, Ken Saro Wiwa, President of Nigerian Authors and spokesman of the Ogoni minority group was convicted and hanged with eight others for alleged plot to destabilize the government. In a similar case, there was an alleged coup plot in 1995, Sani Abacha arrested and imprisoned those that were implicated. They were General Olusegun Obasanjo, General Musa Yar’Adua who was later poisoned in prison at Abakiliki. In his opinion, there was absolute insecurity, in the country people were arrested, killed or abducted at will. Abacha’s regime was charaterised by high level of murder, assassination, illegal detention, human rights violation and other social

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vices. The gruesome activities of the regime angered the international community to the point that many of the countries of the world including America severed diplomatic relations with Nigeria. Sanctions were placed on Nigeria, especially in the supply of military materials.

Nonetheless, inspite of all these evidents of mal-administration, Abacha regime made some impact in few areas. These include:

1. The regime established Petroleum Trust Fund.2. With the assistance of PTF, urban roads were rehabilitated.3. He funded ECOMOG effectively to ensure that peace returned in war

torn Liberia and Sierra Leone.4. The regime inaugurated the vision 2010 in November 27, 1996 (Ibid).5. Abacha regime created more states and brought it to 36 states. The

created states were Bayelsa, Kebbi, Ebonyi, Ekiti, Gombe and Nassarawa Ofobuike 9Op. Cit.).The regime of Abacha was brought to an abrupt end by his death on 8th

June 1998.

The Abdusalam Abubakar’s RegimeThe sudden demise of General Sani Abacha brought to power General

Abdusalam Abubakar. The Abubakar regime was quite a different thing from the regime of his predecessor. When he assumed office, he made a promise to return to Nigeria to civil rule. Consequently, efforts were made towards achieving this. He started by releasing political prisoners put in jail by Abacha and dismissed four of Abacha’s most powerful advisers. (Anyabolu, 2001) cited in Chukwuemeka. Abubakar also banned all the political parties formed by Abacha in his effort to transform himself (Abacha) into civilian president. He also scrapped other transition agencies like the National Reconciliation Committee (NARECOM), Transition Implementation Committee (TIC) and the Devolution of Power Committee (DPC).

Subsequently, Abubakar established the Independent National Electoral Commission to conduct the election that will usher in a new and democratic civilian administration. This gave way to electoral process. Political Associations were formed and out of 24 associations that submitted application to INEC only three parties were registered for the election in 1999. These parties were Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), Alliance for Democracy (AD) and All Peoples Party (APP) now (ANPP) (Ofobuike, Op. Cit.). General election was conducted under these platforms and behold, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo of the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) won the presidential poll. Immediately, on May 29, 1999, he was sworn in as a democratically elected president of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. His terminated the military dictatorship that almost destroyed the entity called Nigeria.

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN

MEANING AND NATURE OF DEVELOPMENT

Accordingly, Social science subjects is faced with a complete and multi-dimensional concept that defies anyone all-embracing definition. Thus development has various meanings, there is no single definition that has been validly taken as being comprehensive without puncture (Nnamani 2009). Therefore, we tilt towards the definitions as conceived by different scholars in their own views.

As noted by Okoli et al (2002), there are controversies as to what development is and the path to it. This according to (Nnadozie 1998) can be attributed to the scholars often unstated assumption, ideological persuasion and socio-economic and political background. However, we should first examine its Dictionary meaning. The Oxford English Dictionary defines development from three perspectives: -a. A gradual unfolding, bringing into fuller view, a fuller disclosure or

working out of the details of anything, as a plan, a scheme, the plot of a novel, also that in which the fuller unfolding is embodied or realized.

b. Evolution or bringing out from a latent or elementary condition: the production of a natural force, energy, or new form of matter.

c. The growth and unfolding of what is in the germ; the condition of that which is developed: the organ and organisms, of races of plants and animals.Drawing from the dictionary perspective, Obodoechi (2006) stated

that there is a shift which is upward from one point to another over a period of time, especially where the movement is a positive one, and then there is development. Obodoechi; sees development as consisting of the process of bringing out of the capabilities or possibilities of a phenomenon to a more advanced or effective state.

Development involves progression, movement and advance towards something better. It is improvement on the material and non-material aspects of life. It involves action, reaction and motion. Following the above views, Emezi (1979) noted that “a developing community is thus a community or nation, a people in search of improvement, and a group concerned with and committed to its advancement through its own efforts.

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Arvind and Everett (1989) see development as; “a widely participatory process of directed social change in society, intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater equality, freedom and other valued quality) for majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment”.

On his own part, Seen (1999) gives development entirely a human approach when he opined that “development is best seen as an expansion of people’s capabilities, a process of emancipation from necessities that contain fuller realization of human freedom”. Also, following the same direction; Ibeanu (1988) sees development “as referring to the level of productive forces. It refers to the level of control which members of a given society have been able to establish over their natural environment.

Thus, development implies to cause to grow or expand, to realize what was potential to change or progress. Therefore, development is a change, improvement, or progress in the living condition of people; an improvement in the political, economic, social and cultural institutions as well as an advancement in the living standards of the people.

Alert to this, Todaro (1982) defined development as “a multi-dimensional process involving the re-organization and re-orientation of the entire economic and social system”. This according to Okoli et al (2002) involves, in addition to improvement of income and output, radical changes in institutional, social and administrative structures as well as in popular attitudes, customs and beliefs.

From the foregoing, development may also mean improvement in the social status of the people; it is absolutely a participatory process leading to growth and social change. Following the same line of thought, Mr. Lee Grant UNO Secretary General in (1962) during the proclamation of the “decade of development” defines development as thus:

“Development is growth plus change”. The Secretary General according to Obodoechi (2006) states that development means quantitative as well as qualitative inputs. In other words, development goes beyond increases in income per capital and financial side of peoples lives. It includes changes in institutional, social and administrative structures as well as social behaviour and attitudes of people including something the people’s customs and beliefs.

What’s clear here is that development goes beyond economic indicators to include improvement of human resources and positive change in their behaviour. It is imperative to note here that the objective of development is to ensure increased freedom, equality and good life for all. It was based on this ground that Seer (1969) succinctly brings out the meaning of development through basic questions he put through:

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The questions to ask about a country’s development are, therefore, what have been happening to poverty? What has been happening to unemployment? What has been happened to inequality?

If all three of these have declined from high levels, then this has been a period of development for the country concerned. If one or two of these central problem have been growing worse especially if all three have it would be strange to call the result development even if per capital income doubled.

The main contention according Ujo (1994) is that development is both a physical process and a state of the mind. According to him, the transformation of institution is one aspect; the other aspect is that the thinking of th people must change.

Observably, Emezi (1979) noted that, “the actions, reactions and interactions which quality for inclusion as elements of “development” are products of rational thinking, conscious planning and genuine citizens involvement. They are not chance events or chance phenomena. They relate first to the economic systems because they seek to raise living standards, widen extensively the scope of productive work at the community level and create or strengthen the necessary foundations or infrastructure for higher, larger and more beneficial changes in the economy.

Secondly, they relate to the social because they affect education, health, housing, games and sports, culture, care of fellow human beings, social ethics and social justice and these are matters of both the body and the mind which jointly facilitate healthy growth and more meaningful advancement of the individual in society. Thirdly, they relate to the political system because they seek to create better patterns of legitimacy patterns which are good and valid because they create conditions which enable all or the most significant groups in the population to participate in the political process and have access to effective representation in the process of making decisions and of allocating scarce resources and values of their communities.

Alert to this, Hamon citied in Nnamani (2009) referred to development as an organic general change, “a process which will be smooth not restricted within technical poer, which cannot or its own change the system”. He noted that development originated from the Western society which was not by chance, but an intentional imperative process to improve quality of life and which should be to all human races for their benefits.

Nnoli (1990) captured this fact when he defined development as “a process of progression.” It means unending quest to conquer his natural environment using his creative endowment in order to fashion tool and create other things necessary for good living.

Also Nnoli (1981) sees development as a human issue, which should involve total and full mobilization of a society. Therefore, development is:

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“A dialectical phenomenon in which the individual and societyinteract with their physical, biological and inter-human environments

transforming them for their own betterment and that of humanityat large and being transformed in the process”.

To Ake (2001) “Development is “the process by which people create and recreate themselves and their life circumstances to realize higher levels of civilization in accordance with their own choices and values”. Ake further stated that, development must therefore be conceived as a multi-dimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and national institutions.

To Todaro and Smith (2003), ‘development must represent the whole gamut of change by which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse basic needs and desires of individuals and social groups within that system, moves away from a condition of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory towards a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and spiritually better.

Rodney (1972) in his analysis of development sees development from both the level of individual and that of the society as a whole. At the level of the individual, development implies increased skill and capacity greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline responsibility and material well-being. On the level of the society, development cannot be seen purely as an economic affair, but rather as an overall social process which is dependent upon the outcome of man’s efforts to deal with his natural environment.

It is important to note that the achievement of these individual developments has meaning only in relation to the state of society. Thus, societal development, therefore, has implication for the development of the individual.

Development at the societal level implies:a. Increased capacity to regulate internal and external relations: A

society that is developed in this sense has effective control of its policy process. It does not easily yield to pressure from other societies to determine the direction of its domestic and foreign policies.

b. Increase in ability to guard national independence: This feature is closely related to the first . it implies the ability of a nation to maintain its sovereignty and protect its citizens from external aggression and internal insurrection. But since the world (among nations) is a predatory terrain, it also implies the ability to infringe upon the freedom of other nations.

c. Self sufficiency in food production : Food is the most basic need of man and any country that cannot produce enough food available to its

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population is in serious trouble .A developed country is supposed to be self-sufficient in food production because before you do other things, you must feed well. Good food also enhances the physical and mental development of man, making him disposed to work and create wealth.

d. High level of employment : In a developed society , people should be fully employed . In both state service and private enterprise, full opportunities should exist for every one to release his productive potentials in mental and physical energies . In developed societies , the state goes further to provide social security to the unemployed in from of allowances and /or welfare services to keep life going .

e. Equalization in the distribution of social services : That equality prevails in developed societies does not mean that every body should be equal, but that the basic necessities for social survival are provided for all . people at all levels of the social strata must ,therefore, have access to education , health services, public utilities, the legal system, and to employment .

f. Self – Reliance :Dependence on imports should be minimized. Society should be able to generate its basic needs within, so as to be able to negotiate with other societies on equal footing; this implies that the industries (agriculture, manufacture, construction, etc.) must have a multiplier effect on one another. A linkage, a beneficial relationship must exist and in that case , the products of agriculture and savings there from could be used beneficially in other industries and vice-versa .

g. Independent control of the economy : The economically, socially and politically strategic industries in a developed society must be controlled by its nationals and not by multinationals. Even though multinationals operate in every society these these days , their operation in the less developed countries is usually exploitative . This is why nationalization of strategic industries ( including oil, communication, finance , steel, etc ) is a pre—reqisite for development .

h. Equalization of economic opportunities : This means the re-organization of production relations and socialization of the means of production.

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i. Ability to solve internal problems :A developed country does not invite others to help it solve its internal problems. It must be in a position to contain crises within its national boundaries in its own way , rather than invite outsiders who are more interested in the quid-pro-quo they expect in return .

j. Greater Share of International Trade: The production possibilities of a developed society place it at an advantage over other societies in international trade. Since, according to Nikita Kruschev, trade is like a barometer which points to the direction of policy, a greater share of international trade would easily place a country at an advantageous position in diplomatic relations with other countries.

k. Education: To make an industrial economy function effectively skilled manpower is needed. A developed society must, therefore have an educational system that gives functional education. It can produce experts in different fields who will initiate and pursue developmental programmes in their various areas.

Traditional Economic Measures The traditional economic measure of development were largely

premised on dysfunctional variables which could not explain socio-economic transformation of a developing nation. This traditional approach uses the Gross National Product (GNP) to measure the rate of growth and development. To that extent, development was explained in terms of percentage increases in a country’s GNP. Development, therefore, became the ability of an economy to generate and sustain an annual increase in its gross national product at rates of perhaps 5-10 percent or more. in the alternative, common economic index of development has been the use of rates of growth of per capita GNP to take into account the ability of a nation to expand its output at a rate faster than the growth rate of its population.

The rate of growth of real per capita GNP, the rate of inflation will therefore determine the overall economic well-being of the people, i.e. how much of real goods and services are available to them for consumption.

In the past, development strategies, have usually focused on rapid instrialization, urbanization, import substitution capital formation often at the expense of agriculture and rural development. today, these traditional measures have often been supplemented by casual reference to non-economic social indicators such as provision of housing, education, social services, health services and insurance services etc.

In the last decade, with the prevalence of economic problems such as inflation, unemployment, urban congestion, inequitable income distribution,

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food shortages, rural stagnation, poverty, unfavourable balance of payments, low rate of growth, low productivity, low savings and investment, massive foreign debts, debt management problems, large presence of stagflations, i.e. stagnation and unemployment combined, low standard of living, high death rate, the signs of failure of the old traditional economic measurement of development became ever more pronounced.

There is, therefore, need for us to look at strategies of development from other points of view.

The New Economic View of DevelopmentIt is important to state that with the traditional economic measures of

development, many developing nations did achieve an annual increase of Gross National Product (GNP) but the levels of living of masses of the people remained unchanged, indicating that something is wrong with the narrow definition of development. in view of the above, many scholars and policy makers now advocate the use of social indicators which will relate progress to specific development issues. These scholars advocated for the dethronement of (GNP) as a means of measuring development. they are more interested in solving the problem of widespread poverty, increasing inequitable income distributions and rising unemployment. To them, developing policies must be measured by the extent to which such policies address and provide solutions to the problems of poverty, malnutrition, inequitable income distribution and unemployment.

Defining economic development in the traditional way, we can say that it is the process whereby a nation’s real per capita output or income (its GNP) increases over a long period of time. A nation’s rate of economic development is thus measured by its per capita rate of economic growth.

A few words are needed to appreciate the implications of this definition.1. By stating that economic development is a “process”, we are referring

to the idea that it is a continuous action or series of changes taking place in a definite manner. This suggests that certain causal forces are at work. These must be identified so that their influences on a nation’s economic development can be understood.

2. By stating that economic development is measured on a “per capita” basis, we are correcting for population change. In this way, the fact is recognized that a nation which experiences an increase in total real output is not necessarily better off materially. The gain in output must more than offset any increase in population so that there are more goods for everyone.

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3. By saying that economic development takes place over a “long period of time,” we are distinguishing between the short-run and long-run. A short-run spurt in economic growth may be the result of fortuitous circumstances, whereas a long-run expansion in production is generally the result of fundamental change. Thus, it is one thing for a society to experience an increase in real per capita output over a period of several years. It is quite another to sustain the increase for perhaps a decade or more.In addition to increases in real income per capita, there are other

objectives of economic development. Among these are greater equality in the distribution of income, a rising minimum level of income, and reduction of disguised unemployment. However, these are generally regarded as secondary goals-mainly because they are strongly influenced in each country by existing social structures and institutions. Therefore, in a country undergoing development, there is some likelihood that these secondary goals will be at least partially attained if the primary goal of a sustained increases in real income per capita and more broadly an upward movement of the entire social system is realized.

According to Todaro, development should therefore, be conceived as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and national institutions, as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and the eradication of absolute poverty. Development, in its essence, must represent the whole gamut of change by which an entire social system, tuned to the diverse basic needs and desires of individuals and social groups within that system, moves away from a condition of life widely perceived as unsatisfactory and toward a situation or condition of life regarded as materially and spiritually “better” (Todaro 1977:85).

Economic development therefore entails sustained elevation of an entire society and social system toward a “better” or “more human” life.

Three Core Values of DevelopmentIndividuals in every nation are interested in having a better life or

what we could call a “good life”. Thus according to Udabah (1999) it entails high standard of living which is only possible through economic development.

Goulet (1971) has put forward, three core values of development, which represent common goals sought by all individuals and societies.

These core values are:a. Sustenance b. Self-esteemc. Freedom from servitude: to be able to choose.

The discussion here would be borrowed from Todaro and Smith (2009):

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Sustenance: The Ability to Meet Basic Needs: All people have certain basic needs without which life would be

impossible. These life-sustaining basic human needs include food, shelter, health and protection. When any of these is absent or in critically short supply, a condition of absolute underdevelopment exists. A basic function of all economic activities, therefore, is to provide as many people as possible with the means of overcoming helplessness and misery arising from lack of food, shelter, health and protection. To this extent, we may claim that economic development is a necessary condition for the improvement of the quality of life that is development. without sustained and continuous economic progress at the individual as well as the societal level, realization of the human potential would not be possible. Rising per capita incomes, the elimination of absolute poverty, greater employment opportunities, and lessening income inequalities therefore constitute the necessary but not the sufficient conditions for development.

Self-Esteem: A second universal component of good life is self-esteem – a sense of

worth and self -respect, of not being used as a tool by others for their own ends. All peoples and societies seek some basic form of self-esteem, although they may call it authenticity, identity, dignity, respect, honour, or recognition. The nature and form of this self-esteem may vary from society to society and from culture to culture. However, with the proliferation of the “modernizing values” of developed nations, many societies in developing countries that have had a profound sense of their own worth suffer from serious cultural confusion when they come in contact with economically and technologically advanced societies. This is because national prosperity has become an almost universal measure of worth. Due to the significance attached to material values in developed nations, worthiness and esteem are nowadays increasingly conferred only on countries that possess economic wealth and technological power – those that have “developed”.

As Denis Goulet puts it, “Development is legitimized as a goal because it is an important, perhaps even an indispensable, way of gaining esteem.”

Freedom from Servitude: To be Able to ChooseA third and final universal value that we suggest should constitute the

meaning of development is the concept of human freedom. Freedom here is to be understood in the sense of emancipation from alienating material conditions of life and from social servitude to nature, misery, oppressive institutions, and dogmatic beliefs, especially that poverty is predestination. Freedom involves an

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expanded range of choices for societies and their members together with a minimization of external constraints in the pursuit of some social goal which we call development. Amartya Sen writes of “development as freedom.” W. Arthur Lewis stressed the relationship between economic growth and freedom from servitude when he concluded that “the advantage of economic growth is not that wealth increases happiness, but that it increases the range of human choice”. Wealth can enable people to gain greater control over nature and the physical environment (e.g. through the production of food, clothing and shelter) than they would have if they remained poor. it also gives them the freedom to choose greater leisure, to have more goods and services, or to deny the importance of these material wants and choose to live a life of spiritual contemplation. The concept of human freedom should also encompass various components of political freedom, including but not limited to, personal security, the rule of law, freedom of expression, political participation, and equality of opportunity. Although attempts to rank countries with freedom indexes have proved highly controversial, studies do reveal that some countries that have achieved high economic growth rates or high incomes, such as China, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia and Singapore, have not achieved as much on human freedom criteria.

Objectives of DevelopmentFrom the foregoing, one may conclude by saying that development is

both a physical reality and a state of the mind in which society has, through some combination of social, economic and institutional processes secured the means for obtaining a better life.

1. Provision of basic life sustaining goods, food, shelter, health and protection.

2. Increase the standard of living through increases in income, provision of jobs, better education and greater attention to cultural and humanistic values. To have that sense of worth and self respect – self esteem.

3. To free individuals and nations from servitude and dependence. This entails the ability to expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations. To free individual from evil of poverty, ignorance, filth, squalor, deprivation and exploitation.

4. The creation of employment. This is important because it is the most powerful means of redistributing income in developing nations.

5. To correct the existing economic, social or political injustices and oppression.

6. To enable people realize their potential, build self-confidence and lead lives of dignity and fulfillment.

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7. The attainment of equitable income distribution.

On their own part, Todaro and Smith (2009) have outlined three objectives of development which has a universal application and that which corresponds to Goulet’s (1971) core values of development.

They are: -1. To increase the availability and widen the distribution of basic life –

sustaining goods such as food, shelter, health and protection.2. To raise levels of living, including in addition to higher incomes, the

provision of more jobs, better education, and greater attention to cultural and human values, all of which will serve not only to enhance material well-being but all to generate greater individual and national self esteem.

3. To expand the range of economic and social choices available to individuals and nations by freeing them from servitude and dependence not only in relation to other people and nation-states but also to the forces of ignorance and human misery.

UnderdevelopmentThe Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary defines under development

to mean a country, society having few industries and low standard of living people including income, education, health and nutrition and other related social services, decreasing inequality in the distribution of income, urban-rural imbalances and political as well as economic opportunities. Nnadozie quoted in Duru (1998) on his part sees development as the capacity of members of the society to actualize themselves by participating actively in the social engineering of their lives and destiny.

At this juncture, it is important to state that development is dynamic and qualitative with orientation towards individuals in particular and society at large. It involves the capabilities of man in overcoming his socio-economic and political problems both as an individual and group. Thus, for the purpose of this paper, development encompasses self reliance of individual and society; quality medical care, improved standard of living, equal access to social service, improved skills and potentials, employment opportunities, qualitative education, equitable economic opportunities and independent control of the economy. The end product being an improved well being for a man in his environment.

Like the concept development, underdevelopment is a subject of controversy with scholars taking divergent views that are ideologically and situationally influenced.

Classical economists in line with their views on development see underdevelopment as a decline in the Gross National Product of a country. In

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this perspective, underdevelopment means a decrease in economic growth and per capita income. It is a manifestation of total fall in the nation output in terms of monetary value of total goods and services produced in a given state. Nevertheless, underdevelopment depicts more than low level of output or per capita income. As Goulet (1971) asserted, underdevelopment depicts a real fact of life reflecting a state of mind and a state of poverty. According to him, underdevelopment depicts a real fact of life refecting a state of mind and a state of poverty. According to him, underdevelopment is a manifestation of three components: inability to achieve the core value of life sustenance,” ‘self-esteem’ and ‘freedom’.

Modernization theorists such as Rostow, Smelster, Warren, Mcclelland, Hgan and Hoselitz viewed underdevelopment as absence of modern cultural values such as universalism, specificity, self orientation, achievement orientation, individualism, free competition and structural transformation of the environment. They argue that the Third World countries are underdeveloped because their societies are charaterised by particularism, ascription, collectivity, affectivity, non-achievement oriented and diffuseness. Almond and Powell included absence of political system capability, differentiation and secularization. However, this position on underdevelopment has been dismissed as a historical fallacy. As Walter Rodney (1982) observed, every society have to develop at its own pace. Development is relative and differs from place to place.

Drawing from the foregoing, it is clear that under-development makes sense, only as a means of comparing levels of development. it is very much tied to the fact that human social development has been uneven and from a strictly economic view point. The economist compares levels of development using the index of National Income and per capital Income. But National Income Per capita is obliviously, according to Abah (2000), is not a good parameter for measuring levels of development, because it conceals the wide gap between the rich and the poor within the nation/s under analysis. Thus, the following indices in addition to National Income Per capital would present a more plausible explanation (Abah, 2002).

a. A very weak position in international trade and diplomacy.b. Economic, financial, technological and cultural dependency.c. Lots of import substitution industries which depend on external

resources.d. Marginalization of the peasantry in national affairs.e. Predominance of the comprador bourgeoisie over the national

bourgeoisie. The compradors are usually agents of international capital in the exploitation of Third World Social formations.

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f. Monopoly Capitalism: Absence of competition because the industries are dominated by multinationals, leaving no room for new industries to spring up. Though this obtains in all societies, they are most prominent in the underdeveloped ones.

g. Monocultural Economy: They depend principally on one mineral or item for economic survival, therefore, making them vulnerable in the face of the uncertainties of the international economy.

h. Enclave Economy: They are basically suppliers of raw materials. The materials are unrefined and most of their labour -force is employed here.

i. There is a divorce between resource and need. Most under developed Third World Countries are very rich in natural endowments, but very poor in the types of goods and services provided for citizens.

j. Poverty of Ideology: Most of these countries are suffering from ideology confusion. For them, ideology simply means socialism or communism which they loathe. But ideology streamlines action for the attainment of set goals. Without it, there will be confusion in the pursuit of development strategies.

The State of Underdevelopment in NigeriaThe state of underdevelopment in Nigeria is multifacial as every sector

of its economy is deeply affected. Whereas Nigeria, South Korea, Indonesia and India were almost rated at par in the 1980s, the rest of the countries except Nigeria are now being tagged developed countries with indigenous technology growing geometrically while Nigeria remained at status quo.

Historically, the economic base of Nigeria was agriculture with more than half of the workforce engaged in subsistentfarming. With the discovery and exploration of oil in the late 1950s, the economic base of the country began to change towards petroleum production. Today exportation of crude oil is the pillar of the Nigerian economy. This account for 40% of our GDP, 70% of government revenue and 95% of foreign exchange earning (http://www.org/CGIBIN/publication/presentation/strengthening%20 nigeria’s%20refines%20sector.ppt).

Despite these abundant resources, the level of poverty and economic hardship is unprecedented. Agriculture which initial generated huge foreign reserve and abundant employment opportunities has long been neglected leaving the citizen in the hands of petroleum exploration and production which is under the monopoly of multinational corporation (The Sunday Vanguard, May 29, 2005, p.9).

Paradoxically, between 1965 to 2005, the country cannot boast of more than four refineries that operate sub-optimally as a result of neglect, poor maintenance, corruption, lack of focused leadership, vandalization to mention

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http://www.org/CGIBIN/publication/presentation/strengthening%20%20nigeria's%20refines%20sector.ppt

http://www.org/CGIBIN/publication/presentation/strengthening%20%20nigeria's%20refines%20sector.ppt


but a few. A Special Committee set up by the Federal Government in 2000 to review the supply and distribution of petroleum product in Nigeria, frowned at the sorry state of our refineries and petroleum sector. In its report, the committee observed that the four refineries “had been affected by accidents, maintenance and operational problems that have negatively affected the output and ability to meet domestic demand” (Federal Government of Nigeria, Report of the Special Committee on the Review of Petroleum Products Supply and Distribution, Oct. 2000, p.7). the resultant effect of the situation is reliance on re-importation of refined crude oil and other raw material exported by Nigeria comprador bourgeois in collaboration with the metropolitan bourgeois. This reimported refined petroleum products imposes economic hardship on Nigerians since the prices are hiked and which in turn affect the prices of other commodity. This has resulted in a fallen standard of living consequent upon increase in the cost of living.

It is certainly no surprise to those who have closely followed the unconscionable pillage of the national economy by leaders that despite being the sixth largest producer of crude oil, Nigeria has classed among the least developed state on the planet. In 2004, African Development Bank in one of its reports disclosed that 70 percent of people in the Niger Delta reign of Nigeria lived in abject poverty. Also, UNICEF in its own report in the same year stated that 18 percent of Nigeria children die before they reach the age of five. The report added that about 70 percent of Nigeria lives on less than one dollar per day (The Sunday Independent Oct. 2, 2005, p.B19).

In recent document launched by the World Bank entitled Where is the Wealth of Nations? :Measuring Capital for the 21st Century, Nigeria was classified as the second poorest nation in the world. The report put Nigeria’s per capita income at $2,748, natural capital at 147 percent, produced capital at 24 percent and intangible capital at negative 71 percent (The Daily Times, Set. 30, 2005, p.10). The UNDP report of 2005 entitled “World Population” lamented the decline in human development, economic well-being and life expectancy in Nigeria. According to the report; the well being of Nigeria had further declined as much as 8% between 2004 and 2005. it states, that a significant lower estimate of life expectancy at birth had declined from 51.6 percent to 43.2 percent. This by implication means that average life expectancy in Nigeria is 43 years (The Daily Champion, Oct. 1, 2005, p.5).

The level of unemployment in Nigeria is increasing on daily basis. (over 70% of Nigeria university graduates are unemployed as a result of non-indigenous enterprise to absorb them as well as poor capital for self-reliant business. The recent downsizing or right sizing programme of the government has added more to the number of unemployed. This massive unemployment has lead to social vices such as fraud, armed robbery and other corrupt practices. Nigeria according to the latest report of Transparency International ranks the

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third most corrupt nation as against the second in the 2003 report (The Tribune, Oct. 1, 2005, p.33).

The educational sector has not been spared. The quality of education in Nigeria has drastically fallen thereby producing half-baked graduates who contribute less meaningfully in the development of the nation. The recent measure to adopt a Post JAMB examination underscores the level of education decay in Nigeria. In a similar manner, the political sector is charaterised by prebendalism, ethnicity, bureaucratic decay, electoral fraud, poor leadership and bereft of cardinal element of democracy and good governance.

In conclusion, Nigeria wallows in a state of underdevelopment charaterised by non-self-reliance, foreign control of national economy, poverty, poor standard of living, diseases, insufficient human development, dependency on foreign economy and importation of manufactured products, poor educational system, inequality of income distribution, corruption, poor leadership and general absence of democracy and good governance.

Human Development IndicatorsThe notion of human development as utilized by the United Nations

Development Programme (UNDP), (1990) has two sides: the formation of human capabilities such as improved health, knowledge and skills and the use people make of their acquired capabilities for work, leisure or active participation in cultural, political, and social affairs. In measuring human development, three key elements of human life have been found worthy of emphasis as principal indicators of human well-being. These are longevity, knowledge and decent living standards. The first element longevity is indicated by life expectancy at birth, and is closely associated with adequate nutrition and good health. Longevity also has an intrinsic value in helping people pursue various social, economic and political goals, and so life expectancy is a proxy measure for several important variables in human development. The second key component is indicated by literacy figures which are a crude reflection of access to education especially good quality education necessary for productive life. The third key component command over resources needed for a decent living is measured by an income indicator-per capita income, in the absence of data on other variables such as access to land, credit and other resources. The three indicators-life expectancy at birth, adult literacy and per capita income are put together as a composite index the Human Development Index (HDI) to give an overall sense of people’s well-being in the country.

Table below illustrates human development trends in Nigeria over the past three decades. Significant progress has been made towards increased life

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expectancy at birth, from 41 years in 1965 to 51 years in 1990. the mortality rates for infants and children under five have dropped by 42% and 40% respectively from their 1965 figures. These improvements reflect progress made in child immunization, maternal care, nutrition and access to health services.

However, there have been major gains particularly in the area of welfare. For example, population per a physician has dropped from almost thirty thousand in 1965 to eight thousand in 1985.

The progress in education for both males and females has been equally impressive. Adult literacy rate rose from 25% in 1970 to 58% in 1985, male literacy from 35% to 54% and female literacy from 14% to 31% within the period.

TABLE: NIGERIA-HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TRENDS (1965 – 1990)1965 1970 1980 1985 1990

Life Expectancy (at birth) 410 - - 500 510Mortality-Under age five 290.0 - - - 1740- Infant 1770 - - 1090 1030Adult Literacy (Total) - 250 - 430 580Male - 350 - 540 --Female - 140 - 310 -Primary School enrolment- female as % of male 59.0 59.0 - 920 -- female as % of age group 32.0 - - 77.0 -Secondary School enrolment

- as % of GDP 1.5 - - 1.4 -- as % of total exp. - 45 - - 2.8Daily Calorie Supply/Capita

2185.0 - - - 2038.0

- as % of requirement 95.0 - - 90.0 -Daily consumption capita - - - 2149.0 -Population per-physician (000) 29.5 - 9.4 8.0 -Population with access to- safe water% - - - 46.0 46.0Population with access to- sanitation % - - - - -Maternal morality rate

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(per 100000 live birth) - -- 1500.0 800.0` 800.0Health expenditure- as %GNP 0.3 - - 0.4 -- as % total expenditure - 3.6 - - 8.0Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI) - - 0.332 0.33Physical Quality ofLife Index

- - - 38.0 -

Sources: UNDP: Human Development Report, 1990 and The World Bank: World Development Report, 1990.

Based on the composite index of human development, the Human Development Index (HDI) developed for the international comparison of level of human development, Nigeria has not made substantial progress in this sphere. As evident in the table above our HDI is put at 0.332. The low figure gives us 20th position out of 44 countries such as Ghana, Tanzania, Cote d’Ivoire and Kenya which do not have as much natural resources as we do.In terms of Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI), Nigeria scores 38% also trailing behind Kenya (55%), Ghana (41%), Tanzania (58%) and Cote d’Ivoire (41%) even though only Cote d’Ivoire’s GNP per. capita of $1080 exceeded that of Nigeria which was put at $860 in 1982. whatever the criticisms of the construction of these indices might be, the fact that when our circumstances are confronted with them and we do not do as well relative to some other African countries who are also poor, should be enough cause for concern.

Despite rapid growth in the seventies, the expansion of the economy in the eighties which is reflected in current GDP, and substantial government spending in the social, human development has remained poor in Nigeria. The reasons for this are many. One is that the fruits of rapid growth have not been distributed equitably. The other is inefficient targeting of public resources.

Although evidence on income distribution in the country is fragmentary, there is general agreement that the distribution is getting more unequal since the seventies with the Gini co-efficient estimated at 0.60. The strong bias towards urban centers in allocation of public resources for development, the neglect of agriculture and the failure of the structure of government spending in education and health to reflect the needs of the rural populations and the urban poor have intensified disparities in levels of human development in the country.

The rural-urban differences in the provision of and access to basic services such as water, health and sanitation, as well as income in Nigeria are greater than the average for Tanzania and even Sub-Saharan Africa. For

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example, 72% of rural population in Tanzania have access to health services, 42% to safe water and 58% to sanitation, while in Nigeria the figures are 30%, 20% and 17%.

The analysis of rural-urban gaps in Nigeria indicates a higher degree of deprivation suffered by rural people. Given the growth in the nation’s economy during the period, one is led to conclude that the country’s case has been that of human development bypassing vast majorities of her citizens in the past decades.

Economic Indicators of DevelopmentIn economic realm, a number of variables are generally used as indices

of development and modernization. The most salient of these indicators are:i. The growth rate of the Gross National Product (GNP).ii. The level at which income is equitably distributediii. The rate of poverty reductioniv. The level of labour output per manv. The extent of agricultural development.vi. The level of industrialization.vii. The amount of steel used in a countryviii. The rate of technological advancement.ix. The rate of capital formation andx. The extent to which the economy is diversified.

The above ten core indicators of development constitute the economic determinants of the rate of development in the modern world. Let us now briefly discuss these indicators.

Gross National Product (GNP) is an important index of development. According to Turner and Thint, it provides comprehensive pictures of the economy. It shows what is produced, the level of agriculture as well as the distribution of income. The maximization of the growth of GNP shows the level of development. Some countries do this through capital accumulation and industrialization. Others pursue the same goal through “improved performance of the factors of production and improved techniques of production”. The rate of growth of the GNP is used as an index of performance of the economy; it also determines countries that are developed and those that are not.

Related to the above indicator is the level at which income is equitably distributed. It has been argued that the quality of development can be completely masked if goods produced in the society are not equitably distributed. Thus, the degree by which goods are shared determines the level of development. If an insignificant percentage of the population controls greater percentage of the total wealth, then such a country is deemed not developed. The reverse is the case if there exist an efficient machinery for equitable distribution of wealth.

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The extent to which poverty is reduced also exposes the level of development. This point is related to equitable distribution of income. When income, on one hand, is equitably distributed, all things being equal, it tends to narrow the gap between the rich and the poor. This helps to lessen poverty. The extent to which a nation can formulate and implement policies that can help to drastically reduce illiteracy, disease, malnutrition is a pointer to the state of development. It would have been a paradox for a country to claim to have achieved economic progress and modernization if the extent of poverty prevailing keeps on increasing instead of decreasing.

Efficiency in labour output per man is a very crucial index of development. The ability of labour to achieve a greater output in a short time without any decrease in the quality of work depends on a number of factors. Principal among them are: efficiency of other factors such as motivation, education, training and discipline. When these factors are present and labour efficiency is guaranteed, development and progress is inevitable. All developed and highly industrialized countries of the world have efficient labour output, and this explains there extent of development. The third and fourth world countries are still grappling with how to increase labour efficiency.

The rate of agricultural development also determines whether or not a country is modernized. It is inconsequential whether agricultural industry is capital intensive as in the case of Canada, USA, Britain, France and Spain, or labour- intensive as in Taiwan, China, India and Nigeria. What is of paramount importance is whether or not scientific methods and techniques of production have been applied to boost crop yield. As observed by Tomori, the availability of an adequate supply of food is vital because food shortages will result in price hike. This in turn may lead to agitation for higher wages thus affecting the level of investment. For instance, it could lead to decrease of export earnings and necessitates huge expenditure on food importation. But if the agricultural sector is vibrant, apart from providing sources of employment and raw material, it will generate revenue which could be used in the development of other sectors of the economy. From the above it would appear that agricultural development is a kind of mirror and persistence poverty. The only way out is for such economy to result to external borrowing.

Political Indicators of DevelopmentPolitical scientists have also maintained that there is a political

dimension to development and change. This is because production which facilitates change and progress is a social process. From this stand point, a number of political indicators to development have been identified. The major ones are as follows:i. A clearly defined process of power succession;ii. The level of integration;

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iii. The level of political tolerance and compromise; iv. The extent to which fundamental human rights are recognized and

enforced; and v. The level of mass mobilization and participation in politics.

A clearly defined process of political succession is the first political indicator of modernization and development. The type of government in power, whether it is democratic or authoritarian does not count much. But the manner through which new government officials come to power is what is important. Even though but bourgeois scholars insist that democracy is the hall mark of modernization. When a political system is able to fashion out a peaceful method of changing government, this is an index of development. If the process is characterized by bitter rivalry, chaos, anarchy and clashes, then absence of development and modernity is evident. The rationale for this conclusion is that development cannot occur under politically unstable atmosphere, but requires a congenial temperature to manifest and thrive.

An examination of the global situation reveals that most Third World countries are passing through one form of political instability or the other. Most of these crises germinate due to the struggle for power. And in the process, potential investors are scared away. On the contrary, the advanced and industrialized countries experience relative political tranquility due to highly organized and acceptable method of succession. This explains there state of development.

Another political parameter used to measure development is the level of integration or cohesiveness that exists in a political system. Nation-building is seen as a crucial factor of development. In fact, as noted Karl Deutch and Lucian Pye, political elite and leaders of “newly emerging nations equates development with nation building”.al Thus, if the level of integration is so high that loyalty is shifted from tribal and ethnic – oriented groups to the center, this portends development. In a fully integrated society, when the citizens have full participation in the affairs of their nations, disharmony and rivalry will be eliminated.

In the same vein, absence of integration is viewed as under-development. This is so because it is charaterised by fissiparous, centrifugal and cataclysmic tendencies. A country with ethnic cleavages but without some element of integration is likely to be prone to one of crises or the other. This has a negative effect on development. It is for this reason that countries with this type of feature are regarded as undeveloped.

A high level of political tolerance and compromise is another important indicator of development. Politically speaking, in a developed political system, public decision-making to a large extent, a process of give and take. It involves respecting and accommodating competing views and interests.

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If tolerance exists, it will be possible to decide on most public question. This will enhance the possibility of modernization of development.

In countries where political tolerance is absent and where alternative views are ignored and where opposers of the government are punished, such societies are not regarded as modernized. This is because dissident groups will likely go underground and work against government’s interest.The next political indicator of government is individual liberty and freedom. Countries are classified developed or underdeveloped, depending on the extent through which individual fundamental human and social rights are respected. Though there is no political system in the world that allows absolute freedom in terms of allowing citizens do all that please them, those states that respect constitutional right are considered modernized.

It must be emphasized that virtually all states have entrenched elaborate provisions of fundamental human rights in their constitution. Some merely copy those rights as contained in the United Nations Charter; but without respecting and protecting those rights. The extent through which the fundamental human right of citizen are recognized and guaranteed, indicate whether a state is modernized or not. Thus, political system that scoff at these rights, suppress freedom, arrest and detain people at will, and rule with terror, are considered not modernized. Conversely, those that respect and enforce these rights are deemed modernized.The level of mass modernization and participation in politics is another indicator of development. As noted by Lucian Pye, political development is concerned primarily with “the role of the citizenry and new standard of loyalty and involvement”. If the political system has successfully stimulated high level of political participation due to the “widening of suffrage and the induction of new elements of the population into the political process”, this is seen as an index of development. Conversely, countries where restrictions are placed on the level of involvement in political processes are considered undeveloped.

Socio-Cultural Indicators of DevelopmentDevelopment is not exclusively related to the economic and political terrains, but is also intertwined with socio cultural factors as well as. But given it numerous dimensions and complexities, only the most outstanding ones would be analysed. These are;

a. The level of social mobilization.b. The extent of cultural circularization.c. The prevalence of universalistic norms and d. The extent to which recruitment is based on achievement rather

than ascription.

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From the modernization perspective, the level of social mobilization could be used as abarometer for measuring the level of development. As conceptualized by Karl Deutch, social mobilization implies the strongest feelings of solidarity attached to units. It is assumed that if the level of social mobilization is high, this is an index of development. On the contrary, if social mobilization is fragmented along such units as extended family, the tribe, the village, the caste (etc.,) this is an open testimony to the prevalent of traditionality as against modernity.

The extent of cultural circularization is also used to measure the rate of modernization. Circularization here implies, “the process whereby men become increasingly rational, analytical, and empirical in their political actions”. As noted by Webber, when a society continuously scrutinizes its way of doing things in terms of their suitability, this is an indication of modernization. On the other hand, if response to issues is based on primordial factors rather than rationality, this is seen as a mark of traditionality.

The prevalence of universalistic norms is indicative of modernization. Modern societies are those by which there is inexistence universalistic norms which guide human conducts and behaviour but when these laws are diffused and are not universally binding, this is seen as a sign of primitivity.Related to the above is the extent to which recruitment is based on achievement rather than ascription. It is a hallmark of modernity if achievement and social status are based on merit. But when they are based on gerontocracy and / or birth, this portends absence of modernization.

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CHAPTER SIXTEEN

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDER DEVELOPMENT

The Meaning and Nature of a TheoryAccording to Stoner and Freedman (1992), a theory is a coherent

group of assumption put forth to explain the relationships between two or more observable facts which can be used to provide a sound basis for predicting future events. Koontz et al (1980) defined theory as a structure of fundamental concepts and ideas around which knowledge in a filed is organized. Ile (1999) sees a theory as a proposition or an idea or assumption put forth by an individual or group of individuals on how a particular problem can be solved.

In the words of Obikeze and Obi (2004), a theory is a system of ideas held to explain groups of facts or phenomena. A theory is a tool of science because it defines the kind of data to be collected and provides the conceptual framework for classifying and analyzing phenomena. According to Ekwealor (2007), a theory provides a generalization and prediction based on observed facts.

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Nwachukwu (2006) sees a theory as a scholarly grouping of concept and principles. A theory according to him presents in formal manner interrelated principles. Thus, the theory of management is the synthesis of the concepts and principles of management. Hence, a confirmed theory can therefore become principle.

Generally, a theory deals with the relationship between facts. A fact is a dictum of experience which verified, can be used as a basis of inference. According, facts become scientific when they are obtain obtained and arranged after a particular order. Also cannot lead to any scientific result if they are assembled at random.

To us, a theory is an intellectual grouping of facts, ideas and concepts with the objective of explaining particular events issues or phenomena. So a theory calls of rationality , objectivity, in organizing facts and interpreting them with the aim of achieving an observable results or forming conclusions about.

From the foregoing theories and models of development are imperative in explaining and predicting how:

(1) Economics develops ( or not) over time(2) Barriers to growth can be identified and overcome(3) Government can induce sustain and accelerate growth with

appropriate development policies.It is imperative to note that, theories are generalizations, while LDCs,

share similarities. Every country’s unique economic, social, cultural and historical experience means that the implications of a given theory vary widely from country to country. Thus, there is no one agreed “model of development”. Each theory gives an insight into one or two dimensions of the complex process of development.

Theories of Development and UnderdevelopmentThere are two broad competing paradigms or models of theoretical

understanding that seek to explain why some countries are poor and others are wealthy. These are theory of modernization and theory of imperialism.

Modernization TheoriesAccording to Ake (2003), modernization was a complex unity of

diversities, some theories looked at modernization in broad social terms, and some from a political standpoint. Others looked at it from an economic perspective, in which case the periodicity and the evolutionary approach that are a conspicuous element of modernization theory were less so.

The instrumentarium of the theory of modernization has been derived from a convergence of sources in the social sciences in the Western societies over a long period of time.

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For modernization theory, development was seen as an evolutionary perspective and the state of under development defined in terms of observable differences between rich and poor countries.

Thus development implies bridging of these gaps by less developed countries gradually assume the qualities of the industrialized nation (Okonkwo, S. I. 1999).

Modernization theories observed development differential between the North (developed) and South (underdeveloped) countries. This observation has led some scholars to pose the fundamental question: why are some parts of the globe developed and others underdeveloped?. The attempt to answer this question and thus explain the phenomena of development and underdevelopment has found scholars aligning themselves behind each of the two main paradigms of development and underdevelopment (Okereke and Ekpe, 2002).

The main plank of the modernization theories, according to Obi et al (2006) is that the present state of the less developed countries (LDCs) is an original state through which the developed countries passed through. Therefore, for less developed countries (LDCs) to developed, they must move away from their traditional society and follow the path of modernity. As Obi and Co (2006) put it, they should struggle to imitate and look like the west.

Modernization in this case would be seen as Europeanization or an Americanization process: since the Western European nations and the United states are the most economically and politically advanced (in most recent times) their institutions provide model for all other nations which desire to grow along these lines.

According to Farley (1994), the main focus of the modernization theories is on the transition from rural traditional agricultural societies to urban, industrial, rationalistic societies.

The main emphasis of these theories lies with ethnocentrism westernization, Americanization or Europeanization. Thus, those who espouse the modernization theory can be identified by their almost tenacious addition to the concept “modern and its permutations and by categories such as “ institutional differentiation” “development” “nation building “ “economic growth” “advanced industrial societies” Westernized” “backward” “primitive” “tribal” “ detribalism” etc. (Offiong, 1980).

Toye (1987) identified the main features of developed societies to include the following:

(a) Social patterns of demography(b) Urbanization and literacy(c) Investment, trade and government finance

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(d) Economic patterns of production and consumption psychological attributes of nationality

(e) Ascriptive identify and achievement motivationDrawing from the foregoing, development in the developed societies

is necessitated by the prevailing features of their society while underdeveloped conditions of the underdeveloped nations / societies is a product of the prevelling features of their economic. The feature of the developing economics act as an obstacle to the process of development.

These obstacles include(a) Capital shortage(b) Prevalence of crude technology(c) High birth rates and hence high prosposition of dependents per adult(d) High rate of illiteracy (e) Insistence on traditions and the attitude of the population towards

necessary changes.(f) Lack of modern industries and low capitalization on land

Economic Approach to the Modernization TheoryIt is important to note that economic progress is an essential component

of development, but it is not be only component. Development is not purely an economic phenomenon, it must encompass more than the material and financial side of people’s live to expand human freedoms. Thus development should be perceived as a multi dimensional process involving the reorganization and reorientation of the entire economic and social systems. As observed by Todaro and Smith (2009). In addition to improvements in incomes output, it typically involves radical changes in institutional, social and administrative structures as well as in popular attitudes and even customs and beliefs.

Concerning the economic theory of development, the classical Economist believe that the growth of an economy is a function of capitalist investment and employment of labour. To them development is measured in terms of national economy, that is in terms of Gross National Product, which is the total money or market value of all final goods and services produced by the residents or nationals of an economy during an accounting period, usually one year. Almost, development for this group is measured in terms of the Net National Product (NNP) which is the Net market value of a nation’s produced goods and services (Obikeze and Obi, 2004).

The main trust of the classical economist group is that capital formation and investment is the key to economic growth and development. The concerned international trade as an “engine of growth”. In the late forties and fifties the classical proponents with their two sided debate appeared on the intellectual scene with strong controversial recommendations on how

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developing countries could achieve meaningful development. On one part they theorized that the best approach to economic development of the ‘New’ nations is through a continuing process of production of primary commodities for export. They further asserted that the development and expansion of the agricultural sector through modern innovations was to be pursued vigorously in order for the third world to increase the level of production and prospect for foreign exchange earnings (Elem, 2004).

According to the Comparative Advantage theory the fundamental assumption that the growth of a nation can best be realized through specialization of function in the production of goods and the delivery of services.

Adam Smith, the foremost classical economist in his monumental work, “An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations was primarily concerned with the problem of economic development. He believed that doctrine of “natural Law” in economic affairs. To him ever person is regarded as the best judge of his self interest who should be left to pursue it to his own advantage. In furthering his own self interest, Smith believes he would also further the common goods. To Smith, “it is not be benevolence of the baker but to his self interest that we owe our bread. So, since every individual, if left fiea, will seek to maximize his own wealth therefore all individuals, if left free, I will maximize aggregate wealth.

Also, Adam Smith has “division of labour as his startling point. According to him, it is division that results in the greatest improvement in the productive powers of labour. He attributed this increase in productivity to: (a ) To the increase in the dexterity to every worker.(b) To the saving in time to produce goods and(c) To the invention of large number of labour saving machines. To

him it is improved technology that leads to division of labour and the expansion of the market.

Like the modern economists, Smith regarded “Capital Accumulation” as a necessary condition for economic development, considering above stated advantages of division of labour, it becomes clears that division of labour is not possible without capital accumulation. So, the problem of developing countries is the inability of the people to save more and invest more in a country.

Like Smith David, Ricardo presented his views on economic development in an unsystematic manner. He reasoned that capital accumulation is the keu to growth, to him stopped where capital accumulation and population growth fall to zero and wages to subsistence.

His theory is based on the marginal and the surplus principles. The marginal principle explains the share of rent in the national output and the surplus principle explains the division of the remaining share between wages and profits. The Ricardian theory is based on the following assumptions:

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(i) That all land is used for production of corn and the working forces in agriculture help in determining distribution in industry

(ii) That the law of diminishing returns operates on land(iii) That the supply of land is fixed(iv) That the demand for corn is perfectly inelastic(v) That labour and capital are variable inputs(vi) That capital consists of circulating capital(vii) That there is capital homogeneity(viii) That the state of technical knowledge is given(ix) That all workers are paid a subsistence wage(x) That the supply price of labour is given and constant(xi) That the demand for labour depends upon the accumulation of

capital and that both demand and supply price are independent of the marginal productivity of labour.

(xii) That there is perfect competition(xiii) That capital accumulation results from profits.

Another famous scholar on the area of economic growth is Thomas Robert Malthus. In his theory (The Malthusian theory) Malthus did not regard the process of economic development as automatic. Rather, it required consistent efforts on the part of the people. He emphasized that the economy reached the slump many times before attaining the optimum levels of development. Thus, he point out that the process of development was one of ups and downs of economic activity rather than smooth.

Malthus was concerned with the “progress of wealth” of a country. By progress of wealth, he mearnt economic development which could be achieved by increasing the wealth of a country. The wealth of a country depended partly upon the quantity of produce obtained by its labour, and partly upon the valuation of this produce. But “the wealth of country does not always increase in proportion to the increase in value, because an increase in value may sometimes take place under and actual diminution of commodities”.

Marshal (1968) on his own part stated the following determinants of growth:

Climate Human Resources Natural Resources Political Freedom Ability to Save

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Improved Transport External Economics Increasing Returns Existence of Extensive market Existence of Middle Class Efficient and Honest government Education and Social mobility

W. W. Rostow is another famous scholar whose contributions formed a sound basis for understanding economic development.

Meaningful development in Third World nations is only possible in the reasoning of Rostow if it is proceeded by some minimum effort or “a take off” period.

The characteristics of this all important period includes:1. The rate of investment on the increase of more than 10 percent of national

income, accompanied with the development of several major manufacturing sectors.

2. To sustain any achieved stage of development over time, an appropriate socio-political and institutional framework must be in place for the purpose of ensuring the creation of an environment conducive for economic development. This calls for the modernization and improvement of Third Word Social, Cultural and political institutions. This tide of social and political instability must be eradicated to make Third World environment conducive for economic development and to sustain attained height.

Accordingly, Restow claims that if developing societies followed the above prescriptions, they could attain economic maturity within a period of sixty years.

Associated with Rostow is the famous progressive historical stages of development in all societies. The five progressive stages which a society must pass through to attain an enviable height of development according to Rostow include

1. Traditional society / stage2. Preconditions for take off3. Take off stage 4. Drive to maturity5. Stage of Mass Consumption.

Rostow counselled developing countries largely at the traditional stage to endeavour to comply with his outlined gradual and progressive sequence to attain a mass consumption level.

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The requirements for Rostows prescription include necessary capital for investment at a scale or level, highly skilled technological and entrepreneurial manpower to beneficially direct capital investment for development. Invariably they should be unhindered interaction between variables as land, capital, labour, population and technology to raise per capital income level. A consideration of the size of investment is necessary as it would make a real difference in the real income of the population and thus lift up Third World societies out of subsistence existence.

Whiteman Walter Rostow has the following explanation of his five (5) stages of growth:

Traditional Society(a) Traditional Society: In a traditional society, production functions are limited. This is a society that has Pre-Newtonian Science as well as Pre-Newtonian attitude to the physical world. The traditional society is not based on modern technology. A ceiling, therefore, existed on the level of attainable output Per head. The level of output is limited by the inaccessibility of modern science, its application and its frame of mind – magic is no science. In terms of behaviour, the traditional society believes that the next generation cannot be better than the present one. There is, therefore, an unfortunate prevalence of long range fatalism.

(b) Pre-take-off: This is the stage where society is getting ready to take off. It is a society in transition. So many changes are taking place both materially and immaterially, banking, transportation, communication, import and export etc are on the increase. Also the people are beginning to adopt a positive attitude to privat property. They begin to cherish modernity and everything that nourishes human existence. However, the stimuli for these changes are exogenous. The pre-take-off society has no technology and therefore cannot develop of its own accord. This implies that colonialism is a pre-condition for the development of the emergent nations. Any society at this stage is a dual society having attitudes of tradition that exist side by side with modernity. Society also cannot be industrially independent until the foreign element of development has been internalized to the extent of enabling independent and self sustained growth.

(c) Take-off: This is a stage at which society is becoming economically independent. Independent industries begin to emerge. Society at this stage is prepared to overcome those traditional barriers to development. There is social overhead capital and also a surge in technological development in industry and agriculture. There also emerges a political leadership that has the economic

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growth of the nation as its priority. Much of the capital is still imported, so foreign investment is welcome.

However, such society is able to invest 5 to 10 percent of its national income in productive capital. There is therefore an accelerator and multiplier effect in the economy where the growth of various sectors of the economy are complementary and mutually supportive. Society at this stage is developing its capital production possibilities to enhance a self-sustained economic development.

(d) Maturity: Society at this stage has taken off and is driving to maturity. Economic growth now supersedes population growth and society could invest between 10 percent and 20 percent of its national income. The economy beings to diversify, structures change, both importation are irreversibly on the increase.

Society now begins to assert itself in the international context and attempts to dominate others, if possible. There is a change of emphasis in industrialization beyond needs and towards capital and luxury goods.

The Third Word countries have not developed to this stage. A mature society is that which has demonstrated the capacity to transcend those original impetus that powered it into “take off” and also the capacity to apply the fruits of modern science within its boundaries. The mature society can by no means boast of a capability to produce everything but now it can specialize in certain product lines that will enhance its bargaining position in the international system. (Examples are Switzerland with Wrist watches, China with textiles, Japan with Electronics, etc). Herein then lies the emphasis on specialization and international division of labour.

(e) High Mass Consumption: At this stage, society has achieved maturity and is going beyond it to emphasize the production of consumables. It begins to produce for the between life of its citizens. The personal income of the citizens increase substantially and their consumption patterns change. The proportion of the urban population to the general working population increases. A society in the age of high Mass Consumption is a welfare society.

The ideological orientation of this categorization is clearly explicit in the title of the book, Stages of Economic Growth: A non-Communist Manifesto. The concern of the modernization theorists is how to move Third World Countries out from tradition to modernity. They argue that:

(i) In order to bring about greater development, the interaction between developed and developing nations should be encouraged.(ii) They recommend a high level of technical assistance as a means of development.

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(iii) They also recommend that Third World countries should keep their economy open by allowing greater participation of foreign capital.(iv) They suggest that the Third World countries should allow developed

countries to help hem develop their political institutions.

Psychological TheoryThe dominant interest of theorists in this approach is the non

economic factors that influence development. Thus, they attribute development and underdevelopment to attitudinal and personality variables. Their concern was mainly to find out the psychological factors that could lead to economic development. As noted by Okereke and Ekpe (2002).Underdevelopment is seen as due to the existence of personality factors which do not motivate producers in the underdeveloped countries. To them, the developed countries are developed because the producers exhibit personality traits that motivate them towards self achievement.

Everethe, E. Hagen, in his work on the theory of authoritarian traditional societies with their authoritarian structures, argues that traditional societies are characterized by non- innovating personalities, to him it is the innovative personality that initiates and stimulates economic growth. Thus, he pointed out that the structure of traditional societies is not oriented towards the production of innovative personality. The authoritarian and hierarchical nature of the social structure in the traditional/ developing societies inhibits development, because for development to occur, individuals attitude about innovation in the society much change. He puts the assertion thus:

The social structure is hierarchical and authoritarian in all its aspects, economic, political, religious. The existence of an authoritarian hierarchy does not refer merely to a large mass who were submissive and to a small class who rule. Rather, every individual in a traditional hierarchy except perhaps for one or few at the very apex is submissive to authoritarian decisions above him, and in turn exercise authority on persons below him. And this is true even of the lowliest peasant, who as he grows older and becomes a husband, a father and an elder in his village, becomes increasingly an authority in some aspect of his social relations. Second, one’s status in the society is with little qualification, inherited. One does not earn it, one is born into it.

The cause for the differences existing between the developed and developing societies lies in the features of their social systems.

According to Hagen, the feature of traditional societies do not allow for the development of creative personalities with high need for achievement during and open to new ideas as is the case in developed societies. He concluded that developed countries achieved their levels of development because the social structure in those societies allows for the creation of innovative personalities.

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It is important to note that for more innovation and creative personalities will emerge by encouraging literacy expanding the mass media, urbanization and promotion of nationalism.

Hagen summed up his position by stating that :Authoritarianism and non innovating person are both the characteristic of traditional societies. Not surprisingly, therefore, the social and economic organizations these societies is characterized by great stability. There could be complete absence of social change in such societies for many, many years, since the relationships between personality and social change will not occur without change in personality.

Another psychological theorist, MeClelland, on his own contribution to the psychological theory of modernization, discovered a motivational syndrome or drive he labels “need for achievement”. At (n- Achievement) in his book, The Achieving Society” he pointed out that a nation with a generally high level of n-Achievement will produce more energetic entrepreneurs who in turn, produce rapid economic development” The major assumption of his theory is that, “it is values” not motivates or psychological forces that determine ultimately the rate of economic and social development. To him the n –achievement is one of a number of needs which characterizes man and determines much of human behaviour: like other motives it is created through a person’ childhood experience and result, the link between the individual is society.

To McCelland, these psychological factors are internal and constitute values and motives which spur individuals to greater achievement. He concluded that a society with high achievement motive is likely to be innovative, demonstrate entrepreneurial drive and hence, high levels of economic development.

The institutional Theory of Modernization:Another aspect of the modernization theories is the institutional model. The theorist argue that in a modernizing society, there is need for good leadership and that even when this exists the leadership is often confronted with the problem of creating modernizing institutions given the traditional nature of these societies. (Okereke and Ekpe, 2002).

As noted by Nnamani (2009) citing Bemstair (1973), this school of thought deviated from the concentration on economic growth. Attentions were directed towards external and internal structural and institutional policies as the precondition for development. No longer was saving investment and foreign aid seen as major determinant of development; rather structural and provide more diversified employment opportunities and reduce income inequalities. This school of thought views underdevelopment as a function of internal and domestic power relationship, institutional and structural rigidities and the result

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of proliferation and economics and dual societies both within and outside the nations of the world Black (1966) argues that:

The process of modernization involves a continuing crisis, four of which he considered most important.

In the first place, society must sufficiently feel the need to modernize under what he called the Challenge of modernity. This demands the ability “to digest the new knowledge and technology over a considerable period of time and to absorb the impact gradually. Secondly, is the Consolidation of Modernizing Leadership, which involves the transfer of power from traditional to modernizing leaders. The consolidation of modernizing leadership I accompanied by a break from traditional agricultural institutions to a modern and commercialized methods of production in order to increase agricultural production to be able to feed the growing population in the cities, provide raw materials for manufacturing industries and thus indirectly providing further capital for investment. The third is what he calls the problem of Economic and Social Transformation. Here, emphasis is one the nation-state rather than on the village community . this involves the movement of almost half of the national work force agriculture to manufacturing, transportation, commerce and services and even a large number drifting from rural towns. Finally, is the problem of Integration of Society Characterized by efficient use of resources and a high per capital income.

Another interesting postulation of Black, as noted by Nnamani (2009) is economic and social transformation. His emphasis here is on the nation – state rather than on the village community. This involves the movement of almost half of the national work force from agriculture to manufacturing, transportation, commerce and services and even a large number drifting from rural to urban towns.

As a dual economist, Black believes in the existence of two societies in an economy:

(1) Industrialized and urbanized (2) Rural and Agrigarian

He is one of the view that sometimes int eh future the industrially urbanized sector will liquidate the rurally agrigarian sector. Thus, one of the major problems facing developing countries is the eradication of the developmental disparities existing between industrialized urban sector and rural agrigarian sector, therefore, reversing the over concentration of development activities in urban towns. This can be achieved through the modernization of rural sector. To him the problem how to create the urban centres but how to go about modernizing the Agrigrain sector.

On his own part, Boeke propounded the theory of “Social dualism” to explain the general working of the nature of the economic and social development of underdeveloped economies. In his explanations of the meaning

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of social, economic and technological duration, he maintained that three characteristics of society in economic sense exists. Society according to him wears the picture of the social spirit, the organizational forms and techniques dominating it. There interdependence and inter-relationship results to what he described as social system or social style.

You describe a society as homogenous where only one of those three society systems exists or prevails. But two or more of the three social system that characterize society may prevail simultaneously. This results to a society being described as a dual or plural society.

To Boeke when a society is dual or plural, it simply means that there is an existing distinct cleavage of two synchronic and full growth social styles which normally in the course of the historical evolution of homogenous societies are separated from each other by transitional forms in order of, for example pre capitalism, early capitalism and high capitalism.

Every dual society as it is in Third World countries is normally characterized by existence of:

(a) An advanced imported Western system(b) And an indigenous pre-capitalist agricultural system

Under the Western system, advance technology is used as a way of life. The average standard of living is high, Western Industrialized societies influence and supervise the culture.

The indigenous pre-capitalist agricultural system is native and traditional with low levels of technique, economic and social welfare. Boeke calls this clashing of an imported social system with an indigenous social system of another style “Social dualism”.

People’s needs in a dualistic society are limited because the members of the society are readily satisfied when their immediate needs are met. Their value system does not create room for luxury in their lives. For example, if five acres of land are enough to supply the needs of the household, a farmer will not bother to till six. This prevails because people are influence more by social rather than economic needs.

Their traditional industry is practically unorganized, without capital and the necessary technology. People tack the ability to interpret the market forces and as a result indulge in speculative activities. They do not believe that capital investments are usually associated with risks. The initiative and organizational skill characteristic of modern Western Industrial society is lacking. People in dualistic society are usually fatalistic and hesitant to use modern technology. Labour is unskilled, passive and unorganized. Generally, urban development takes place at the cost of rural life. Underdeveloped society interpret internal trade only in terms of export promotion.

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The Theory of ImperialismThe Meaning Of ImperialismThe pheonomena associated with imperialism include monopolistic privilege and preferences, plunder of raw materials, seizure of territory, enslavement of the indigenous population, nationalism, racism and militarism (Offiong, 1980). There is a general agreement in associating imperialism with economic, political, cultural and territorial expansion; however, there is much controversy about the meaning of economic imperialism.

According to to Offiong, (1980) economic imperialism is the subordination or domination of one country or group of countries by another for the main purpose of formal or informal control of domestic economic resources for the benefit of the subordinating or dominating power and at the expense of the local people and their economy. The imperialist power control foreign exchange, public and private savings, agriculture and mineral, transportation, communication, manufacturing and commercial facilities.

Lenin (1976) conceived imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. It emerged as the development and direct continuation of fundamental characteristics of capitalism. But capitalism only became capitalist imperialism at a definite and very high stage of the development when certain of its fundamental characteristics began to change into their opposites, when the features of the epoch of transition from capitalism to a higher social and economic system had taken shape and revealed themselves all along the line.

According to Ake (1979), the term imperialism is used in two senses, one broad, the other narrow. According to the broader usage, imperialism is the subordination of one country to another or an attempt to subordinate the country to another in order to maintain a relation of unequal exchange. The stricter usage of imperialism makes it an economic phenomena. In this sense, imperialism is a stage in the development of the capitalist mode of production.

In this context, imperialism should be understood to mean the socio-cultural, economic, political and military subordination of one country to another with the main purpose of controlling the socio-cultural, economic, political and military resources of the subordinated countries, thereby making them dependent on the subordinating country for the sole purpose of exploitation.

Dependency Theories of UnderdevelopmentDependency economists belong to different schools of thought and are

classified as Marxists, neo-marxists and structuralists. Todaro classifies then under the neo-colonial dependence model, the false-paradigm model and Dualist Development Thesis. It was noted that Todaro’s categorization of dependency streams of thought does not include all that is contained in writings

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of dependency economists. Bath and James on their own part identified four unifying elements in the news of dependency economists (1) Identification of underdevelopment with the expansion of industrial

capitalist countries(2) The view that development and underdevelopment are parts of a

unified system (3) The view that underdevelopment is a persistent natural condition, not temporary, pre-capitalist stage and(4) Agreement that dependence affects internal policies, society and

cultureAccording to the dependency economists, the whole world is divided

between two sets of countries; DCs (Developed Countries) and LDCs (Less Developed Countries). The former are in centre (western Europe, Britain and the United States) and the latter are in the periphery (backward countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America). Frank calls the DCs as metropolis and LDs as satelite countries. Others call the former dominant and the latter as dependent countries. There are unequal centre-periphery relationships whereby LDs are dependent on DCs in trade, investment, technology, etc. this dependency results in underdevelopment of the periphery because the centre is dominated by the power capitalist countries that exploit the former for their benefit.

Dependency Dependency is a consequence of imperialism. It is the situation that

the history if colonial imparism has left and that modern imperialism creates in underdeveloped countries. As Dele Johnson put it, dependency is imperailsm see from the perspective of underdevelopment’. It is a conditioning situation in which the specific historics of development and underdevelopment transpire in various societies.

According to Dos Santos (1970) dependency is a situation in which a certain group of countries have their economy conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy, to which the former is subject. The relation of interdependence between two or more economics and between these world trade, assumes the form of dependency when some countries (the dominant) can expand and give impulse to their own development, while other countries (the dependent) can only develop as a reflection of this expansion. The dominant countries have a technological, commercial, capital resources and social political predominance over the dependent countries. This permits them to impose condition of exploitation andextract part of the domestically produced surplus. This basis situation leads to global situation in dependent countries that situate them in backwardness and under the exploitation of the dominant countries.

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Therefore, dependency is process of incorporating a country into a relationship of unequal exchange in which the incorporating (dominant) country maintains absolute control over the aspirations and need of the incorporated and as such exploit the overall 0source of the dependent for the development of the independent. The resultant outcome is underdevelopment in the incorporated country.

Dependency and Underdevelopment Theories: A Critical ReviewOne of the major critics of the modernization theory was Frank

(1969) who came up with the dependency theory of development or underdevelopment theory. This theory argued that the underdevelopment of Third World countries is the consequence of their incorporation into the World capital country is a consequence of neoimperialistic structure, which creates central periphery relationship between the advanced capitalist society and the Third World countries are converted into mere producers of raw materials make the Third World countries to be always dependent on the metropolitan capitalist. The consepuence of this is the expropriation and appropriation of surplus from Third world countries to the advance industrial society. He further argue that within the dependent countries, the metropolis have indigenous collaborator. These indigenous comprador bourgeoisies further exploit the resources of their own people and further underdevelopment of their people.

Amin (1972) has argued that black African countries are all characterized by extreme form of underdevelopment. This situation according to him, is produced by dependency of Africa states on more developed countries as a consequence of the continent’s common historical experience of economic exploitation by European organized mercantislim, the slave, imperialism and colonialism. Moreover via the mechanism of neo-colonialism, African underdevelopment has been perpetuated, perhaps even increased, during the achievement of political independence. Amin maintains that the development of capitalism in Western European led to the creation of an internal political economy characterized by a worldwide division of labour in which metropolitan capitalist countries achieve dominance over underdeveloped areas. Dependent countries in this situation are unable to make autonomous decisions concerning the pace and direction growth of their internal economies. Rather, the central economic issues and decisions are decided by international structure and process outside the control of the countries. The attendant consequence of this development is the distortion of the nature of development and underdevelopment in the Third Word countries

Offiong (1980) argues that imperialism and its consequent dependency is not root cause of underdevelopment of Africa. According to him, underdevelopment is not an original state as modernization theorists would

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want us to believe. He contends that the beginning of African underdevelopment can be traced to Trans- Atlantic slave trade, and the abandoning of that trade in favour of ‘legitimate’ trade in African. In other words, the basis of African underdevelopment can be found in slave trade and colonial imperialism. According to Offiong, in the first the Africa supplied the man with human cargos who taken to toil the lands stolen from other owners, the Indians. In return the African received guns, gunpower and silky items that began his process of dependency. In the second stage, the colonial imperialism stage, Offiong maintains that African became oriented to the export of primary products under the control of metropolitan capital and constituted as markets for imported manufacturers from the same metropolitan countries.

He further maintained that since the imperialist power could not continue their occupation of their former dependencies, they decided to quit but made sure that they left the reins of power in good hands. They handed power to their internal collaborator for perpetual exploitation.

Rodney (1982) provided the historical evidence of how Europe’s wealth and development has been the direct result of the systematic improverishment of the African continent. He argued that capitalism has introduce underdevelopment and dependency in new nation states through neo-colonialism, exploitation and imperialism. In a book entitled Can Nigeria Survive, Arthur Nwankwo critically exposed how imperialist power through Multinational Corporations perpetuates underdevelopment in the Third World. According to Nwankwo, these transnational corporations with huge capital accumulation dominate the investment and commercial activities of their host countries and interfere in policy making and decision of countries. He argued that these transnational corporations, which enjoy the strong backing of their home countries, enjoy the surplus of the underdeveloped countries. This surplus, they repatriate to their home country leaving the host countries depleted economically. Perhaps this exploitation made Nkrumah (1965) former president of Ghana to write in his book Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism that the underdeveloped countries would not make any forward march towards economic independence until neo-colonialism or neo-imperialism was vaniquished.

Also in his book entitled Social Science As Imperialism, Ake affectively brought out the imperialistic nature of most of the Social Science teaching. In particular, he X-rayed the theory of political development and maintained and it is ideologically biased. In an insightful analysis, he brought out very clearly the nextus between political development theory and western notion of capitalism and argued that social sciences is propagated by the west

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to infuse their ideology on the Third World and consequently maintain their subordination to the western capitalist.

According to Ake (1981) in his book entitled Political Economy of African State, in the process of integrating the pre capitalist economies into the world capitalist system, there was no question of evolving routinizing and institutionalizing principles for non-arbitrary use of power. What emerged was disartification of the economy and politics market imperfections, arbitrary use of state power, rent seeking behaviour and prebendal politics on the leadership, compradorical external relations and an interventionist and commandist state with limited autonomization. This he argues make the state in Africa weak in the face of competition with imperialist state in the international capitalist order

The predatory colonial wars of conquest and pacification set in motion a protracted dialectical process of disarticulating and relegating the pre-capitalist socio-economic structure. This has taken the form of monetization and proletarianization of a natives. Foreign investment forged an umbilical linkage between the colony and metro pole. Monopoly tendencies led to centralization of power in the state and promoted primitive capital accumulation. The colonial economy displayed a pathological maturity and decay like highly accelerated ageing process by short-circcuiting history and advancing to the monopoly stage. Thus, it suffer the disadvantages of monopoly without benefiting from its free competition. This situation negates development and its fundamental elements (Ake, 1981).

The weakness of state in the Third World countries which is attributed to capitalism and imperialism, made Knor (2000) caution the leaders of the developing countries against the risk of embracing globalization and liberalization hook, line and sinker. He maintains that globalization and liberalization are instruments of imperialism, a deliberate designation of few developed nations of the North to exploit and appropriate the economic and financial resources of the south and consequently improses untold hardship and underdevelopment. He criticized in a strong term the pressure mounted on developing countries by the developed countries to liberalize, privatise and deregulate their economy arguing that the present structure of state in developing countries placed them on disadvantage in the world of competition with the advanced capitalist states. He states: “ Globalisation has led to the erosion of national sovereignty and narrowed the ability of government to make choices from options in economy and cultural policies”

In a well-thought-out argument, Aluko (2005) decisively criticized the prevailing economic reform in some Third World countries that is premised on the tenets of capitalism, liberalism and globalization. Although trained in the London School of Economics where capitalism, liberalism and globalization are embraced like religion, the renowned economic scholar

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attributed the increasing trend of underdevelopment in the Third World to appropriate human, material and financial resources by imperialist state. He maintain that the Internal Monetary Fund and World Bank are agents of the Advance Capitalist States of the West that serve the purpose of integrating the Third World countries into the International Capitalist structure through their economic prescriptions for growth and development. These prescriptions, which are imposed conditionality for granting of loans or debts relief, make the Third World countries to be perpetuality dependent on the economy of the advanced west. He noted that economic salvation of the Third World countries cannot come from the East or from the West but from the local environment.

In his scholastic contribution to the structure of dependence, Dos Santos (1970) identifies and distinguishes three forms of dependence historically as follows:

Colonial dependence export in which commercial and financial capital in alliance with colonist state, dominated the economic relations of the Europeans and the colonies, by means of trade monopoly of land, mines and manpower in the colonial countries. (1) Financial industrial dependence which consolidated at the end of the nineteenth century, characterized by domination of big capital in the hegemoniec centres and its expansion abroad through investment in the production of raw material and agricultural products for the consumption in the hegemonis centre and its expansion abroad through investment in the production of raw material and agriculatural products for the consumption in the hegemonic centre. A production structure grew up in the dependent countries devoted to export of these products, producing foreign-oriented development.(2) Technological-industrial dependence which was consolidated in the post World War 11 period based on multinational corporations, which began to invest in industries, geared to the internal market of the underdeveloped countries. Santos maintains that under these conditions both internal development and internal market condition in the Third World countries are restricted by a number of factors.

Clearly, then in form 1 and 2 of dependence outlined above, production is geared to those products destined for exports, i.e. production is determined by demand from hegemonic centres. The internal productive structure is characterized by rigid specialization and monoculture in the entire region. Along side these export sectors there grew up certain complementary economic activities, which were directly dependent on the export sector to which they sell their product.

The technological-industrial dependence is conditioned by the exigencies of the internal commodity and capital markets. The possibility of generating new investment depends on the existence of financial resources in

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foreign currency for the purchase of machinery and processed raw materials not produced domestically. The industrial development is then strongly conditioned by fluctuations in the balance of payments. This leads towards deficit due to relations of dependence themselves, such as trade relation , which take place in a highly monopolized international market which also tend to lower the price of raw materials and to raise the prices of industrial products particularly input.

Therefore, foreign capital retains control over the most dynamic and modern sectors of the economy and repatriates a high volume of profit. Consequently, capital accords are highly unfavourable to dependent countries.

Among writers on dependence and dependency only Caporaso (1978) made any formal attempt to develop a clearer focus on dependence and dependency. He identifies two different sets of theoretical concerns which were sometime labeled identifically and often treated indiscriminately. He distinguishes dependence from dependency and defines dependency as “external reliance on other actor” and dependency as “the process of incorporation of less developed countries into the global capitalist system and the ‘Structural distortions resulting there from”. He argues that there are some similarities between the two approaches to the extent that both focus on “Relational Inequalities among actors and both are equally interested in the vulnerabilities of members of the global system resulting from these unequal relations.

Apart from the similarities he also identifies fundamental gaps in the supportive methodologies of the two approaches. He maintains that the dependence approach seeks to probe and explore the symmetric and asymmetric among nations-states. This approach, which he says proceeds from liberal paradigmatic perspective focuses on individual actors and their goals and sees power in decisional term. The individual actors are of course the unified nation-states, which are pitched against the external environment comprising other homogeneous unit with the nation-states as the basic unit of analysis, analysis of dependent relations can be carried out on any combination of states, from dyads up to statistical made mode of analysis (Caporaso, 1978:2)

As opposed to the dependence approach which focuses on the nation-states, according to Caporaso, the dependency orientation “Seek to explore the process of integration of the periphery into the international capitalist system and to assess the developmental implication this peripheral capitalism”. This approach, therefore, has fundamentally different orientation from the liberal paradigm whose main interest and focus is on the class structure in the periphery country. The dependency frame work, in other words explicitly rejects the unified state as actor, as a useful conceptual building block of theory. The dependency system does not consider the global system as

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composed of independent, autonomous and isolated nation-states, but rather, it conceptualizes the system in terms of complex interaction roles, specialized positions and statuses.

Dependency: Implications for Underdevelopment in Nigeria Historical situations of dependency have conditioned contemporary

under development in Nigeria and other underdeveloped societies. The beginning of Nigeria underdevelopment can be traced to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, the abandoning of the trade in favour of “legitimate trade” and the eventual partition of African, which placed Nigeria under the British colonial imperialism. In other words, the basis of Nigeria underdevelopment can be found in slave trade and colonial imperialism (Offiong, 1980; Obiajulu and Anthony, (2004); (Shaw and Fasehum, 1998; Rodney, 1982).

In the first, the contact with the European in the 13 th century sparked off slave trade in which Nigeria and other African countries supplied the whiteman with human cargo who were taken to the American plantations to toil the lands. The slaves taken away from Nigeria and other African societies provided them with cheap labour in their plantation under severe condition of inhuman treatment. These slaves enabled them to increase their production and make enormous profit thereby causing th drain of the best brain that would have initiated development in Nigeria.

The slave trade merchants in collaboration with their agents instigated conflicts and fanned the embers of intra and inter communal wars all in a bid to conquer and cart away slaves. Inferiority complex was inculcated in the minds of Nigerians and as such a wrong notion of European superiority of race became prevalent (Okoli, 1980; Rodney, 1982; Offiong 1980)

The industrial revolution of the 18th century drastically changed the economic orientations and attitudes of the white men to Nigeria and other slave providing societies. The industrial revolution created a situation of surplus manufactured products in Europe, which gave rise to search for diverse markets where the surplus could be sold and the required raw materials procured at a very cheap rate. (Olisa et al, 1990) Africans and indeed, Nigeria became the available opportunities for European economic exploitation.

In this stage, Nigeria became oriented to the export of primary products, principally agricultural, under the control of metropolitan capital and constituted as market for imported manufactures from the same metropolitan countries with huge foreign capital and military power, the Europeans successful kept Nigeria as a de facto colony. The government of Nigeria and its economy was brought under the strict control of the foreign power thereby depriving the nation its control over international market for primary products, the prices of which fluctuate and quite often are manipulated by the rich and

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powerful nations. Such fluctuation according to (Offiong, 1980) almost always result in unfavourable term to trade in relation to imput.

Colonialism integrated Nigerian economy into the western capital system which hindered effectively the internal growth of Nigerian economy. This incorporation into the exploitation of capitalism intensified the underdevelopment of Nigeria by making the country a major importer of western goods. The issues of self-reliance are no longer there and dependency becomes the order of the day. Apart from perpetuating underdevelopment through economic exploitation and dependency, colonialism did not see any good in most aspect of Nigerian culture. It tractfully devastated Nigeria mode of life such as, farming, settlement, indigenous technology, traditional mechanism of administration, spirit of brotherhood, ingenuity and overall mental dispositions. This deliberate act of cultural and social disorganization in the name of colonial policy intensified the spirit of inferiority and deprivation of confidence among Nigerians.

In a bid to maintain absolute control of the foisted ethnic groups, the colonial masters adopted a divide and rule system thereby keeping the diverse ethnic groups on collistion course so as to weaken their internal solidarity and possible resistance against the colonial masters. The divide and rule system engendered ethnicity which has contained to hunt the spirit of Nigeria many years after its so-called political independent. This ugly situation was aptly captured by okoli (1980:1). He argued that the institutional structure maintained by the colonial masters could not effectively mediate in conflict resolution, rather, it generated conflicts considering its multi-ethnic nature. He further stated that the institutionalization of devolution regionalism in Nigeria from 1967 intensified the existing ethnic cleavages and stunted the growth of federal political institutions.

The other developing effects of colonial policy were multi-faceted and unrestricted. The administration institutions created by the colonial masters were oriented towards the interests of the colonial masters. The civil service was structured and conceived as an instrument for continuous domination of the white men over the black men. The worst being that in the era of colonialism Nigerian civil service were prematurely integrated into the system. They played the second fiddle with every bit of administrative inconvenience and lack of basic knowledge. The attendant consequence becomes that even after independence, the fundamental requirement of efficient civil service remains a far cry.

Indeed, colonialism left a legacy of ethnicity, poor leadership, injustice, weak administrative and institutional structure economic dependency, social and cultural disorganization, political imbalance as well as other social vices that have kept Nigeria underdeveloped and in constant manipulation of the Europeans.

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It is important to note that when the imperialist powers could not continue their occupation of their former dependencies, owing to agitation for political independence through a growing nationalism, they decided to quit but made sure that they left the reigns of power in good hands. They did not hestitate to create and finance political parties in opposition to real nationslists and even rigged election and employed other means to ensure that power is handed over to their loyalists who would continue with the colonial policy. Thus, a cruicial problem of underdevelopment is the fact that dependency has arisen a coincidence of interest between the local or capitalist Oligarchy and the internal compradors bourgeoisies who greatly benefit from this dependency situation and would not hesitate to resist any attempt to dismantle the status quo (Offiong, 1980). So at post independence these bourgeoisies have strengthened the unequal relationship with their international allies to the extent that their transactions are export oriented. They represent the interest of their foreign alliers and rob their countries fo their much-needed exchange and as well engage in all sorts of unpatriotic activities that fail to aid economic development. They invest their capital abroad and launder their stolen wealth from their national treasurer to foreign banks. Most Nigerian leaders both the past and present are products of colonial imperialism and have been directly or indirectly guilty of unpatriotic capital flight and illegal money laundering. The late General Sani Abacha drained our national treasury, which he lodge in his numerous foreigh accounts. Recently, Joshua Dariye, the governor of Plateau state was arrested in London for money laundering, however he escaped to Nigerian where immunity clause prevented his prosecution. In a similar manner of looting, former Governor Alamieyesigha of Baylesa state is currently facing charges in London over illegal transfer of money (The Tribune, 1 October, 2005, p.7)

In fact, in Nigeria, foreign factors of production such as capital and technology have become the main determinant of economic progress and socio-political life. The international system or world market upon which Nigeria is integrated into is a structure of institutions, classes and power arrangement which is ‘imperialism’. Multinational Corporations in Nigeria are agent of imperialism. The character of modern capitalism has given rise to corporation among the multinational corporations with respect to their overseas operations (Offiong, 1980). There has risen the necessity to control productive process from the sources of supply and processing of raw materials to market or outlets for commodity. The activities of all the multinational corporations in Nigeria such as Shell BP, Mobile, Texaco, Leventis, Ford, UAC, Arab Construction Company, Julius Berger etc are inimical to the economic development of Nigeria. These multinational corporations do not only deplete our human and material resources, but also create environmental problems which endangers human life. In the Niger Delta, the exploitative nature of the multinational oil

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companies have created youth restiveness, environmental pollution and lost of lives and property of the innocent citizens in communal crises sparked off by their actions. Bayelsa state governor, D.S.P. Alamieyeseigha aptly captured this situation when he stated: “The seeds of dissent so variable displayed in the Niger Delta today are rooted in the distant past, especially from the colonial rule”. ( Tell Magazine, April 4th, 2005 p 41).

Since the nature of private corporate operations abroad is such that they need protection by the imperialist state, the multinational corporations have employed their power and influence to shape the foreign policies of their government and that of the Third World nations. In Nigeria, multinational corporations are so powerful with huge capital investment and accommodation and have taken control of virtually all sector of our economy. They control indirectly the policies of Nigerian government and even have hands in determining who becomes the president of the nation or who occupies sensitive positions. The ongoing economic reform imposed on Nigeria, which are conditionality of IMF, World Bank and Paris Club (all are agents of imperialism) owing to huge external debt to the Europeans countries and Paris club, is aimed at liberalizing and privatizing our infant economy to full blown competition. With the industrialist nations. This phenomenon is a continuation of the unequal relation and dependence. It simply means allowing foreign investors, with their huge capital accumulations, to take over strategic economic sectors of Nigeria either directly or indirectly with their comprador bourgeoisies. It is ironical to expect an infact economy to compete favourable or develop in the face of fierce competition with advanced capitalist economy. What these conditions imply is that Nigeria should remain dependent on the Western capitalists and by extension remain underdeveloped in the international community

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CHAPTER SEVENTEEN

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION: NATURE, MEANING AND SCOPE

The basic of development administration is that public administration has a decisive role to play in the effort to promote development. This according to Obikeze et al (2004) cannot be the traditional form of administration that is geared to the status – quo, but must be an administration that is new both in structure and outlook, it must be dynamic and capable of bringing about and enthroning change in all fields. It is the driving force behind development and must be able to cope with changes. Thus, the idea behind development administration is the most appropriate way of passing from an administration which is essentially traditional in function to an administration which is able and especially geared to development.

According to Olewe (1995), the emphasis on development administration is on accelerated economic and social development and the initiation of national plans of development varying in scope and expanding in content.

Development administration as a concept is a part of the broader discipline of public administration in developing countries. Regardless of the stage of modernization, the broad development goals of emerging new nations are almost similar be it social, economic, political or geo-political.

Development is concerned with making administration to be development-oriented instead of being rigid to rules and obedience to status-quo. Thus it considers the milieu in which administration operates.

Meaning of Development AdministrationTo George Gant: “Development administration is that aspect of public

administration in which the focus of attention is an organizing and administering public agencies in such a way as to stimulate and facilitate defined programmes of social and economic progress. It has the purpose of making change attractive and possible”. He further observed: “Development administration denotes the complex web of agencies, management systems and processes, a government establishes to achieve the development goals. Development administration is the administration of policies, programmes and projects to serve development purposes”. According to him, the development administration is characterized by its purposes” (socio-economic progress), its ‘loyalties’ (accountable to the people), and its ‘attitudes’ (positive, persuasive and innovative approach).

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To Stone, development administration is concerned with achieving national development. the goals, values and strategies of change may vary but there always are generic processes through which agreement on the goals is reached and plans, policies, programmes and projects (4P’s) are formulated and implemented. Development administration, therefore, is concerned primarily with the tasks and processes of formulating and implementing the four P’s in respect to whatever mixture of goals and objectives may be politically determined”.

To Irving Swerdlow “Development administration is administration in poor countries”. He identified two inter-related tasks in development administration – institution – building and planning.

To Han been Lee “Development administration is concerned with the problems involved in managing a government or an agency thereof so that it acquires an increasing capability to adapt to and act upon new and continuing social changes with a view to achieve a sustained growth in political, economic and social fields.”

To Merle Fainsod “Development administration is a carrier of innovating values. It embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of modernization and industrialization. Development administration ordinarily involves the establishment of machinery for planning, economic growth and mobilizing and allocating resources to expand national income.”

To John D. Montegomery “Development administration connotes carrying out planned change in the economy (in agriculture or industry, or the capital infrastructure supporting either of these) and, to a lesser extent, in the social services of the state (especially education and public health)”.To Martin Landau “Development administration is the engineering of social change.”

To Pai Panandiker “Development administration is mainly the administration of planned change.” He further observed: “The essence of development administration is holistic change undertaken through integrated, organized and properly directed governmental action.”

To Jose Abueva “Development administration is the administration of development programmes in the economic, social and political spheres, including the programs for improving the organization and management of the bureaucracy as a major instrument for national development.”

To B.S. Khanna “Development administration is an administration geared to the tasks of economic, social and political development, which has been induced by an increasing tempo, momentum and diversity emanating from the elite and groups of people.”

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To Inayatullah “Development administration is the complex of organizational arrangements for the achievement of an action through public authority in pursuance of (i) socio-economic goals and (ii) nation-building.”

To K.R. Hope “Development administration in contextual and operational terms implies efficient organizational and management of the development activities of a nation to attain the goals of development.”

To B.B. Schaffer “Development administration is about development programmes, policies and projects in those conditions in which there are usually wide and new demands and in which there are peculiarly low capacities and severe obstacles in meeting them.”

To Harry J. Friedman “Development administration means the implementation of programmes designed to bring about modernity (that is, socio-economic progress and nation-building), and the changes within the administrative system which increase its capacity to implement the programmes.”

Aims of Development Administration Modernization, socio-economic development, institution building and

creation of an integrated political community are regarded as essentials of Development administration. The crux of Development administration is societal change in the direction of modernity. Here the direction of modernity does not mean transformation of a traditional society into a modern western society. Its focus is essentially on indigenous development which is sustainable and which meets the basic needs of the people. Its aim is to bring about planned change to meet the nation’s broad economic, social, political, and cultural objectives. It is concerned with the establishment of social justice through equitable distribution of social and economic benefits among the various social groups in society. Development Administration employs modern techniques, both social and technical, in the pursuit of developmental objectives. Its aim is to promote economic growth and Development Administration. Development Administration is also concerned with political development which includes (a) equality (b) the capacity of the political system to produce according to demands, and (c) differentiation of governmental roles and organizations in the process of meeting these challenges. Development administration attempts to bring about changes in the values and attitudes of people which from the existing ones and are supportive of the developmental activities. Development administration requires administrative modernization, i.e. creation of new administrative structures and reorientation of the existing ones to suit the needs of developmental programmes. Finally, Development Administration concerns itself with the creation of an integrated political community. Thus, Development Administration aims at transforming an entire society, with

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political, economic, social and administrative elements intermeshed for purposes of change.

Nature of Development AdministrationA few points regarding the nature of Development Administration

may be noted here:1. Development Administration of developing nations is rooted in the

field as most of the developmental activities take place at the field level away from the headquarters administration. It, therefore, lays emphasis on decentralization of authority which enables the field to take decisions on the spot.

2. Development Administration is ecological in nature. Development administration of developing nations is rooted in the ethical and moral concerns of their individual societies. Development enterprise operates within the social, cultural, economic and political environment of a nation. Therefore, the outcome of any developmental activity is conditioned by its environmental factors.

3. Development Administration is also closely linked with political processes in a society. Development has to depend a lot on political management as the impulse for change comes more often from the political leadership.

4. Development Administration is an important motivational concern of the comparative Public Administration. An important purpose of the research studies relating to the developing nations undertaken by the comparative administrative group in the U.S.A. in 1960s was to promote development in those countries.

5. Development Administration encompasses contributions from cultural anthropology and sociology. For this reason it has a wider perspective than the conventional approach based on organizational reforms.

6. Development administration lays emphasis on self reliance and participation of the people in the developmental activities. It stresses decentralized, responsive and accountable management of development plans, policies, and programmes.

Functions of Development Administration

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According to J.N. Khosla, the principal functions of Development administration are:

1. Formulation of development goals and policies.2. Programme formulation and programme / project management.3. Reorganization of administrative structures and procedures.4. Evaluation of results.5. Securing people’s participation in the development effort.6. Promoting growth of social and political infrastructure.

The activities mentioned above require a competent, incorruptible, action-oriented, goal-oriented, and change-oriented dynamic Public administration system.

Difference Between Development and Non-development Administration It is said that Development administration is Public administration

with a difference. Development administration differs from non-development or traditional administration both quantitatively and qualitatively in the following respects:

Development Administration Non-development Administration1. Development administration is action-oriented

1 .Non-development administration is structure-oriented

2. It is changeoriented and carrier 2. It is status quo-oriented3. It aims at progressive socio-economic changes and nation-building

3. Its goals are efficiency and Economy

4. It is client-orientdincharacter 4. It is regulatory in its nature5. It is flexible and dynamic 5. It is rigid6. It encourages participative decision-making

6. It gives importance to centralized decision –making

7. It gives position to the representatives of people in the administrative process of making and implementing idecisions

7. In it people have no right in administration except the right of Appeal and petition

8. It is time-oriented. 8. It ihas no temporal dimension.9. It requires functional leadership 9. It relies onstatus leadership

Relationship of Development Administration with Non-development Administration

The type of distinction made above between developmental and non-developmental administration is rather formal than real. The difference seems to be one of emphasis on the ecological setting in which an administration functions. In fact, Development administration is closely related to non-

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development administration. The success of developmental administration depends upon the conditions created by the routine land revenue and law and order administration. Proper and effective revenue collection will generate funds for developmental activities. No development effort will succeed if the state fails to maintain law and order. Failure of developmental efforts, in turn, may lead to discontent among the people and this again creates a serious law and order problem for Public administration. If the government fails to maintain properly the capital assets like roads, dams, tube-wells etc. created out of developmental funds, the entire investment is wasted. Thereof routine maintenance management is as important as development management. Further, Development administration is rooted in field, actual experiences, a context in which general Public administration theory is tested, validated or discarded.

The Characteristics of Development AdministrationThe Development administration has the following essential characteristics:

Change-OrientationDevelopment administration is change-oriented, i.e. its central concern

is to bring about desirable socio-economic changes. It attempts actively and consciously to bring about changes in the substance of a field of activity as well as in the values and attitudes of the people.

Result-OrientationDevelopment administration is result-oriented, i.e. concern to achieve

certain specific programmatic results. The performance of various tasks in Development administrations overtly related to productivity in terms of increase in per capita income, provision of health and welfare facilities, etc. It expresses in the economic and industrial spheres fairly clear-cut norms of performance in quantitative terms. Its result even in some of the social spheres are reasonably clear-cut and measurable. Thus, the performance of Development administration is to be judged on the basis of the actual results it achieved.

Client-OrientationDevelopment administration is client-oriented, i.e. citizen-centredness

displayed by civil servants. It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of specific target groups in society. This feature provides an important criterion for evaluating the performance of Development administration.

Commitment to WorkIn Development administration, administrators are committed to work.

They are expected to be involved in and emotionally attached to the tasks are

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called upon to perform. Administrators commitment to work is essential for Development administration to succeed in its directional change.

Time-OrientationDevelopment administration is time-orientated i.e. concern for

completion of developmental programmes within a given time frame. Development goals are set, and projects formulated and implemented to achieve the goals within a specific time limit. Since the socio-economic goals have to be brought about as quickly as possible the timelines of all activities assumes considerable significance in Development administration.

Citizen-participation orientationDevelopment administration requires the active participation of the

citizens in the developmental programmes. Therefore, people’s representatives must be given positions in the administrative process of decision making and the implementation of the decisions made. Without people’s willing co-operation and participation in the developmental tasks the desired socio-economic changes cannot be achieved. Therefore, the public bureaucracy must carry the citizens with them and draw the people actively in to the developmental process. This close nexus between “public” and “administration” is an essential attribute of Development administration.

Criticism upon Development AdministrationDevelopment administration has been criticized on certain grounds

namely,1. It is said that Development administration means increased state

bureaucratic control over individual human beings. Development administration contains implicit authoritarian assumptions which are inconsistent with the liberal democratic values. The authoritarian approach of the civil servants is not likely to motivate the public to actively participate in implementing plan programmes.

2. Development administration fails to fulfil its promises of socio-economic progress and nation-building. A spirit of frustration and despair with development in general is found in the developing nations. Hunger, poverty, unemployment, disease, illiteracy and population explosion in the developing countries have either remained unattended or worsened. The gap between the rich and the poor is yawning. It has shown the inadequacy of administration for development in the developing societies.

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3. Development administration has been found to be weak and inadequately equipped to face emerging challenges. Decision making processes and business methods pursued are dilatory and exasperating to those citizens affected by them. Corruption is acute and apparently defies solution. Political interference in administration is another factor inhibiting socio-economic growth.

4. The process of development presupposes a system of bureaucracy that accepts development as its paramount goal. But, the bureaucracies in developing societies have a tendency to emphasise non-productive orientation. They work for the realization of goals other than the achievement of programme objectives. Loyalty to the organization or its basic mission is not a powerful ethics among the bureaucrats. The behaviour of civil servants entrusted with development tasks is said to have poor citizens-orientation and poorer commitment to work. They woefully lack sensitivity to the poor and their needs. They are also accused of being arrogant, harassing, inefficient, etc. They lack the necessary skills and competence to carry out developmental tasks.

5. The basic administrative structures in developing societies are not only elitist in character but also generally imitative rather than indigenous to the society. The borrowed Western model of administration does not fit in to the needs of Development administration. There is a widespread discrepancy between form and reality, wide gap between government proposals and their implementation. Most of the laws are either bypassed or not implemented at all. Bureaucracy enjoys an unusual degree of operational autonomy. Besides, there is the shortage of technically qualified and trained personnel capable of performing the developmental tasks.

6. In the developing countries there is the undue concentration of authority at the senior executive levels and in the Ministry’s offices. Delegation of authority is limited. The senior executives want to control everything. Even the simplest administrative decisions have to be approved at the top. Concentration of authority at the top saps the initiative and drive of the personnel working in the field.

Theories in Development AdministrationIt is necessary to recall here that development administration is the

uses of administration to further development. it has also been taken to mean,

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‘the task of organizing and administering public agencies to facilitate and implement development programmes.

As noted by Olewe (1995), owing to changing times and complexities in administrative and management sciences, that compounded the problems of the government development administration, is taken to mean, “the all import task of organizing and administering both public as well as non-governmental and voluntary agencies to facilitate and implement social, economic, political and cultural development programmes.

In order to achieve this all embressing task of facilitating and stimulating development programmes and efforts through organizing public and non-governmental agencies, many efforts at theorizing in the area of development administration have been made by scholars.

The three contrasting theoretical perspectives have been employed in the explanation of issues arising within the ambit of development administration. These are: -

a. Ecology Vs. Development Administration Approach.b. Blueprint Vs. Learning Process Approach.c. Production-centred Vs. People-centred Approach.

Ecology Vs. Development Administration Approach According to Ezeani (2006), quoted in Anikeze et al (2009), ecology

is a term used to describe the relationship between any environment and its system. The term originated from biological science to refer to the interactions between living, non-human species and their environments. (Riggs, 19880).

The concept of “environment” or “ecology” is very vital in studying and understanding public administrative systems. It is obvious that men are the product of his environment and so are his numerous institutions like social, political, economic and others (Onwubiko, 2008). The ecology of public administration is a manifestation of the environmental forces that check the practice of public administration in any given milieu (Uduma,2003).

Also Riggs (1980) refer to the ecology of public administration as ways in which the environment conditions the politico-administrative process. The environment of anything sets parameters for whatever, if environs and parameters must be viewed as both constraints that limit what can be done and, concurrently as resources that may be used by decision makers.

As observed by Abba (2008), “man is a product of his environment and so are his institutions, social, political, economic and cultural. In a social system, the environment is an embodiment of the institutions, history, law, ethics, philosophy, religion, education, traditions, beliefs, values, symbols, myths etc. which may be descrbed as material as well as non-material culture. He concluded by stating that all institutions are influenced by a society’s environment and culture and this includes public administration too.

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Sharma and Sadama (2006) pointed out “public administration being a sub-system interacts with the social system. It is shaped by the social system and in turn influences it. It was this reality that made Singh (1983) citied by Onwubiko (2009) to observe that “administration bears the unmistakable impact of the cultural milieu at the given time”.

Guy Peters (1984) pointed out that “the social and economic system of a country place boundaries on the actions of a government and more specifically public administration. This situation gave rise to the ecological approach to the study of public administration. Accordingly, the ecological approach involves a systematic effort to relate public administration to its environment. “The cultural norms and values of society limit the activities of public officials; and the methods which they can adopt to pursue their goals”, (MacRae and Pitt, 1980). Contributing his opinion, Heady 1979 stated thus “bureaucracies as well as other political and administrative institutions, can be better understood if the surrounding conditions, influences and forces that shape and modify them are identifies and ranked to the extent possible in order of relative importance and if the reciprocal impact of these institutions on their environment is also explored.

Stressing the importance of ecology in the practice of public administration, Richardson and Balduim (1976) state that:

“It is from the environment that the public administrator perceives the problems to be resolved, the alternative possibilities within which choices can be made, the resources to be employed and the support and opposition to policies and programmes. Further, within the environment are found the clients to be served or regulated, the market forces which establish the costs for goods and services; interest groups that have particular concern about what the public administrators does, and other public and private institutions.Finally, it is within the environment that the consequencesof public administration are to be judged “right” orwrong”.

Contributing to the meaning and importance of the ecological study / approach to the study of public administration, Arora and Ferreros (1984) thus stated:

“The basic premise of ecological approach in comparative public administration is that public bureaucracy may beregarded as one of the several basic institutions in a society. Thus in order to understand its structure and functions, it must be studied in the context of inter-relationships with other institutions. In systematic terms, bureaucracy as a social institution is continually interacting with i.e. affected by

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and feeding back upon the economic, political and socio-cultural sub-systems, in a society. It is both a modifying influence on these systems as well as a system which is modified by their activity. It has been recognized then that the knowledge of the ecological dimensions of public administration in various settings can aid the scientist development of the study of public administration. Its practical lies in the insight it provides the policy formulation.

The hallmark of their contention is that administrative systems can be better understood if the surrounding conditions, influences and forces that come into their shaping and modifications are identified and classified in relation to their relative importance and influence.This approach to the conceptualization of administrative systems draws heavily from the pattern variables which determine the distinction between modern and traditional societies as enunciated by Talcolt Parson. The distinction is based on:

a. Universalism Vs Particulrism.b. Achievement Vs Ascription.c. Specificity Vs Diffuseness.d. Neutrality Vs Affectivity.

Hence, developed societies and administrative systems existing therein are characterized by Universalism, Achievement, Specificity and Neutrality whereas the administrative systems of developing societies are characterized by Particularism, Ascription, Diffuseness and Affectivity.

In developed societies, organizational rules are implemented universally to every clientele group and individual as cases or things. But in developing societies, treatments are meted out to individuals as unique persons with due consideration for their personality and the nature of their relationship with officials. Moreover, in developed societies, status are apportioned to persons because they have worked hard to achieve such status, but in developing societies, status are ascribed to persons with regard to the circumstances of their birth and situation. In developed societies also, specific structures perform specific functions and there is a compartmentalization of structural-functional relationships in bureaucracies as a function of specialization and division of labour. But in developing societies, functions and structures are fused to the extent that one person or office could perform as many functions as the situation permits, hence the authority of a traditional institution many have relevance for policy formulation, implementation, communication and adjudication of cases arising from these activities all at once. Finally, in modern societies, institutions and officials are dispassionate and maintain some degree of breadth in treating their clients. But developing societies wallow in the

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passionate and emotional consideration of the circumstances surrounding an issue for determination.

Blueprint Vs Learning Process ApproachAccording to Obi et al (2006), the blueprint approach has two

dominant contentions. On the first part, it believes that the system of administration in the industrialized societies are the standards to be emulated by developing countries. Thus the systems of administration in industrialized societies are seen in the comprehensiveness of planning and in the official and formal administrative system. Secondly, it believes that piecemeal changes in administration are inadequate and self defeating.

The blueprint approach is rigid and closed-ended. It emphasizes advanced planning “for” the people. Put differently, the blue print approach involves designing a specific plan of action in advance for administering a development program.

Abah (2000) sees the blueprint as the Weberian model of ideal type bureaucracy. The search for rationality form the basis of the Weberian model which would supply the apparatus for a growing capitalization into practice. Bureaucracy is a formal-rational-organized social structure with clearly defined pattern of activities in which every series of action is fundamentally related. To McFarland (1979) Bureaucracy is a system of organization and management in which roles, tasks and relationships among people and position are clearly defined, carefully prescribed and controlled in accordance with formal authority.

Thus, bureaucracy is a formal, consciously organized, predictable and controllable “machine model” organization in which activities are of a routine nature, authority being based on the office and on sets of rules of procedure.

With the growing emphasis on the impact of the environment on systems of administration and the appeal for democracy and democratization of administrative processes, however, Abah (2000) noted that the blueprint approach appeared to be too rigid for the implementation of development programmes in changing societies. In such societies, the administrative institutions are also relatively less developed.

The above weakness attached to the blueprint, a shift from blueprint to the learning process approach, for administering development programmes is recommended.

The learning process approach emphasizes planning “with” the people and doing so during the process of administering a development programmes. Thus the learning process involves open ended strategy to planned social change.

Under the learning process approach, development policies are made in piecemeal form. It is incremental, initiating new policies in the place of the

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existing ones when the need arises. It is also self correcting and adapts to the environment that characterized most developing state (Obi et al, 2006).This Approach involves a cybernetic process by which development administrations can adapt themselves to changing environments and incorporate mid course corrections based on existing local conditions. Problems are diagnosed and solutions implemented, by people and administrators jointly via a process of mutual learning.

The learning process approach is obviously superior to the blueprint approach because of its emphasis on change and modification informed by situation variables.

Production-Centered Vs People-Centered ApproachAnother trend in contemporary development administration theorizing

is a shift from a production-centered development approach to a people – centered approach to development. According to Korten and Cammer (1984), the production-centered development approach emphasized production of goods and services to maximize return on investment. It concentrates on industrial growth and Urban development; at the expense of rural development, as industrial manufacture takes place more often than not in an Urban setting. Such approach according to Abah, (2000) also emphasizes industry over agriculture and even within the industrial sector, undue attention is paid to the development of large scale industries at the expense of small and medium scale industries. This approach according Korten (1984) stresses:a. Industry over agriculture.b. Urban development over rural development.c. Utilization of capital resources over human resources.d. Exporting the environment for short-term gains over sustained

harnessing of natural resources.e. Establishing large-scale industries over small-scale industries.

Such a development approach neglects the basic needs of the rural poor in Third World Countries, and promotes social-economic inequality (Olewe, (1995).

The people centered approach (the participatory approach) on the other hand, emphasizes on the need of the people, empowerment of people, development of responsive administration, greater socio-economic equality, self-reliance, people-participation, human growth and well-being and sustainability (Laxmikanth, 2007).

According to Abah (2000), the production centered approach with its concern for task and productivity, initiating structure, goal emphasis behaviour, as well as work facilitation behaviour is not properly adopted to the realities of

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Third World conditions of rural poverty. To him, the people centered development approach pays complete regard to the material conditions of the rural populace are consideration for their aspirations. Olewe (1995),Berger 1984 citing state that the central themes of people-centered development are:

a. empowerment of people and b. development of an administrative process which responds to the

needs of the people

Key elements in people-centered development are:i. human growth and wellbeing,ii. equalityiii. self-relianceiv. participation andv. sustainability.

Sustainability is a measure of lasting quality in a development programme. A development programme can be sustained by: creating a felt need among beneficiaries about the efficacy of the programme,

a. developing institutions which continually adapt (Bjur, 1977).b. providing (or self-generation) of resources andc. building support among political elites and community groups

(White, 1987).

Criticism Levied Against Development Administration Development administration has been criticized on certain grounds: 1. It is said that development administration means increased state

bureaucratic control over individual human beings. Development administration contains implicit authoritarian assumptions which are inconsistent with the liberal democratic values. The authoritarian approach of the civil servant is not likely to motivate the public to actively participate in implementing plan programmes.

2. Secondly, Development administration fails to fulfil its promises of socio-economic progress and nation-building. A spirit of frustration and despair with development in general is found in the developing nations. Hunger, poverty, unemployment, disease, illiteracy and population explosion in the developing countries have either remained unattenled or worsened. The gap between the rich and the poor is yawing. It has shown the inadequacy of administration for development in the developing societies.

3. Development administration has been found to be weak and inadequately equipped to face emerging challenges. Decision making

321


processes and business methods pursued are dilatory and exasperating to those citizens affected by them. Corruption is acute and apparently defies solution. Political interference in administration is another factor inhibiting socio-economic growth.

4. The process of development presupposes a system of bureaucracy that accepts development as its paramount goal. But, the bureaucracy in developing societies has a tendency to emphasise non - productive orientation. They work for the realization of goals other than the achievement of programme objectives. Loyalty to the organization or its basic mission is not a powerful ethic among the bureaucrats. The behaviour of civil servant entrusted with development tasks is said to have poor citizens-orientation and poorer commitment to work. They woefully lack sensitivity to the poor and their needs. They are also accused of been arrogant, harassing, inefficient, etc. They lack the necessary skills and competence to perform development tasks.

5. The basic administrative structures in developing societies are not only elitist in character but also generally imitative rather than indigenous to the society. The borrowed western model of administration does not fit into the needs of development administration. There is a widespread discrepancy between form and reality , wide gap between the government proposal and their implementation. Most of the laws are either bypassed or not implemented at all. Bureaucracy enjoys an unusual degree of operational autonomy. Besides, there is the shortage of technically qualified and trained personnel capable of performing the developmental tasks.

6. In the developing countries there is the undue concentration of authority at the senior executive levels and in the ministry’s offices. Delegation of authority is limited. The senior executives want to control everything. Even the simplest administrative decisions have to be approved at the top. Concentration of authority at top saps the initiative and drive of the personnel working in the field.

7. The official in the developing societies do not show much interest in the actual administrative details necessary to accomplish development plans and programmes. Much times of the officials is wasted on paper work, big staff meetings, field trips, etc, administration is characterized by red tape and secrecy. Rules, regulations, and forms are given precedence over the substance.

8. In the development societies there is acute corruption which is institutionalized and out of control. It is an important impediment to development. Development funds are often siphoned off to hire friends or relatives. Sometimes these funds simple disappear.

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Remedies To The Problems Of Development Administration The bottlenecks and problems of Development administration

mentioned above create obstacles to the achievement of developmental goals, socio-economic progress and nation-building. Therefore, efforts are continually made to improve the techniques and methodologies of Public Administration system of developing countries to serve as the instrument to execute promotional and developmental programmes. The efforts to improve administration relate to both qualitative and quantitative changes in bureaucratic policies, programmes, procedures and methods of work, organizational structures and staffing patterns, number and quality of developmental personnel of different types, and pattern of relations with clients of administration. The following are some of the remedies suggested to make the administrative system fit for developmental tasks.

1. There must be proper man-power planning and management in order to ensure the supply of sufficient qualified and competent people to carry on the developmental activities.

2. There is a negative relationship between bureaucratic behaviour and development tasks. But in any large scale development programme, bureaucracy cannot be thrown overboard. Its dysfunctionalities need to be identified and corrected. In this context the training of civil servants has assumed much significance. Through proper training, the essentially status-based bureaucratic structure and behaviour can be changed into a change-oriented, action-oriented, client-oriented and service motivated bureaucracy. More specialism and professionalism must be introduced into the civil service.

Bureaucracy should be flexible and adaptable to meet quickly the changing development situations. Organizational rules and procedures should not be allowed to get precedence over target achievement.

There should be de-emphasis of hierarchy and organization should be redesigned to enable co-operative decision making. Speedy and effective decision-making needs the support of reliable information through free-flow of communication.

3. Authority should be decentralized to enable field units to take decisions on the spot as far as possible. This is necessary because most of the developmental activities take place at the field level away from the capital or headquarters administration.

4. The supremacy of the politician must be accepted and bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development enterprises.

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A change in participation from elite to mass must also be brought about.

5. Bureaucracy must secure the co-operation and participation of the people in development work. The bureaucracy must understand that, however capable it may be, it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development. the people must understand that they have to look after themselves. They have to be the primary actors in the development drama. It is in their interest not to be dependent on the administration. Self-help is the best help. Popular participation in development activities is a resource. Bureaucracy must work very closely with the people under a general rubric of service ethic.

6. Finally, if development is to have a meaningful content, defence expenditure has to be curtailed, population explosion curbed, employment opportunities expanded, and literacy rate has to go up substantially.

The Environment of Development Administration in Nigeria1. The Political EnvironmentAccording to Koontz et al (1973:97), the political environment consist of the attitudes and actions of the political and government leaders and legislations, which affects all kinds of organizations and other at varying degrees. The policies of government affect virtually an organization and every aspect of life.

Government promotes business by stimulating economic expansion and development, by providing assistance through small business administration, subsidizing selected industries giving tax advantages in certain situations, supporting research and development and even protecting tariffs. (Koontz et al, 1983.98) it is clear that public enterprises are political creation and that their function management, structure and composition are in turn influenced by government policies. The appointment recruitment and selection of Chief Executives and the management team over the employers generally are highly political. This is based on the principle of federal character and party patronage.

Another aspect of the political environment of public enterprises that controls their operational methods and efficiency is the political instability, arising mainly from frequent changes government. Okoli and Onah (2002:149) observed that the effect of such limitable political system on public administration in Nigeria is obvious. It creates problem of succession of office and leadership. Such frequent successions reduce the ability of the society. Also, political instability and its resultant frequency change of government, leads to discontinuity of development programmes, projects and policies. As stated by Ezeani (2006) each succeeding regime abandons projects and programmers started by its predecessor and starts new or similar programmed

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or projects. Commenting on this while stressing the political effects on human resources management Anikeze (2007:31) stated that, “the effect of political variables on the performance of the public enterprises, specifically human resources management is much.

Politics makes it possible for one to get what he is not qualified to get and denies one what he is most qualified to get. It promotes mediocrity and destroys meritocracy.

2. Economic EnvironmentDespite the belief of many academics, economic considerations rarely

loom as large in the minds of administrators and politicians as political considerations (Uduma, 2003:86).

The economic policy of the government controls or influences, public administration and the operations of agencies; Onah (2003). Commenting on the influence of the economic factors on the management public personnel, stated that “in the public organization, where wages and salaries and other conditions of services are unattractive, and irregular, most first class brains are less willing to pick up appointment in the public sector organizations. This situation leads to what can be called brain drain, the shifting of qualified and skilled workers from public to private sector. This fact is understood when we consider the mixed and dual economic system in which the ownership of the production is shared between the private and public sectors of the economy. The effect of this, according to Anikeze (1997:34), on human resource management in the public enterprises usually left the public enterprises with less qualified workers, whose contributions to the organization would be less than their benefits

Another aspectof economic factors is the instability in the financial and fiscal policies in the public sector. This makes planning and budgeting uphill task in the public enterprises (Anikeze, 2007).

3. The Ethical EnvironmentThe ethical issues have close links with social responsibility. This has

to do with how an organization responds to its employees, shareholders, and host communities, as well as the code of conduct expected f both the management and other employees with an organization (Ezani 2006). According to Bedeian (1986:609610), today’s administrators and management of organizations face a number of social and ethical challenges that go beyond profit and loss statements and which condition their behaviour and decisions.

4. The Social EnvironmentChanges in the sociological and cultural environment are usually less

dramatic, although, they are equally as important as changes in political and

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economic environment. And also they condition the practice of public administration and its agencies.

According to Koontz et al (1983:15), the social environment is made up of the attitudes, desires, expectations, degrees of intelligent and education of a given group or society. Nigeria as we know is a conglomeration of many ethnic nationalities and consists of a multiplicity of nations. Alert to the composition of Nigeria, Murdock (1959) stated that “there are over four hundred ethnic groups in Nigeria. In their own view, Okoli and Onah (2002:151), stated that a salient feature of Nigeria’s social environment is its heterogeneity: about 400 language groups, varying cultures, multiplicity of ethnic and religious groups perceptual and psychological distance between groups and uneven educational development”.

The foregoing factors condition the practice of public administration in Nigeria; for instance, merit has very often been sacrificed in the processes of recruitment, award of contracts and admission with secretary and religious affiliations. (Ezeani, 2006:56). The religious and ethnic groups have their peculiar cultures, traditions, attitudes, norms and values, which influences administrative processes. (Uduma, 2003:80).Other factors of social environment that condition the activities and practices of administration generally and public sector administration in particular are: (1) Culture; according to Nigro and Nigro is that complex whole which includes knowledgeably, be life, art, morals, law, custom and any other. Capabilities and habits acquired by men as members of society henceforth, due to the primordial nature of Nigeria society accessioned by the attachment of our emotions to our cultures, there is every tendencies that people would find it difficult to obey the rules made by government and prefer to abide by their culture (Uduma 2003:84).5. The Legal Environment

They consist of Acts, which regulate activities. These Acts regulate the conditions of work for employees and financial regulations.

6. The Technological Environment Technological environment is one of the environment of public

administration in general and public enterprises in particular. Technology as defined by Koontz et al (1963, 1903) is the sum total of knowledge we have about ways to do things. It includes the invention and the vast store of organization knowledge about everything.

According to Koontz et al (1983:95), technology influences our ways of doing things, how we design, produce, distributes and sell goods as well as services. Technology influences managerial policies, practices, as well as organization structure. Alert to the influence of technology in the operations of

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the public administration and its agencies are captured by Cru (1996:18). Technology has also played a part in altering design, taking over routine activities and increasing the demand for specialist staff. It reduces the need for multiple levels management and can aid command action so the head office can keep in touch with its units, even on an international basis.

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CHAPTER EIGHTEEN

PLANNING AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

12.1 Definition of PlanningKoontz and O’ Donnel (1980) defined planning as deciding in advance

what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who to do it. Planning breaks the yoke of impossibilities and makes things happen by ensuring efficiency, effectiveness as it focus on understanding and coordination among the various units and subunits making up an organization. In line with this, (Nwandu, Ani and Agbo (2000) said, “Planning makes it possible for things to happen. Through planning, the manager is able to anticipate the possible effects of forces which will change the objective of the business”.

Onah (2003) citing Conyers and Hills (1984) sees planning as a continuous process which involves decision or choice about alternative ways of using available resources, with the aim of achieving particular goals at some time in the future. From the definition above, we can see that both organisation, its environment and goals are continuously changing, and planning provides stability, coordination and mutuality among these very important variable. Planning is the management functions that sets goals and outline the various actions and activities to be performed. It also defines the methods of evaluation to be adopted in measuring organizational performance against result. In short, it is the possibility element in organizational management. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of the meanings of planning and the concept of

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organizational planning, the basic concepts of the definition made above should be looked into (the element of planning).

Five Elements of Planning:(1) It is Future-Oriented:

The goal, which every organization strives to achieve, lies in the future. Planning as the basic organization/ management function is equally futuristic in outlook. Planning attempts to predict the future needs of the organization and the possible changing in its environment and develops measures on how to meet them. It limits the gap between consequences and outcome of every action.

(2) It allocates resources:Resources are limited and scarce; hence effort should be made to ensure the reduction of waste. Here resources are taken to mean inputs needed to produce output. It means those variables which needed to be utilized by employees for an organization in the cause of meeting its goals / objectives. These variables are relatively scarce and should be prudently used to avoid waste and ensure optimum realization of goals.Planning ensures this by allocating resources to various units and departments in organization. This allocative function of planning ensures accountability in the organizational management.

(3) Planning Allocates Authority and Responsibility:Planning allocates responsibilities to various individuals within the organizational structure. That is the assignment of jobs and duties to persons within the organizational structure, while authority is the legal right of the individual to command both the resources and subordinates under him, for the purpose of attaining the preset organizational objectives.

All these are functions of planning and without which there would be serious problem of authority and responsibility allocation in the enterprise where the responsibility may not be commensurate with the authority; it would leave the manager with much responsibilities without adequate authority to enforce his duties.

(4) Planning Means to Choose:Organization faces the challenging problems of choice decision. The fundamental problems facing any organization and as well as any

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human grouping of any kind is choosing an alternative amongst the numerous and completing alternatives available to them.

Planning provides an answer to this by gathering and analyzing the consequences and outcome of each alternative and finally makes a rational choice.Without planning, organizational decision becomes difficult if not impossible.

(5) Planning Sets Goal/ Objectives:The end result of every planning is to establish a goal/ target. This makes planned action a purposeful action. Without the objective set at planning, organizational activities and actions would be a system of uncoordinated activities, hence undefined.

So planning gives sense, meaning and understanding to organizational activities and actions. Planning makes organization behaviors interpretable, predictable, and understandable and controllable. Having gone far in looking at the meaning and elements of planning, next task would be to have a look at steps in planning.

Steps in Planning or Processes of PlanningPlanning is a complicated process involving several steps/ processes.

The processes are according to Seckler Hudson (1937).

Step 1: Analysis and identification of Problems:Planning is all about the future, the knowledge of the past and present

are necessary before accurate prediction or control of the future. So the first step in planning is the analysis of the past, present and emerging situations.

Step 2 : Selection of the Priorities:Problems should be prioritized. This makes it possible to direct

resources to areas of priority interest. We should bore in mind that resources are limited, while human needs are unlimited. Planning allocates priority to the societal needs. So after the analysis of the problems and its identification, problems that are most impressing should be selected and given priority attention first.

Step3: Exploration of information:Information is a very necessary variable in any planned effort. To

handle any situation successfully, accurate data is necessary. All the

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information related to the problem to be solved should be objectively collected since information is the life wire of any organizations as well.

Step 4: Definition of Objectives:Planning is an objective exercise: The objectives of planning should

be defined, the various activities needed to accomplish the set objectives and also the establishment of target. That is expected performance, which would serve as the basis for measuring the extent the objectives is realized. The issue of establishing target is to ensure control and standard for evaluation and feedback.

Step5: Implementation:This is the action stage. The objectives are being translated into action.

This requires both the co-operation and coordination of all segments of the government. All the actions and activities stipulated for the achievement of the objectives are carried out.

Step 6: Evaluation and Feedback:Evaluation is the process of determining how given objectives are

achieved following an established standard.

Types of Planning:Plans can be of types depending on its scope timeframe and level of

detail covered by the plan.

Strategic Plans: These are comprehensive plans or broad outlines of an organizations

activity towards realizing its set objectives. Usually, it is long-term in nature and states the general direction of the organization in future.

(1) Tactical PlansThey are specified plans aimed at breaking down the broad outlines of strategic plans for actual implementation. It generally has a shorter time frame and more concerned with efficiency than effectiveness (Obikeze et al 2000)

(2) Rolling Plan: These plans come into existence especially during emergencies of economic crises, whereby, a government, besides the ongoing plan for the current year, new three-year plan is made and acted upon.

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(1) Centralized Planning: This is that planning in which all the planning process in the country is under a central planning authority who formulates a central plan.

(2) Standing Plans: This is a plan that is used over and over again as the need arises. It usually does not having a time span.

(3) Short Range Plans: These are plans that outline the day-to-day activities of the organization. It has a time frame of not more than are year.

(4) Single-Use Plan: These are plans that are designed to accomplish specific goals after which they are no longer of any relevance.

(5) Medium-Term Planning: This type of plan usually runs for about five years, depending on the organization and on the issuer involved. It gives the management the opportunity to postulate or speculates the desired position it hopes to find it sect in the future. It equally helps in breaking down the long-range plans into more workable programmes.

(8) Long Range Plans: These are plans that determine the objectives of the organization on a long-term basis. These are plans covering a period of at least five years. In some organizations long-term plans cover up to a period of twenty years’ they are general in nature and do not go into details. It covers areas like organizational objectives, strategy, expansion programme etc.

(9} Development Planning: This planning is mean to develop the whole economy. In the view of mate stone (1970) development planning is the application of a rational system of choices among feasible courses of investment and other development actions. Under development planning the government formulates a development plan for the entire economy. This includes the consideration of the most important economic aggregates such as total saving, investment, output, government expedition and foreign transactions (Olewe 1995).

Characterlistics of a Good Plan Certain features distinguish a good plan from a bad one. Some of the distinguishing features are discussed as follows:

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(1) The plan should begin with a proper appraisal of existing strength and weakness of the enterprises. In fact, the analysis of the company’s strength and weaknesses should include:

(a) The position of the company in the industry in relation to other competitors.(b) The cost effectiveness of the company’s operation (c) The resources (human and material) at the disposal of the company.(d) The demand for the company’s product or service

2 Planning Must Be Comprehensive The planning activities should encompass the entire organization. This makes it possible to take a systems view of the entire organization, thus recognizing the interrelationship between the different functional areas. This will also make it possible to coordinate and integrate the different parts of the plan and ensure a reliable degree of structuralization.

3. Planning Should Have Clearly Defined Objectives In terms of scope, accuracy, clarity and definitiveness whenever possible targets must be set and they to be qualitative or quantitative.

4. Planning should be Flexible: A good plan should be flexible enough to accommodate what takes place in our dynamic environment. It entails building into the plan, opportunity to monitor the performance of the plan and to take appropriate plan for adjustment where obviously necessary.

Effective Planning for enterprises offering produce or services should be consumer-oriented planning technique. In order that the company remains in business, it should place much emphasis on the needs and wants of its target customers, prior to producing the products/services.

5 Planning Must Have Economic Effectiveness: A good plan should be economically feasible. There must be ample resources to execute the plan at the least possible cost. If well executed, it is expected to result in the optimum utilization of enterprise resources.

In order that an effective planning process takes place, responsibilities for taking actions should be assigned to the planning process.

If a plan envisages a long-term duration of about 5 years or more, it should be divided into shorter plan periods. In the process, annual review and updates should be carried out using the latest information system.

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Planning should have a specific method of evaluation so that weak alternatives could easily be eliminated, for onward evaluation of promising ones.

Advantages of Planning(1) Planning alerts the Management of the Future:

The future use always bedeviled with all sorts of uncertainties. It is through planning that the manager could foresee the need for future changes, which might affect the business. As a manager becomes alerted to opportunities he learns to see things with his mind’s eye and / or through the proper perspective, as they should actually be.

(2) Planning Answers “what if” Questions:’Many at times, the complex factors affecting a manager’s action call for typical questions. When a manager decides to take a certain action, he has to think of possible outcomes. A company manager could ask: “what would happen to production if raw materials become scarce?” This is the type of question that planning can answer.

(3) Planning Makes Activities Orderly and purposefulBy planning, we direct all efforts towards expected results. By so doing, activities and events are sequentially achieved. This reduces unproductive efforts and creates a distinction between performance and actual success.

(4) Planning Induces Success When a manager maps out what he intends to do, he becomes equipped with a type of guidance and urge to accomplish that intension. In the process, his inert zeal will be triggered towards achieving that goal. This approach enables the manager to avoid overlapping and wasteful activities and thus reduces irrelevant and random actions.

(5) Planning Facilitates the Efficient use of Facilities Through planning, managers make a greater use of available resources and facilities. This also calls for balancing of activities. Both in the time schedule and the amount to be expected, within a given period of time resulting e.g. in optimum utilization of resources.

(6) Planning Forces the Manager to visualize the whole Through planning, the manger has an overall comprehension of relationship of many activities, understands them and thus has basis for supporting his actions. This tends to reduce confusion and isolation

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thus leading to proper identification of problems and the capabilities or potentialities of the organization as a whole. It is panning, therefore, that ties the various elements of the organization into one entity, and/ or unified whole.

(7) Planning Facilities Control:When goals have been explained, the subordinate performance can be measured against such standards. Also both planning and control have future or organizations in real life, it proved difficult for any action that was not well planned, to be controlled. The manager must therefore, appreciate that without planning, he cannot control what takes place in the work environment and the result is likely to be disastrous. Like it is usually said, planning and control are the “Siamese” of management.

Disadvantages of Planning (1) Planning is affected by the accuracy and availability of data.

(2) Planning tends to be expensive. The cost of planning should in all cases justify the end-results of the plan.

(3) Planning delays Action: in the emergencies when immediate decisions are needed, waiting for the routing planning process delays its implementation

(4) Planning Stifles Initiatives: It does not give room for individual discretional decisions. It can force managers to work within a rigid framework of the planning process, which allows for little initiative suggestions.

(5) Planning can be overdone – example, the preparation of elaborate reports tends to be monotonous.

(6) Planning has some Psychological Barriers. Planning generally tends to accelerate / inspire change and unrest. The barriers occur because people prefer to stick to the present certainty of events than the uncertain future.

Factors Militating Against Effective Planning In Nigeria

(1) Lack of Basic Demographic Statistics: Inadequate or absence of statistical records showing the actual population figure of some

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communities, age, sex distribution of the population, etc. constitute a stumbling block to planning in this part of the world.

(2) Absence of Basic planning statistics: The complete absence of educationally qualified and honest personnel, basic equipment etc with which planning processes would be facilitated stand in the forefront against effective planning in Nigeria.

(3) Lack of Continuity of Top Management Positions: The incessant changes of the top management executives especially in government parastatals inhibit the proper implementation of good policy measures. In fact, the instability in the management and Boards of these parastatals has a side effect. Every new administration begins by dissolving the board of all parastatals and government owned companies and appointing new members to replace them. This process does not give room for a good planning programme.

(4) Rapid but Devastating Changes in Government Policies: For example, the ban on some imported raw materials has placed the planning policies of some organization “in the cold and in the dark

The Development Plans.The first development plan in Nigeria (1946 – 1956) was of colonial vintage. A total of f55 million was the planned expenditure. It was an all -white affair and the implementation was centralized in the hands of “central Development Board”. Ayo (1988: 1) debunked that arrangement on the ground that it lacked the necessary prerequisite of a development plan, and had no clearly defined national objectives.

However, some post independence plans featured from 1962.

The First National Development Plan: (1962 – 1968).The plan, which was launched in June 1962 to cover a period of six

years, had the following objectives:

(i) A target growth rate of 4% per annum was set for the economy.(ii) Domestic product was set and (iii) An increase of 1.0% per annum in per capital consumption was

proposed.

Development Plan

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Development plan is a guide for decisions and activities of a government to create conditions within its domain for the more fulfilled like of its subjects. Having political foundation and implication, development plans attempts to capture and define the fundamental objective and policy direction of the government, especially as they relate to the future development of the economy.

According Abah, (2000) development plans attempts also to present a centrally co-ordinated and internally consistent setoff principles and policies chosen as the most appropriate means of implementing the strategies and achieving the targets, which then will be adopted as a framework to guide subsequent day –to-day decisions and actions

It is important to note that, development plants often comprehend the entire economy and not a section or sector of it. Thus they employ a formalized macro-economic approach to social action.

This can be described as a specific set of quantitative and qualitative economic targets to be reached in a give period of time Economic plans maybe either comprehensive or partial. The federal ministry of finance and economic development in Nigeria is responsible for formulation of a development plan.

Comprehensive Plan: This plan sets its targets to cover all major aspects of national economy. It integrates the planning efforts of all levels or government.

Partial Plan: This plan covers only a part of the national economy like agriculture, industry, etc.

Characteristics of Development Plan According to Salawu, (2008) some of the basic characteristic of comprehensive development plan that is common to most countries are:

1 Starting from the political views and goals of the Government, planning attempts to define policy objectives, especially as they relate to the future development of the economy.

2. A development plan setout a strategy by means of which it is intended to achieve the objective, which are normally translated into specific targets

3. The plan attempts to present a centrally coordinated, internally consistent set of principle and policies, chosen as the optimal means of implementing the strategy and achieving the targets and intended to be used as a framework to guide subsequent day-to day decisions

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4. It comprehends the whole economy 9henceiti is comprehensive as against colonial or public sector planning).

5. In order to secure optimality and consistency, the comprehensive plan employs a more-or less formalized macroeconomic model, and this is employed to project the intended future performance of the economy.

6. A development plan typically covers a period of say five years and finds physical express as a medium-term plan document, which may however, incorporate a longer-term perspective plan and be supplemented by annual plans

Objectives of Development PlanningThe main reasons for embarking on development planning in less

development counties, especially West African counties, are as follow:

To ensure the efficient utilization of economic resources: A country with development plan resources can achieve a better

allocation and efficient utilization of resource.

To increase the level of aggregate output: Development planning accelerates the rate of growth of the per capita

income and improves the standard of living of the people of the given country

To achieve equitable income distribution: It is usually a primary concern of development plans to achieve a more

equitable or more even distribution of income by reducing the gap between the “haves” and the “have-nots”

To achieve full employment: Development planning will aid developing counties to reduce the rate of

unemployment to the barest minimum.

To bring some changes and adaptations in the socio-economic situation: Development planning brings positive changes and adaptations in the socio-economic situation.

To achieve a fairly stable general prince level: Development planning in less development countries seek to check

incessant income increases in the cost of living visa the curbing of the rate of inflation and at the same time preventing a potentially harmful rate of inflation.

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To achieve balanced growth and development of the various sectoral units and geographical regions: In the development plan coherent investment and production targets to be achieved in each sector of the economy are stated.

To diversify the economic activities: A reduction of dependence of crude oil in Nigeria for the sake of agriculture and industrialization involve realistic development plan, which cannot be brought about be market forces. Therefore, attempts are often made through planning to diversity economic or productive activities

To prevent Foreign Control and International Monopolists: In most of the developing counties (West Africa), many, years after flag independence foreign companies still dominate their industrial and commercial sectors. The nationalization or indigenization of economic activities is a primary concern of development planning in these countries in order to ensure indigenous control

Necessary Conditions for a Successful Development Plan These are a number of essential ingredients, which must be put in place for development planning to be successful in any given country. These essential ingredients are the factors that can also influence development planning. They include:

Planning Commission: The commission that must be put in place, comprises various experts in their fields of specialties. They must be versatile and posses ability to ideal with the various aspects of the economy.

Adequate Feasibility Study: This study will make for enough preparation and preparedness resulting from the fore knowledge provided by such studies. Feasibility studies will be able to identify potential area of success and possible avenue for failure.

Availability of Resources: There is a need for adequate resources essentially capital funds that will be necessary to execute the programme and projects contained in the plan. In this regard, it is suggested that both internal and external financial resources should be attracted. Supply of Skilled Manpower: There should be adequate formal training and education of the labour forces especially those who will be directly

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connected with the various aspect of plan. This is necessary in the planning and execution of development projects.

Statistical Data: There should be adequate, accurate and reliable data for the development planners. There is need for relevant and accurate data on population, and national income so that the need of the various segments of the population will be taken into consideration in formulating the plan.

Efficient administration: High level of discipline and commitments on the part of the public authorities are very essential. The levels of technical staff, administrative staff and managerial competence have to be very high.

Public cooperation: Adequate education formation and enlightment especially on the part of the members of the public to obtain their cooperation and adequate participation are equally necessary. This will enable the various segments of the population to appreciate the need for the importance of plan formulation and implementation.

Realistic Planning: Realistic planning is a necessary condition. Targets should be realistic, clear and flexible. Government should not formulate bogus plans to score political marks.

Political Stability: It is only a stable Political system that could ensure continuity of planning. The government should not be committed to plan implementation in words only, but in action as well.

Reasons for Development Planning Development planning is more popular in the developing counties where it is regarded as the best strategy for achieving a rapid economic growth and for bridging the gap between them and the advanced counties. In an attempt to justify this emphasis, some arguments are often advanced. The main arguments often employed are as follows.

Market Failure: As a result of underdeveloped nature of the markets, in developing counties, the markets if left alone could not perform their functions. The forces of demand and supply could not alone determine market price. The commodity

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and factor markets could not alone determine market price. The commodity and factor markets could be badly organized such that the various economics could not function effectively with some intervention by the central authorities in form of economic planning. Therefore, the market argument is one of the –cited ones in justifying government intervention in the form of planning.

Attitudinal and Psychological argument: It is the contention of school of thought that a detailed statement of national economic and social goals and objectives in form of a development plan in an effective mean of mobilizing resources especially human beings. It is argued that the formulation of plan will create awareness on the part of the public and thus a positive attitude is likely to ensue.

Foreign aid argument: The formulation of development plans by developing counties is a potent means of obtaining or attracting bilateral and multilateral foreign aid. Planning creates an impression of seriousness on the part of the potential recipient of assistance and gives the donors confidence that such an assistance will be judiciously utilized on productive projects.

Resource distribution and utilization argument: One of the weaknesses of price mechanism is that it aggravates inequalities of income and wealth because goods and services are produced in response to effective demand. It is thus argued, that, if the market forces are left alone (i.e. If there is no intervention in allocation of resources through planning), resources may be concentrated on the unproductive activities at the expense of productive activities. The public (Social interest should not be sacrificed for private (personal interest.

Prevention of monopolistic situation: This argument contends that without planning a free market system in a developing country like Nigeria is capable of assisting large firms to swallow the other firms, thus acquiring a monopoly power that could lead to a very high price, poor quality of output, etc.

Economic Development argument: The argument is that the rather slow development process pace in developing counties can only be hastened through a conscious setting of objectives and targets (development plan)

Problems of Development Planning

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The development plans in developing countries, such as Nigeria, have often achieved a low rate of success due to some problems militating against them. The problems include.

Inadequate Data: The necessary data and information to base planning on are often lacking in less developed counties. For instance, population figure of our national plan is based on faulty population figure of our national plan is based on faulty population figure.

Inadequate Capital: Good development plans not supported with adequate fund will not achieve the desired goals. In ability to realize the anticipated fund that will be used in executing the plans render their execution faulty.

Political Instability: Incessant change in leadership through non peaceful procedure has been another major problem of development planning. This does not give the planner enough chance to execute

Lack of Political Will: Absence of national interest, in the heart of our leaders has reduced development planning to a mere formality. Many are not nationally committed but rather pursue their own personal gain.

Unrealistic Plan: Many developing counties formulate bogus plan to score political marks. Some of their development plans are characterized with over-ambitions, misplacement of priorities and too many objectives. If the resources available to a country are not adequate to achieve planed targets, the particular plan is doomed even before the process of implementation begins.

Financing of Development Plan In most of the developing counties, development plans are financed with both domestic and external sources. Domestic source include:(i) Revenue accruing from recurrent budget surpluses(ii) Domestic borrowing from bank, capital market, etc drawing down

foreign reserves(iii) Drawing down foreign reserves(iv) Domestic savings

External Sources includes:

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(i) Loans from international capital market, institution like IMF, world Bank etc

(ii) Foreign aids(iii) Grants

Causes of the failure of development plan1. Deficiencies in the formulation of plan and its implementation2. Problems of priorities and mismatching of resources3. Lack of reliable statistical data4. Too much important given to financial planning and too little

importance to physical planning5. Inefficient government and weakness of economic institution.6. Lack of cooperation from people.7. Frequent changes of Government and political instability

The Need for Development Planning in Developing Countries1. Fundamentally, development planning in third world countries is

perceived extensively as the essential and perhaps the single most concrete institutional and organizational mechanism for overcoming all obstacles to development social economic and political development.

2. Development planning for developing counties serves the purpose of ensuring that they generate and sustain high percentage rate of economic growth. High gross national product or total output or high productivity is required in poor nations for use to fight material lack and penury.

3. Development planning in Third World Countries is regarded as a magic wand capable of pushing them rapidly through the barrier dividing their pitiable low standards of living from the ever increasing enviable prosperity of the first World nations. This desperate effort to catch up with the advanced nations began earnestly from the political independence date of most Third World nations.

4. Any poor country that succeeds in designing a realistic development plan will not have difficulty securing the assistance and support of international finance organizations that certainly will encourage the release of soft loans to that country to implement some of the projects and programmes of development to be embarked upon in the plan. Therefore, one thing a realistic plan can do is that it can help to get foreign aid, but unfortunately most developing counties plan for much more foreign aid than will be forth coming.

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5. A good development plan would aim to describe how foreign exchange could be acquired, and how it will be used to introduce and development the physical capital required meeting the chosen objectives. By this target setting opportunities are provided for interested foreign and indigenous investors to invest their capital in the sectors of the economy which are attractive to them. Limited number of chosen objectives is usually open for entrepreneurs to invest in.

6. Development plans in Third World counties explain vividly how progress is going to be made through fundamentally diversifying the economic base. Development plans would normally aim at creating a proportional sectoral development by ensuring that each sector does not develop in isolation but rather according to the rate which integrates it suitably into the entire national development plan of the economy.

7. Also for purposes of making the various economic sectors cohesive, a project’s viability is hardly assessed independently, but rather against the backdrop of its dependence on other projects as well as other projects depending on it

National Development Plans in NigeriaThe colonial Welfare Development Plan (1946-1956): The first attempt at development planning in Nigeria was that which has made by the colonial administration in 1946. That plan was a ten year development plan. Estimated to cost n84 million.

The Objectives of the Plan were as follows:(a) The provision of a country-wide system of communication network.(b) The provision of adequate funds for the spread of higher education

and fundamental research.(c) The provision of social service for the Federal Territory of Lagos.(d) The provision of public service and utilities for the entire country.(e) The provision of adequate machinery for safeguarding Nigeria

security and revenues(f) The provision of loan finances for statutory corporations

The First National Development Plan (1962 – 1968).The plan, which was launched in June 1962, to cover a period of six

years, had the following objectives.

(i) A target growth rate of 4% per annum was set for the economy.(ii) Domestic product was set and

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(iii) An increase of 1.0% per annum in per capital consumption was proposed.

The common objectives and economic target were recognized and accepted not only at the federal level, but also, by the Regions. Furthermore, interest of the private sector as well as participation of the population was enlisted. It was a deviation from what used to obtain whereby the regional governments proposed projects on the basis of rivalry with the attendant lack of internal consistency. As Ayo (op. Cit: 7) posited:

… Each of the plans of the regional government lacked internal consistency. Projects were proposed mainly on the basis of regional rivalry without the recognition of the law of comparative advantage.

The plan was deemed to be successful even though some structural problems arising from the Nigeria Civil War (1967 – 1970) erupted. Its success could be evidenced from the completion of the Port- Harcourt Oil Refinery, the Nigerian Security and Minting Plant, the Jebba paper Mill, the Bacita Sugar Mill, the Nier Dam, the Niger Bridge, Some trunk roads across the country, (Olaniy, op. Cit: 107).

The Second National Development Plan (1970 – 1974)The plan, which was at the end of the civil war, aimed at physical,

economic - reconstruction and development. The National philosophy of this plan was to build:(i) A united, strong and self – reliant nation; (ii) A great and dynamic economy;(iii) A just and egalitarian society;(iv) A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens; and (v) A free and democratic society.

The plan viewed the economy as an organic unit, which determines the success and survival of the other units. The plan integrated the twelve states then in existence, into the mainstream in order to foster accelerated development. It was a successful experiment as could be observed from the growth of the economy, which recorded 11% as against the proposed 6.3% per annum.

The Third National Development Plan (1975 – 1980). The National Economic Advisory council, created in 1972, which coordinated the preparation of the plan made extensive consultation with the private sector. Consequently, the objectives of the plan included:

(i) To increase the per capital income;(ii) To foster more even distribution of income;

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(iii) To reduce the level of unemployment; (iv) To increase the supply of high level man power; (v) To diversify the economy;(vi) To promote balanced development, and (vii) To encourage the indigenization of economic activities.

The objectives appeared welfares in orientation since they aimed at improving the lot of the common man. Nigeria was experiencing the oil boom then. It was hoped that a good measure of success would be achieved but the global economic recession frustrated the achievement of most of the objectives. The plan was reviewed in 1975 during the Murtala/ Obasanjo regime. Outcome of the review formed the main thrust of the fourth Development plan (1981 – 1985).

The Fourth Development Plan (1981 -1985)The main thrust of the plan was on Agriculture, Manufacturing,

Education and Manpower Development, Housing, Health, Water Supply, and Infrastructural facilities. The plan came into existence during the civilian administration of Shehu Shagari, with the National Party of Nigeria (N.P.N.) as the ruling party. The feature of the plan, as observed by Ayo (op. cit: 14), included:(i) The plan was formulated under democratically(ii) Elected government in a presidential system of government.(iii) For the first time the local governments exercised in their own rights,

following the constitutional provisions, which accorded them specific responsibilities.

(iii) There was emphasis on domestic production of raw materials for local industries in order to reduce the import content of locally manufactured goods.(iv) Promotion of employment opportunities in order to arrest the

deteriorating mass unemployment.The ideals of the plan failed to meet the economic target, thus leading

to the country’s inability to settle her external debts. Consequently, for want of credibility, the country was compelled to introduce the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in July, 1986. SAP was one of the international Monetary Fund’s (IMF) conditionalities for restructuring and diversifying the productive base of the country and to reduce dependence on the oil sector and / or imports.

National Planning Commission in NigeriaThe National Planning Commission was established under the

provisions of the National Planning Commission Decree 1992 No 12.Objectives of the Commission

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The objectives of the commission as listed under section of the Decree are as follows(a) To determine and advice on policies that will best promote national

unity and integration and sustain the Nigeria nation(b) To ensure social justice and human welfare at all levels of the

Nigerian society.(c) To focus on key national development issues and suggests ways for

their efficient resolution:(d) To determine how best the fundamental objective principles of State

Policy contained in the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria , as amended can achieve the major objectives of optional development and suggest amendment that may be required, from time to time, to achieve those objectives in the light of encountered realities.

(e) To provide a national focal point for the coordination and formulation of national policies and programmes.

(f) To draw up from time to time, national economic priorities and programmes and map out implementation strategies.

(g) To co-ordinate the formulation and implementation of Government programmes as contained in the annual plans budgets, medium-term and perspective plan aw tithe Federal, State and Local Government levels.

(h) To enhance the efficiency of public sector spending and general national economy globally;

(i) To continuously visualize the international economic system in target horizon and identify the activities likely to become dominant or strategic globally

Functions of the CommissionThe functions of the Commission are set out under section 4 of the

Degree. They are as follows:(a) To provide policy advice to the President, commander- in chief of the

Armed Forces in particular, and Nigeria in general on all spheres of national life.

(b) To set national priorities and goals and engender consensus among government agencies, corporate bodies and workers unions in support and accomplishment of such priorities and goals as may be contained in guidelines issued by the commission from time to time.

(c) To undertake periodic review and appraisal of human and material resources capabilities of Nigeria with a view to advancing their development and efficiency and effective utilization;

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(d) To formulate and prepare long-term, medium-term and short term national development plans and to co-ordinate such plan at the Federal, state and Local government level

(e) To monitor projects and progress relating to plan implementation.(f) To advise on changes and adjustments in institutions and management

techniques as well as attitude necessary for the alignment of action with plan targets and goal;

(g) To conduct research into various aspect of national interest and public policy and ensure that the implications and result of the findings in such research are geared towards the enhancement of national economic, social, technological defence, and security capabilities and security capabilities and management;

(h) To mobilize popular group and institutional consensus in support of government policies and programmes

(i) To prepare and control the capital budge and set broad guidelines for the recurrent budget.

(j) To manage multilateral and bilateral economic co-operation, including development aid and technical assistance programme.

(k) Top deal with matters relating to regional economic co-operation, including the economic community of West African States, the African common Market, the United nations Economic commission for West African and the South-south Cooperation; and

(i) To carry out such other activities as are necessary or expedient for the full discharge of all or any of the functions conferred on the commission under this Degree.

The President himself is the Chairman of the Commission. Other members include.

(1) The Vice President s alternate Chairman.(2) The Deputy Chairman of the Commission(3) Federal Ministers of finance, petroleum and Mineral Resources,

Agriculture, Water Resources and Rural Development, Industry and Technology.

(4) The Governor of the Central Bank(5) State and Local government Representative(6) Representatives of Labour and employers Associations

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Characteristics of Developed and Developing NationsCharacteristics of Developed Nations

(a) Structural and Institutional DifferentiationsThe administrative structures and institutions in the developed nations are highly differentiated. Thus there is a well organized arrangement and integration of the various components that made up the structures of the societies. In the words of it Nnamani, (2009) the economic social effectively separated, and inter –linked for common purpose.According to Maidu, (2006) Developed diffracted) societies is a

highly differentiated society in which every function has a corresponding structure that is specialized for its function. It is thus functionally specific

As Abah (2000) noted, while differentiating between developed and developing societies. According to him, in developed societies, organizational rules are implementing universally to every clerical group and individual as cases or things. But in developing societies, treatments are meted out to individuals as unique persons with the consideration for their personality and the nature of their relationship and the nature of their relationship with official. Also in developed societies, statuses are apportioned to persons because they have worked hard to achieve such status, but in developing societies, status are ascribed to persons with regard to the circumstances of their birth and situation. Also, in developed societies, specific structures perform specific function and there is a compartmentalization of structural- functional relationships in bureaucracies as a function of specialization and division of labour. But in developing societies, function and structures are fused to the extent that one person or office could perform as many funct6ions as the situation permits, hence the authority of a traditional institution many have relevance for policy formulation implementation; communication and adjudication of cases arising from these activities all at once (Abah, 2000). He finally noted that, in developed societies institutions and official are dispassionate and maintain some degree of breath in treating their clients. But developing societies wallow in the passionate and emotional consideration of the circumstances surrounding an issue of determination.

In developed soieties, clarity always exists in division of role and specialization with high level of respect to individual activities and institutional structures. Nnamani, 2009, He stated further that the specialized roles are free floating that is, no sentiment is attached to ascriptive kinship, territorial castes, ethnic nationalities etc in recruitment and selection of the institutional framework of the society. He also stated that distribution of wealth and power are not ascriptively allocated. Equality and merit are significant in economic life, political activities and bureaucratic organization.

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High Level of Social MobilizationSocial mobilization is the process in which major clusters of old social

economic and psychological commitments are eroded and broken, so people became available for new patterns of socialization and behaviour.

According to Nnamani(2009) social mobilization expose the people to modern life. This is obvious in the developed nations. Social solidarity is not confined to the family, Kinsmen, Caste or tribe.` Accordingly, the new order in this society is an open and life transforming values to everybody. According to Nnamani (2009): This is indicated by response to mass media, change of residence, urbanization, and change from agricultural occupations literacy, growth in per capital income, increased consumer goods etc. This presence of those factors ensures that people are properly mobilized .So in developed societies the availably and sustenance of social justice guarantees development and improvement is the social, political and economic sphere of life.

3. High Level of Industrialization and UrbanizationIn the societies that have made a good or successful

journey to development, the commonest feature is also a well spread industrial layout. The developed nations perhaps may have been guided by the great vision of Karl Marx. Marx visualized a society free from injustices arising from underdevelopment. He believed that an orderly society will emerge if the political and economic power gets into the hands of the working class or proletariat. Whether the notion of Marx is justified or not is particularly not our concern in this content, but we make haste to agree that developed countries are characterized with large industries, machine production and also has concentration of workers in cities. (Nnamani, 2009).

In the United Kingdom, the Industrial Re-organization Corporation was established way back in early twentieth century with the statutory power to promote and assist the re-organization and development of industries (Tokunboh, 1990). This was followed by the Industrial Expansion Act of 1968. The development led to high productivity, profitability and technological improvement; and most significantly profitability and technological improvement; and most significantly industrial expansion. Similar experience occurred in France, Canada, USA and some other developed countries. The existence of these industries provided employments to the people and had

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contributed to acquisition of new skills and knowledge which raise their standard of living. (Nnamani, 47-53)

The developed nations are also characterized with large number of urbanized towns. Rural communities are rapidly transformed to urban town (metropolis) which enhanced social welfare administration. Metropolitan cities are rigorously made to develop and expand the peripheral areas to assume the status of major centres like London, New York, Paris, California and so on.

4. High Entrepreneurial CharacteristicsAt the core of the economic system of the developed

nations stands entrepreneurship (Ajulu, 1990). The history of development of entrepreneurship, for instance, the United Kingdom dates back to the passage of Industrial Act of 1968. Supports were given for public and private entrepreneurship. This support was by way of loans or grants, guaranteeing repayment of loans or interest, under writing losses, subsidies etc. With this measure, small and medium scale business blossomed. United Kingdom attaches a great deal of importance to SME sector in national economic development. They see the presence of SME as not just job creator but as creator of wealth. To top it all, the key principle underlying UK government’s approach include fostering and enterprise culture that encourages innovators and risk takers; providing and maintaining a supportive economic environment and removing barrier to growth. This made the number of business to skyrocket in UK. As at 1997, there were about 3.7million small business with 90 percent of them having not less than 50 employees in United Kingdom (Ariyo, 2002).

It is not only in UK, the entire Europe and United States went agog with the entrepreneurship. For instance, approximately, 23 million small businesses exist in United States, employing about 50 percent of the private work force, and generating more than half of the nation’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Also in Europe, Ariyo informed that SMEs account for 99.8 percent of all companies and 65 percent of business turnover in the European Union. The situation provided employment opportunities that reduced unemployment to the barest minimum. (Nnamani 2009).

5. Economic GrowthEconomic growth means an increase over time in the

actual output of goods and services as well as increase in the economy’s capacity to produce goods and services, (Turner and

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Tint, 1979). The developed countries applied high level technology and scientific knowledge in the production of goods and services. As a result of this, the industrial systems are effective with growing specialization of economic roles and units of economic activity-production, consumption and marketing. Most significantly labour mobility and efficiency of labour output per man with the related induced factor such as motivation, training, education and discipline are present in the industrialized nations. (Nnamani,2009).

Agricultural development is enviable. The practice is intensified and accelerated by the use of scientific method or high techniques in the production of crops. Hence, food shortages are not common in the developed countries, because of vibrant agricultural sector. The most crucial is the Gross National Product (GNP). Turner and Tint (1979) claim that, “it provides comprehensive pictures of the economy and shows what is produced; the level of agriculture as well as the distribution of income”. Consequent upon the extensive capital accumulation and industrialization, the GNP in the developed nations is constantly showing positive indication. There is high rate of capital formation, industrialization, agricultural development, poverty reduction and technological advancement which enhance the growth of Gross National Product (GNP).

6. Developed Political Institutions A common characteristic of the developed countries is

high level of political stability, integration and tolerance. The system of government, whether democratic or autocratic, may not necessarily matter. Although it has been argued that democratic system tends to be more desirable, but a number of countries have been politically successful under-developed nations, a legitimate government is always in place with adherence to the constitutional provisions. The constitution is supreme. It creates a popularistic society, indicating a process of power succession and the desirable political organizations.

The systems also enhance political tolerance. In other words, the competing views, interests and ideas of the various units in the system are effectively accommodated. Developed nations continually spread potential power to wider groups in the society so as to incorporate a consensual order. But this is far from expressing loyalty more to the ethnic or tribal group more than the centre. Essentially, the legal, administrative and political

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powers of the centre are intensified unless for a country that practices con-federal system. The vocal powers of the citizens are expressed freely through plebiscites. Thus, public decision making to a large extent is seen as a participatory process involving the citizenry and the political elites.

Pye (1962) stated that political development entails “the role of citizenry and new standard of loyalty and involvement”. Thus, there exist a high level of participation, widened suffrage and induction of new elements into the political process.

The political office holders see their positions as platforms to deliver the promise as embedded in the “social contract” of the state. In this connection, accountability and transparency are institutionalized. The rulers in order to maintain themselves effectively in power and receive support for the specific goals, they propagate the policies they want to implement. They must seek continually political support of the ruled. Unlike, the traditional autocratic system, the system is mild without ascriptive political commitment to any given ruler or group, hence, all political support and allegiance are owed to the state.

Another important political characteristic is the fundamental human rights which are highly dignified and respected. There is public and private liberties and freedom within the confine of the law. These rights are enshrined in the constitution as contained in the United Nations charter: Abuse of which the citizen may seek redress in the court of law.

7. Information and Communication What certainly cannot be denied while engaging in an

anatomy of the developed countries is the presence of high information and communication structures. They see it as an institutional requirement that leads to an increased economic activity; innovation and democracy. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) influence all facet of life of people. The dimensions in which information and communication are used in the developed countries include, the Mass Media, Radios and Televisions, Books and Magazines, Internet and Web TV, Fax, Telephone, etc. The developed nations have today made the world a global village through their ingenuity in information and communication technologies. Way back 1960s, United State transform from mere using the computers for documentation to utilization in information management. This, according to Bose,

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led to the emergence of the term “information technology” and it moved from United States to Great Britain.

Evidently, the developed countries have institutionalized and accorded ample freedom to the press and other mass media. By this development, various news, campaigns and reports are disseminated to the society. Also telecommunication has made transaction more convenient in the developed world. In fact, it is seen as a precondition for any achieved socio-economic status in the developed countries.

8. Rational Form of Organization A significant characteristic of the developed nations is the

large number of functional organizations. This has historical origin from Weber’s cultural process of the Westerners i.e. “rationalization”. The rational organization ensures efficient use of capital, diligent investment and consumer-centered services. This cultural process was not only applied by the Western capitalist, but it also spread to public organization such as the military and police. Mainly private and public enterprises in the developed countries are rationally conceived. Essentially, “Macro aspects like the constitution of the Boards, the finance function, accountability, group decisions etc and their relations with the government are dually given required attention (Bose, 1986).

Usually, the Western make-up of an organization entails quality personnel with deep sense of effectiveness. This goes with efficient utilization of the capital, the form of productive investment. The implication of this is well-planned organization buffeted by growth propensities. In essence, there is a systematic formulation and implementation of programmes. In fact the process takes a scientific nature. Most commonly, strict adherence are made in the area of resource acquisition, clarifying and fixing of authority and responsibility. These are done with management expertise and time consciousness.

9. Quality Research and TechnologyThe developed countries have expended great deal of

energy in researches and technology acquisition. Mostly, large proportions of the national budget are allocated to research centres which aid a continuous inquiry into the unknown. Essentially, areas such as pharmaceutical biology, astronomy, energy physics and other areas of engineering and medicine continue to be the concern of them. Over the years, many diseases such as influenza,

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ebola, cholera, HIV, malaria and other diseases have been uncovered through the energetic researches of the development nations.

We are also well informed of the nuclear technologies which in recent time have gained increasing attention and have led to both physical and psychological wars among countries. The developed nations sufficiently equipped themselves with bio-chemical, nuclear and ballistic weapons. This, they use to perpetuate international hegemony for both in politics and economics. More often than not, they use this advanced war technologies to stimulate and sponsor war in many nations.

In a News and world Report, 1997, the United States government had as late as 1995 voted billion of dollars for provision of biological and chemical weapons. The military headquarters of United States, Pentagon, used as much as 52million dollars for its biological and chemical weapons project; while the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) used also a substantial amount to build a Bio-lab with tightly sealed facility that would permit work with many of the world deadliest pathogens.

A number of researches being sponsored by the developed countries even in the poor nations: Different international organizations such as WHO, USAID, DFID, UNDP, and so on represent organizations through which the developed nations advance researches to the benefit of mankind. The Third World countries in most cases use trado-medical practices in their researches, which give questionable results. The developed countries continue to apply a highly technologically-based pattern in their medical research.

10. Environmental ControlThe developed countries pay great attention to the

wellbeing of their environment for a healthy living of the populace. The developed world continuously devices policies, which restrict environmental hazards.

An example is the international environmental agency which ceaselessly tries to regulate the global warming and ozone layer depletion, the Green-House effect, and Toxic Waste disposal. Not only has the campaign on effective environment policies been positively felt in developed countries, but it has gone a long way to enlighten the Third World countries on the necessity of keeping a clean and hazard-free environment.

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Characteristics of Developing Countries(1) Low Standard of living and productivity

According Todaro and Smith, (2009): there is a vast qulf in productivity between advanced economies and developing nations.

These differences in level of productivity resulted from poverty which leads to low living standard. An under developed country is poverty-ridden poverty is reflected in low GNP per capital.

According to the world Development Report, (1999-2000)59.5 percent of the world population in 1998 living in low-income economies had GNP per capita of $ 760 or less: 25.4 percent in middle income economic had $761 to $9,360; and 15.0 per cent in high-income economies had $ 9,361 or more. The extremely low GNP per capita or low-income economies reflect the extent of poverty in them.

Further, the world Bank Report pointed out vast income disparities among nations. Among the low-income countries were Nepal and Tanzania with GNP per capita of $210, Nigeria $ 300, Uganada $ 320, Zambia $ 330, Bangladesh $ 350, Ghana $390, India $ 430,Pakistan $ 480. Zimbabwe $ 610, Indonesia $ 680 and China $ 750. some of the middle-income group counties were Sri Lanka with GNP per capita of $ 810, Philippines $ 1,050 Keya $ 1,310 Namibia $ 1940, Russian Federation $ 2,300, South Africa $ 2880, and Malaysia $ 3,600. Of the high-income counties, Luxembourg led with GNP per capita of $ 43,570, followed by Switzerland $ 40,080, Norway $ 34,330, Denmark $ 33,260, Japan $32380,Singapore $ 30,060 United States $29,340 and so on.

In developing nations like Nigeria the standard of living is low. The low standard of living is manifested quantitatively and qualitatively in the form of low income (poverty) inadequate housing, poor health, limited or no education, high death rate and infant mortality, low life expectancy and in many cases, a general sense of malaise and hoelessness(Udahah, 1999). This situation is what Jhingan (2008) referd to as absolute poverty.

At very low income levels Tadora noted, a vicious cycle may set in whereby low income leads to low investment in education and health as well as plant and equipment and infrastructure, which in turn leads to low productivity and economic stagnation.

In most developing societies the nature of income distribution is unequal. That is inequality in income distribution. Thus there is a growing gap between the income of the rich and the poor people within individual developing nations. All nation of the World show some degree nation of the world show some degree of inequality in income. Thus the problems of inequality between the rich and the poor nations, and between the rich and the

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poor people within nations will determine the degree of poverty (Udabah, 1999).

2. Occupational Structure:In developing nations a vast majority of the people manage in

agriculture as their main occupation. Developing countries specialize in the production of raw material and food stuffs. Some also specialize in non-agricultural primary production ie mineral. Thus developing countries is a primary sector economy. Besides, the primary sector, there is an underdeveloped secondary sector with a few simple, light and small consumer goods industries and equally underdeveloped tertiary sector. ie transport, commerce baking and insurance services (Jhingan, 2008)

3. Under-developed Natural ResourcesFor any country to be developed its natural resource must be fully

taped and utilized. But in underdeveloped countries, the natural resources are under developed. That is to say that the natural resources in developing countries are either unutilized or underutilized or Misutilized. This is due to various inhibitions such as their inaccessibility, lack of technical knowledge, non availability capital and the small extent of market

4. Demographic FeaturesUnderdeveloped counties are characterized by demographic factors,

which include high fertility rate, large number of disabled people disproportionate number of male and females.

Diversity exists in the size, density age structure and the rate of growth of population. According Jhingan there appear to be one common feature of rapidly increasing population which adds substantial number to the total population every year. Developing countries and low rates of capital formation: This makes it difficult for such country to support the addition number of their population.

From the foregoing it is clear that developing countries are characterized with high growing population. That threatens the standard of living and the projected development plan.According I World Bank Data (2006) from (1990-2005), population in he low income counties grew at 2% per year compared to 1.1% in the middle income counties, while the high income countries grew by 0% per year.

These demographic factors have far reaching effect on the social- economic system of the country

5. Unemployment and Underemployment

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The major problems facing mot underdeveloped nations are those of unemployment and underemployment. Unemployment in these countries is spreading with urbanization and the spread of education. But the industrial sector has failed to expand along with the growth of labour force, thereby increasing urban unemployment (Jhingan, 2008).

In essence, unemployment refers to a situation where individual who are physically and mental able, eager to work but who by certain economic circumstance could not find any job.

As noted by Udabah, (1999) the major factor contributing to low standard of living in under developed countries is their relative in adequate or inefficient utilization of labour in comparison with advanced nations.

In Nigerian, the federal office of statistics recorded that, about 80 percent of the young people aged 15-35, who have had substantial education in most case are without job or suitable jobs.

(6) Lack of Enterprise and InitiativeAnother characteristic feature of underdeveloped countries is the lack

of entrepreneurial ability. For any country to grow and develop. The citizens must demonstrate a high degree of entrepreneurship ability and also the government to manifest high support to entrepreneual development and creative initiative. This is completely lacking among the developing societies. In these nations entrepreneurship is inhibited by the social system and structures, which denies opportunities for creative faculties. Besides, in developing countries there exist a few entrepreneurs who engaged in the manufacture of some consumer goods, and in plantations and mines that tends to become monopolistic and quasi monopolistic.

Other characteristics include:(i) Prevalence of Traditional institutions and ethnic Chauvinism(ii) Dependence and Vulnerability in international Relations(iii) High rural population and Rapid Rural to-urban migration.(iv) Underdeveloped financial and other markets(v) Inadequate infrastructure(vi) Insufficient capital equipment(vii) Economic Backwardness(viii) Dualistic Economy(ix) Technological Backwardness(x) Income inequality

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CHAPTER NINETEEN

PROGRAMME AND PROJECT TECHNIQUES

According to Olewe (1995), the development of any economy is very much dependent on proper implementation of policies, propgrammes and/or projects. He noted that, the developed countries have so far achieved this much progress due to the extent in which their projects were implemented the inhibiting factor at the developmental perspectives of the New Nation of Developing Countries is Implementation.

The project implementation process in developed countries are followed systematically from the design state till the last stages of feed-back and control. But in the developing countries, such process are usually derailed midway prior to termination of project.

ProgrammeThe Oxford Dictionary define the term programme as “a

definite plan or scheme of any intended proceedings, or an outline or abstract of anything to be done. According Egbert Devries, a programme means, “a form of organized social activity a specific Objective United in space and time. Olewe (1995) noted that a programme often consists of on inter-related groups of projects and usually is limited to one or more organizations and activities Also a programme may be reterred to as “a written notice, proclamation, or edict posted up public , such a public notice may relate to a function, celebration or event about to take place.

Project

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A project is compilation of data which will enable an appraisal to be made or the economic advantages and disadvantages attendant on allocation of a country’s resources to the production of specific goods and services.

According to Salawu (2005), a project is “a Unit of activity or a group of activities, which is planned and is expected to be carried out during a given future period. Goel (1981) opines that a project means specifications and accomplishments within a given period of related set of activities that will result in a measurable change in any system’s capacity to improve the status of the community directly or indirectly.

Characteristics Of A ProjectSalwu (2005) offered the following characteristics of a project:

1) It involves the investment of substantial amount of resources 2) There is a time lag between the time resources are invested and

when benefits are derived.3) A project will have a boundary of accountability 4) It has a period of accountability5) A Project is designed and implemented in accordance with the

social system of the country

On his own part, Olewe (1995) offered the following as the characteristics of a project:

(a) Well defined Collection: A project consists of a well-defined collection of jobs, or activities, which when completed marks the end of the project

(b) Independence of Starting and Conclusion:

In a project, the jobs may be started and stopped independently of each other; within a given sequence. It is important to note that this requirement continuous-flow processes, such as oil refinery, where “jobs” or operations necessarily follow one after another with essentially no time separation.

(c) Ordering of Jobs:

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In projects, jobs are ordered. This signifies that jobs must be performed in technological sequence. For instance, the foundation of a house must be constructed before the walls are erected.

Porject Design ProcessIn the area of project design, Salawu (2005) offered the process

of project design as (a) generation of possible investment projects (b) identifying possible alternative to the project being evaluated (c) Collection of relevant data on the projects under consideration (d) Evaluating the projects from the data assembled (e) Selection of project based on acceptable criteria (f) project implementation (g) project monitoring and control.

Broad Goals/Objectives Of Project DesignAccordingly, project design is a problem solving process with

the following objectives:1. It facilitates work completion on record time in the most

efficient way 2. It creates the opportunity of identifying the right problem and

it’s solution3. It makes possible the availability and proper usage of all

relevant information for the solution of the problem.4. It gives the project direction and guidance about what should be

done as the project proceeds5. It assists management by producing reports on projects status

and keeping track of resources needs.6. Project analysts and designers are guided in solving problems

that crop up during project development7. Project design usually encourage top-down problem solving.

Project Appraisal TechniquesThree major techniques shall be considered1. Cost – Benefit Analysis2. Cost – Effectiveness Analysis3. Cost of service Appraisal

Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)

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Cost-Benefit Analysis is a technique, which enables a systematic comparison to be made between the estimated costs of undertaking a project and the estimated value and benefit which may arise from the implementation of such a project. It is regarded as an analytical tool in decision-making. CBA takes into account not only the private cost and benefits of a project but also the social costs and revenue.

In a period of capital rationing when there is shortage of funds to be invested by the government, it is essential to select the optimal project. In CBA, the decision on project is often taken by ranking alternative projects after the calculation of Benefit/Cost ratio or Net Benefit/Cost ratio. It is an investment appraisal for large project with multitude of benefits, many of which are often difficult to measure.

Advantages1. It provides a framework for consistent and uniform project

evaluation2. It is useful in allocating scarce resources between different

public services3. Cost-benefit analysis provides a guide to Government policy

makers to make rational decisions concerning public sector project selection.

4. It helps to ascertain the financial implication of projects5. It helps to know the social benefit derivable from a project6. The technique is also useful in making the choice between two

projects that are intended to achieve similar ends.

Disadvantages1. it does not take into consideration the time value of money2. It involves a considerable amount of forecasting which is

definitely a difficult exercise.3. It does not permit wide choice of projects that are dissimilar4. It creates the problem of cuts off and estimation.

Evaluation on the Basis of BenefitsA Project is evaluated on the basis of the benefits accruing from

it Benefits refer to the addition to the flow of national output accruing from a project Benefits may be real or nominal and direct or indirect

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Real and Nominal Benefits: Cost benefit analysis is concerned with the real benefits rather

than with the nominal benefits flowing from a project . for instance, a river valley project may increase irrigational facilities, raises the productivity of land per acre and increase the level of real income of the farmers (real benefits). But if at the same time the state levies heavy tax on them, the benefit is nominal.

Direct benefits: These are benefits, which are immediately and directly

obtainable from a project. They are the value of the immediate products and services for which direct costs are incurred.

Indirect Benefits: These are otherwise known as secondary benefits, They are the

value s added to the direct benefits as a result of the activities stemming from or induced by the project.

Tangible Benefits: These are the benefits, which can be computed and measured in

terms of money . For example, benefit from construction of a bridge.

Intangible benefits: These are the benefits that cannot be measure in monetary

terms. They enter into individual valuations, for which there is neither a market nor a price.

Evaluation on the Basis of CostsThere are various types of costs:Project costs: They are the value of the resources used in constructing, maintaining and operating the project e.g. cost of labour, capital , natural resources, etc.

Associated costs: They are the value of goods and services needed beyond those

included in the costs of a project available for use or sale.

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Real and nominal costs: Real costs are the expenses incurred by the people directly

involved in the project. The money borrowed to execute a project is of nominal costs properly incurred for the construction maintenance and execution of a project.

Indirect costs: These are secondary costs. They are the value of goods and

services incurred to provide indirect benefits of a project. Viz houses, school, and hospital , etc.

Objectives of Cost-Benefit Analysis1, The determination of the ways in which the most efficient use

can be made of scarce resources.2 To determine the best decision as regards the selection of

competing alternative projects.3 To assist in appreciating and making the projects under review

for implementation4. To allow externalities to be taken into account in appraising

investment projects.

Limitations of the Cost-Benefit Analysis 1. There are problems surrounding the valuation of indirect costs

and benefits since a monetary value has to be placed on intangible elements such as time, discomfort, pain and death

2. It creates the problem of which costs and benefits to include and which to exclude3. It makes the choice of the discount rate in cost-benefit.

Analysis, costs and benefits come in streams over long periods.4. It lads to the problem of relevant constraints, which have to be taken into account5. It is difficult to handle Non-economic issues e.g. equity,

regional imbalance, and social integration etc.6. It neglects joint Benefits and costs7. It ignores opportunity costs; The Cost Benefit Analysis also

ignores the problem of opportunity cost8. It generates the problem of externalities: The side effects of a

project are difficult to calculate in the analysis.

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Steps in Cost-Benefit Analysis1. Determine the projects to be considered2 Ascertains alternative solutions to the projects3 Estimate and analyse the costs and benefits of the project 4. Appraise the estimated costs and benefits5 Decide on the optimal solution.

Example The following estimated costs and benefits are related to five different project of Igbo Etiti Local Government

A B C D E

N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000

Estimated Cost- of Investment 10,000 20,000 12,000 24,000 300,00

Estimated Benefit 25,000 22,000 20,000 26,000 36,000

Igbo Etiti Local Government has budgeted a sum of N52,000.000 to be invested in undertaking the different projects.You are required to

(a) Calculate benefit/Cost ratio of each of the 5 projects (b) Compute the Net Benefit/Cost ratio of each project(c) Advice the Chairman of Igbo Etiti Local Government on the

project that should be undertaken on the basis of the year computation in ‘a’ and ‘b’ above.

SolutionAteere Local Government

Computation of the Benefit/Cost ratio of each of the five projects

A B C D E

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N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000 N’000

Estimated Benefit (B) 25,000 22,000 20,000 26,000 36,000

Estimated Cost (c) 10,000 20,000 12,00 24,000 30,000

Net Benefit (NB) 15,000 2,000 8,000 2,000 6,000

(a) B/C ratio 2.5 1.1 1.67 1.08 1.2

(b) NB/C ratio 1.5 0.1 0.67 0.08 0.2

Ranking 1st 4th 2nd 5th 3rd

Ranking projects Estimated cost of investmentCumulative

Budgeted sum of money forInvestment

N N 1st A 10,000.000 52,000.0002nd C 12,000.000 42,000.0003rd E 30,000.000 30,000.000

(c) The Chairman of Igbo Etiti Local Government should embark on project A,C and E

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis (CEA)Cost-Effectiveness Analysis is a technique that enables the

management to determine the cheapest strategy to meet a well-defined objective or to determine the optimal strategy to meet an objective when

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given a fixed budget cost, Under CEA, costs are calculated and alternative ways are compared for achieving a specific set of results. It does not give information about the benefits of meeting objectives.

Characteristics of Cost Effectiveness Analysisi. CEA comparison may be stated in terms of cost per unit of

effect or in terms of effect per unit of cost ii. CEA is used as a comparison of different ways of reaching the

same objectivesiii. In CEA, the alternatives are usually (but not necessarily always)

mutually exclusiveiv. CEA identifies either the least cost method of achieving a

particular objective or the maximum output that can be attained for a given cost.

Steps in Cost Effectiveness Analysis1 Define the objective: The more precise the definition of the

objective of a programme, the better.2 Formulate Alternatives to achieve the objectives3 Measures the effectiveness: Overall performance must be

combined into appropriate measures that group the effectiveness of each alternative

4 Compute net cost: Estimation of the cost of the altlernatives is very important

5 Compute net effects6 Apply Decision Rules or Choice Criteria 7

Cost-Effective Ratio = Net Costs Net Effects

Objectives of Cost -Effectiveness Analysis1. To determine the least cost of achieving a well-defined

objective2. To determine the maximum output that can be derived or

obtained from a given cost.3. Allowing externalities to be taken into account in appraising

investment projects.

Example: 1

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The Medical doctor who treated a young man for his ailing heart considered the following options;

Treatment Option Cost of Treatment Life years gained

From treatment N1. Heart Transplanting 900,000 l5

2. Artificial Heart 240,000 83. Heart By-pass operation 300.000 12

What is the most cost-effective method of treating the young man’s heart problem?Solution to example 1

TreatmentOption

Cost of treatment

Life years gained Ranking

N 3rd

Heart Transplanting

9000,000 15

Artificial Heart

240,000 8

2nd

Heart by-pass opition

300,00012

1st

Heart By-Pass Option 300,000 12 300,000/12 = 25,000 1st

Decision: The most cost-effective method of treating the Young man’s heart problem is Heart By-pass operation

Example 2Nsukka Local Government is planning to construct a road using two methods of construction. The following data were given

Method 1 Cost per kilometer N

Initial capital cost 10,000,000

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Cost of Maintenance in every 4 years 2,000,000Method 2Initial Capital cost 7,840,000Cost of maintenance in every 3 years. 2,400,000Additional informationIt is expected that the road will have a maximum life of 28 years, if properly maintained. It is required to determine the cost effectiveness of each method. The rate of interest is given as 10%

Solution to Example 2Nsukka Local GovernmentComputation of Cost Effectiveness of Constructing a Road

Method 1Year Outlay Discount Factor Present Value

N 10% N 0 10,000,000 1,000 (10,000,000) 4 2,000,000 0,683 (1,366,000) 8 2,000,000 0,467 (934,000)12 2,000,000 0,319 (638,000)16 2,000,000 0,218 (436,000)20 2,000,000 0,149 (298,000)24 2,000,000 0,102 (204,000)28 2,000,000 0,069 (138,000)

PV = (14,014,000)Method 2Year Outlay Discount Factor Present Value

N 10% N 0 7,840,000 1,000 (7,840,000) 3 2,400,000 0,751 (1,802,400) 6 2,400,000 0,564 (353,600) 9 2,400,000 0424 (1,017,600)12 2,000,000 0,319 (6,388,000)15 2,400,000 0,239 (573,600) 18 2,400,000 0,180 (432,000)21 2,400,000 0135 (324,000)24 2,400,000 0,102 (244,800)27 2,400,000 0,076 (182,400) `PV = (14, 408,400)

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Total Cost at Present Value Per Kilometre:For Method 1 = N14,014,000For Method 2 = N 14,408,400Decision rule: Method 1 is preferable because it is more cost effective than method 2.

Example 3The Highways Department of the Adada State Ministry of Pubic

Works is responsible for operating a Toll Gate on the Leja-Aku road in the State. The Chief Highway Engineer has reported the need to carry out urgent repair works, between k+250 and km 9 + 600, the failed portion of the road leading to the Toll Gate. Furthermore, he is of the opinion that unless some repairs are undertaken immediately, the tollgate will have to be closed. The Chief Highway Engineer has also pointed out that the volume of traffic/commuters using the road during the third quarter of the year is low, relative to the rest of the year.It is now the end of the fifth month and he has submitted the following repair options for the consideration of the Honourable Commissioner for Public Works, viz

Option 1: To close the togate for 15 weeks and complete repairs, once and for all, in one operation. The opportunity cost will be an immediate repair cost of N1,152,000 and the loss of toll revenue of N432,000.

Option 2 To carry out the repair works in phases, over the third quarters for the next three years. The opportunity cost will be an immediate repair cost of N288.000 plus a further N384,000 a year from now. N432,000 two years from now and N480,000 three years from now. This option will lead to traffic hold-ups, necessitating the diversion of users of the tollgate to an alternative route. Loss of revenues from toll charges is estimated as follows:

This year - N72,000Next year - N93,600Two years from now - 96,000Three years from now - 110,400.

The Ministry can currently borrow funds from financial institutions at the concessionary rate of 10% per annum.

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You are required to:(i) Calculate the present value of the two repair options.(ii) Identify the most cost-effective way of undertaking the repair

giving your reasons;(iii) State two other factors that should be considered

NB Take discount factor to three (3) decimal places and present values to the nearest whole number.

Solution to Example 3Highways DepartmentAdada State Ministry of Public WorksAppraisal of Repair Options of leja - Aku RoadKm 2 + 250 - Km9 + 600

AmountN

PV Factor(10%)

Present Value N

Immediate repair costs

1,152.000 1,000 1,152.000

Lost of toll Revenues

432.000

1,584.000

Option 2 – Carry Out Repair Work in Phases Over the ThirdQuarters of the Next Three Years.

AMOUNT N

PV FACTOR(10%)

PRESENTVALUE N

Immediate repair

costs

288,000 1.000 288,000

Loss of toll revenues 72,000 1,000 72,000

1st Year repair cost 384 0,909 349,056

Loss of toll revenues 93,600 0.909 85,082

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2nd Year repair costs 432,000 0.826 356,832

Loss of tool revenue 96,000 0.826 79,296

3rd Year repair costs 480,000 0.751 360,480

Loss of toll revenues 110,400 0.751 82,910

1,673,656

The most cost-effective way of undertaking the repairs is Option 1, that is,Closing the tollgate for 15 weeks, because the opportunity cost of N1,584,00 is lower than that of Option 2

Other factors, which the Honourable Commissioner of Public Works should consider, include

(a) the inconvenience which the decision will cause the regular road/toll gate users;

(b) the possible permanent loss of toll revenues as a result of some diverting users to alternative routes;

(c) the effect of the provision of emergency services to towns/communities situated near to the road/toll gate

Cost Of Service Appraisal (CSA)This technique of investment appraisal in the public sector

implies that a public sector project provides an avenue for the Government to provide goods and services to the members for the public. The members of the society are expected to contribute to the cost of financing these services in accordance with the proportion of benefits derived from such services. The members who enjoy more of the services are expected to make more contributions than the other members of the society who do not enjoy more of the services.

The viability of the project in the public sector is judged or appraised on the basis of the benefits derived by the society and the ability of the beneficiaries to make contributions towards financing the cost of the services.

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Advantages1. it provides necessary information on the way and manner by

which the public sector projects are being financed by the Government

2. It introduces a reasonable degree of fairness into the financing of Government project as members of the society are expected to pay in relation to the proportion of benefits derived

3. It enables the Government to determine the extent to which the members of the society are expected to contribute in meeting the cost of financing governmental projects.

Disadvantages1. The technique may prevent the Government from considering

the other sources from which revenues can be generated for the purpose of financing Government projects

2. The technique is associated with the problem of cost measurement and evaluation of the benefits being derived by the society

Other Investment Appraisal Techniques1. Discounted Techniques(a) Net Present Value (NPV)(b) Internal Rate of Return (IRR)(c) Profitability Index (PI)

2. Non-Discounted techniques(a) Payback Period (PBP)(b) Accounting Rate of Return (ARR)

Discounted TechniquesThe discounted technique takes into consideration both the time

value of money and total profit or cash inflow over a project’s life. Cash flows are considered and the timing of cash flows is taken into account by discounting them.

Discounting: This is finding out the value of future expenditure or income in today’s worth, given a rate of interestCompounding: This is finding out the value of today’s expenditure/ income in future worth, given a rate of interest.

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Net Present Value (NPV) MethodThe NPV method is the value obtained by discounting all cash outflows and cash inflows of a capital investment project by a chosen target rate of return or cost of capital. This method compares the cash inflows with the cash outflows for an investment.Mathematically, the NPV is gives as

N

Co= initial outlay

A1 = cash flow at time t = 1.

Decision rule1. If NPV of a project is positive, the project should be accepted2. If NPV equals Zero, the project breaks even and should be

accepted.3 If NPV is negative the project should be rejected

Advantages of NPV Method1. It is project oriented and takes into account time value of

money.2. It uses all cash flows occurring over the entire life of the

project 3. It gives a clear decision whether to accept or reject decision 4. It is useful in evaluating individual projects5. It is useful in ranking projects in capital rationing situation

Disadvantages of NPV Method1. It does not take risk into account

2. It is relatively more difficult to calculate3. It does not provide a measure of a project actual rate of

return4. It relies heavily on the estimation of cost of capitalExampleUdenu Local Government is considering two projects A and B with the following cash flows

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Time:Cash flow(N’000)

0 1 2 3 4 5

A 260 50 150 80 30 20B 240 80 100 120 120 60

Using NPV mthod advise the chairman of the Local Government. The cost of capital is 15%Solution:Zion Local Government

A BTime (DCF15%) Cash flow PV Cash flow PV0 1,0000 260 260 240 (240)1 0.8696 50 43 80 702 0.7561 150 113 100 763 0.6575 80 53 120 804 0.5718 30 17 120 695 0.4972 20 10 60 30 NPV (24) 85

Decision Rule: The Local Government should undertake Project B since the NPV is positive while project A should be rejected because NPV is negative.

Internal Rate of Return (IRR)The IRR method is the rate of returns that equate the present

value (PV) of future cash flows to the initial outlay. In other words, the IRR is the rate of return that gives an NPV of Zero. Thus, the rate can be derived by trial and error or interpolation.

Steps in calculating IRR1. Calculate the 1st NPV by making use of the cost of capital given.2. Calculate the 2nd NPV by choosing rates for the cost of capital that

will give an NPV close to zero.3. Several attempts may be needed in step II to find satisfactory rate

(trail and error exercise)4. Ideally, one NPV should be positive and one negative 5. Apply interpolation formula to get IRR

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IRR = R1 + P1 (R2-R1) P1 –P

Where:R1 = is the discount rate that gives positive NPVR2 = is the discount rate that produced negative NPVP1 = is the positive NPVP2 = is the negative NPV

Decision rule(i) If the IRR exceeds the cost of capital, the project will be

undertaken.(ii) If the IRR is less than the cost of capital, the project

should be rejected(iii) If the IRR is equal to the cost of capital the project can be

accepted.(iv) For mutually exclusive projects, we select a project with a

higher IRR, provided the IRR of that project is higher than the cost of capital

Advantages of IRR(i) It considers cash flows over the entire life of a project.(ii) It provides a margin for error(iii) It is a time-adjusted method,(iv) It has a psychological appeal to the user(v) The calculation of the cost of capital is not a pre-condition

for the use of this method(vi) It is consistent with the objective of maximizing the wealth

of shareholders.

Disadvantages of IRR(i) It does not consider risk(ii) It sometimes gives more than one result. That is, an

investment may have moreThan one IRR(iii) Using IRR when choosing between two or more

investments produces misleading results.

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Example Water Corporation cost of capital is 9%. Using IRR method advise the chairman of the board

SolutionWater Corporation Board of Godliness State

Year Cash flow DCF PV#’000 9%

0 (20,000) 1,0000 (20,000)1 8,000 0,9174 73392 8,000 0,8417 67343 8.000 0,7722 6178

NPV 251

Year Cash flow DCF PVN’000 12%

0 (20,000) 1,0000 (20,000)1 8,000 0,8929 71432 8,000 0,7972 363783 8.000 0,7118 5694

NPV (785)

The IRR, therefore, lies between 9% and 12%Apply the formula

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Decision rule: Invest only if the IRR is higher than the cost of capital. The Board should embark on the project since 9.7% (IRR) is greater 9% (cost of capital).

Profitability Index (PI) Profitability index is a measure of profit generated from a project in present value time expressed as a proportion of capital invested . It is a ratio that provides a ranking of alternative investments to the investor. It tends to estimate the total present value of future cash flows at the required rate of return over the initial cash outflows. It can be computed as follows.

(a) PI = Discounted Cash Inflow Discounted Cash Outflow Total concept

(b) PI = Discounted Cash inflow Initial Outlay

(c) PI = Net Present Value Net Concept Initial Cash Out lays

Definitions (a) and (b) are called total concept while definition (c) is called net concept. Under the total concept a project is viable if PI is greater than I, while under net concept a project is viable if PI is greater than O.

Advantages of PI1. It is a time-adjusted technique; it considers time value of

money 2. It facilitates the maximization of profit generated per capital3. It considers cash flow over the entire life span of the projectDisadvantagesIt assumes a capital rationing situation that can lead to a wrong result where capital is not a constraint

Illustration IBosere Local Government has the following information on time projects.

Projects Capital outlay Discounted cash flow

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NA 20,000 25,000B 30,000 36,000C 35,000 40,000D 40,000 47,000E 48,000 53,000

The projects are not mutually exclusive, and are also divisible. The council has only has only N80,000 to invest Advise the chairman of the council.

Solution to Illustration IBosere Local Government

Computation of Cost-Benefit RatioMethod 1: Cost –Benefit Ratio

Projects RankingA Benefit = 25,000 = 1.25 1st

Cost = 20,000 =B Benefit = 36,000 = 1.2 2nd

Cost = 30,000 =C Benefit = 40,000 = 1.14 4th

Cost = 35,000 =D Benefit = 47,000 = 1.18nd 3rd

Cost = 40,000 =E Benefit = 53,000 = 1.10 5th

Project Cost BenefitA 20,000 25,000B 30,000 36,000D 30,000 35,250 (3/4 x47,000

80,000 96,250

Method 2 Profitability Index

Projects Capital Outlay

DiscountedCash flow

NPV NPV/Capitaloutlay

Ranking

N NA 20,000 25,000 5,000 0.25 1st

B 30,000 36,000 6,000 0.20 2nd

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C 35,000 40,000 5,000 0.14 4th

D 40,000 47,000 7,000 0.18 3rdE 48,000 53,000 5,000 0.10 5th

Project Cost

Discounted cash flow

A 20,000 25,000B 30.000 36,000D 30,000 35,250

80,000 96,250

Advice = The Chairman of the Local Government should embark on

project A,B and part of project C, since the projects are divisible

Illustration III Capital Electricity Generation Board of Orelope State has

decided to undertake a programme of expansion. The Board has under consideration two mutually exclusive hydro-electricity dams and intends to invest in only one, which offers the greater optional plan. Each dam has a five-year life span. The first reservoir requires an initial capital investment of N420,000 million, while the second will need N840,000 million. The annual net cash in-flows, which are expected to rise from the construction of each of the dams, are as follows:Year First Dam Second Dam

N(Million) N(Million)1 90,000 300,0002 180,000 270,0003 180,000 270,0004 180,000 270,0005 72,000 162,000

Required:a. Calculate the Net Present Value of each of the two reservoirs,

assuming a 14 percent cost of capital.b. Calculate the payback period of the reservoirs. What is your

recommendation?

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c. Compare and comment on the result of your calculations under (a) and (b) above.

Note: Take discount factor to your (4) decimal places.

Solutiona. Calculation of Net Present Value

Capital Electricity Board

First Dam Second DamYear

Cost of Capital 14%

Cash flowN Million

PVN (Million)

Cash flowN(million)

PVN (Million)

0 1.0000 (420, 000) (420, 000) (840, 000)

(840, 000)

1 0.8772 90, 000 78, 948 300, 000 263, 1602 0.7695 180, 000 138510 270, 000 207,7653 0.6750 180, 000 121,500 270, 000 182,250 4 0.5921 180, 000 106,578 270, 000 159,8675 0.5194 72, 000 37,397 162, 000 84,143

62,933 NPV 57,185

b. Pay-back period

First DamTime Cash flows Cummulative

N(Million) Cash FlowsN(Million)

0 (420, 000) (420, 000)1 90, 000 (330, 000)2 180, 000 (150, 000)3 180, 000 30, 0004 180, 000 210, 0005 72, 000 282, 000

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Second DamTime Cash flows Cummulative

Cash FlowsN(Million) N(Million)

0 (840, 000) (840, 000)1 300, 000 (540, 000)2 270, 000 (270, 000)3 270, 000 0The payback period is 3 years

Recommendation: Based on payback period method, the first dam shall be recommended, because it has shorter payback period.

d. The first dam is the more viable option. It has a positive net present value of N31, 466 million, while the second dam has N28, 593 million. When compared under the payback period, the first dam has a shorter payback period of 2 years and 10 months, as against that of the second dam of 3 years. Based on both methods, the first dam is recommended in preference to the second.

Non-Discounted TechniquesNon-discounted techniques are otherwise known as the traditional methods which involve the use of Payback Period and Average Rate of Return methods.

Payback Period (PBP) MethodIt measures the length of time that cash return (inflow) from investment will be sufficient to recoup the initial capital outlay.

Decision Rulei. For the single project, the lower the PBP the better the project

when compared with a set standard.

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ii. When deciding between two or more competing projects the usual decision is to accept the one with the shorter PBP.

Advantages of PBPi. It is simple to calculate.ii. It is simple to understand.iii. It may be used as safeguard against risk.iv. It is less affected by uncertainty.v. It is less expensive.vi. It acts as a simple initial screening for project appraisal.

Disadvantages of PBP1. It ignores time value of money.2. To find a realistic PBP may be a problem.3. It disregards total cash inflow and so could favour projects with

a poor overall profitability just because they had a relatively large initial cash flow.

Example 1Universal Basic Education Board is considering two mutually exclusive projects A and B, which have the following capital investment and returns.

Year AN

BN

Cost 100,000 100,000Residual value after 5 years

Nil Nil

Yr 1 20,000 80,000 2 30,000 60,000 3 40,000 20,000 4 50,000 10,000 5 60,000 10,000

Calculate the payback period of each project. Which project should be accepted based on the criterion?

Solution to Example 1Year Project A Cummulative

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Cash flow Cash flow0 100,000 (100,000)1 20,000 (80,000)2 30,000 (50, 000)3 40,000 (10,000)4 50,000 40,0005 60,000 100,000

The PBP is between year 3 and 4

Time Project BCash flow

Cummulative Cash flow

0 (100,000) (100,000)1 80,000 (20,000)2 60,000 (40, 000)3 20,000 (60,000)4 10,000 70,0005 10,000 80,000

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CHAPTER TWENTY

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY (NEEDS)

Needs is Nigeria’s plan for prosperity it is the people’s way of letting the government know what kind of Nigeria they wish to live in, now and in the future. It is the government way of letting the people know how it plans to over the deep and pervasive obstacles to progress that the government and the people have identified. It is also a way of letting the international community know where Nigeria stands in the region and world and how it wishes to be supported.

In line with above, Nwakanma and Tadeferau (2004) noted that NEEDS is different from other economic reform programmes of the government before it in many respects. They noted that NEEDS a development programme that is based for the first time in Nigeria and with wide consultations participatory and bottom-up approach. According to them, all segment of society, labour, students, market women, small-scale entrepreneurs, the National Assembly from the grassroots to leadership, have endorsed the programme because all have made inputs into the formulating of NEEDS.

NEEDS is different from pervious development plans because it relies on a holistic view of the social and economic challenges facing Nigeria and offers a multi-prolonged approach to tackling them. Thus, it does not contain itself to specific sectors or limit itself to addressing only the challenges identified, instead, it looks at the big picture, examining how the challenges identified in each sector attract one another.

NEEDS, as a development plan is inspired by current challenges for change and vigorous growth, integrates economic development efforts at the Federal, State and Local government levels.

How NEEDS Differ from other Development plans

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NEEDS differs from earlier development plans in three important ways. First, it really is the people’s plan for prosperity. The process of writing this NEEDS plan reflects true partnership between the government and the people.

The process began in 2001, when people from all walks of life and all parts of Nigeria were given the chance to tell the government about their needs and ambitions. Information collected form farmers, labourers, factory owners, teachers and university professors, community-based organizations, charities, and other stakeholders was used to draft an Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper.

NEEDS builds on the information gathered for that strategy paper. We continued to consult with stakeholders in preparing the first draft of NEEDS. The government circulated the draft NEEDS in March 2004, asking the people for their comments and suggestions. This process gives us confidence that the final version of NEEDS reflects the true feelings of the Nigerian people about where the country stands today and how it should develop and grow over the next three years.

Second, NEEDS coordinates action at the federal and state levels. It connects problems on the ground with programmes at the federal and state levels. Each state drafts its own SEEDS, which identifies priority programmes for key areas of development.

This coordination is critically important when it comes to financing development programmes. For the first time in Nigeria, government and key beneficiaries will work at the national level to develop sector-wide strategies for key sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, solid minerals, and small and medium-scale enterprises. The federal government will be able to budget accurately for development programmes at the national and state levels.

Finally, NEEDS is a feasible plan. The fact that Nigerians have spent so much time and effort giving their views allowed the drafting committee to write a plan based on a thorough understanding of what life is like for people at all levels of society. The targets for progress are realistic, not “pie in the sky” objectives that will never be achieved. The targets are achievable, because they were set after taking into account the extent of the problems, the skills and funds needed to address them, and the amount of funding and expertise that can be mobilized over the next four years and beyond.

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NEEDS is fundamentally based on to a vision of Tomorrow’s Nigeria. Accordingly, the NEEDS vision is based on the constitution: the Kuru Declaration previous initiatives, such as vision 2010; and the widespread consultation and participation throughout Nigeria that was part of the NEEDS process.

What is NEEDSNEEDS- the National Economic Empowerment and

Development Strategy- is Nigeria’s plan for prosperity. It is the people’s ways of letting the government know what kind of Nigeria they wish to live in the future. It is the government’s way of letting the people know how it plans to overcome the deep and pervasive obstacles to progress that the government and the people have identified. It is also a way of letting the international community know where Nigeria stands- in the region and in the world-and how it wishes to be supported.

What is the vision for Nigeria? What kind of Nigeria do we want for ourselves, for our children, and for the rest of the world? These questions were our starting point in creating a plan for prosperity. In the three years it took to develop NEEDS, a dedicated team traveled the country, holding meetings and workshops to identify what the Nigerian people want for the future, what problems they face, and what can be done to overcome them.

NEEDS is the people’s plan. It is up to regular Nigerians as well as the government to see that it is implemented.

A Vision of Tomorrow’s NigeriaThe NEEDS vision is based on the constitution; the Kuru

Declaration (box 1); previous initiatives, such as Vision 2010; and the widespread consultation and participation throughout Nigeria that was part of the NEEDS process. The programme’s core values recognize the importance of respect for elders, honestly and accountability, cooperation, industry, discipline, self-confidence, and moral courage.

Before the restoration of democracy, Nigeria suffered setbacks that tarnished its reputation. A primary aim of NEEDS is to create a new Nigerian citizen who values hard work and who realizes that one cannot

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have something for nothing. Achieving this aim may be the strongest action Nigeria can take to build a better future for its people.

Box 1 The Kuru DeclarationThe 2001 Kuru Declaration embodies the vision we have for Nigeria: to build a truly great African democratic country, politically united, integrated and stable, economically prosperous, socially organized, with equal opportunity for all, and responsibility from all, to become the catalyst of (African) Renaissance, and making adequate all-embracing contributions, sub regionally, regionally, and globally.

Although Nigeria is rich in natural and human resources, 7 of every 10 Nigeria lives on less than $ 1 a day. NEEDS wishes to make poverty a thing of the past in Nigeria. It aims to create a Nigeria that Nigerians can be proud to belong to and grateful to inhabit, a Nigeria that rewards hard work, protects its people and their property, and offers its children better prospects than those they may be tempted to seek in Europe or the United States. All citizens, regardless of gender, race, religion, or politics, should feel that they have a stake in Nigeria’s future and that their loyalty and diligence will be rewarded. The NEEDS vision is also one in which Nigeria fulfils its potential to become Africa’s largest economy and a major player in the global economy.

How Can NEEDS Help Realize This Vision?NEEDS focuses on four key strategies: reorienting values,

reducing poverty, creating wealth, and generating employment. It is based on the notion that these goals can be achieved only by creating an environment in which business can thrive, government is redirected to providing basic services, and people are empowered to take advantage of the new livelihood opportunities the plan will stimulate (figure 1).

NEEDS sets out far-reaching public reforms that will make clear that corruption and graft will be punished. The National Orientation Agency and its state-level counterparts will be strengthened to lead a campaign to re-instil the virtues of honesty, hard work, selfless service, moral rectitude and patriotism. The campaign will draw on resources from a variety of government agencies, non government organizations (NGOs), and community-based organizations, including schools colleges, universities and private sector, religious, social, cultural, and traditional organizations.

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A NEEDS is about the Nigerian people. Their welfare, health, employment, education, political power, physical security, and empowerment are of paramount importance in realizing this vision of the future. To reduce poverty and inequality, the plan purposes acting on several fronts.. Offering farmers improved irrigation, machinery, and crop

varieties will help boost agricultural productivity and tackle poverty head on, since half of Nigeria’s poor people work in agriculture.

. Support small and medium-size enterprises will help create jobs. Together with the state economic empowerment and development strategies (SEEDS).NEEDS seeks to implement an integrated rural development programme to stem the flow of migration from rural to urban areas.

. Half of Nigeria’s people are children, the bridge to a prosperous future. NEEDS recognizes the importance of children by making the improvement of the education system a top priority.

. HIV/AIDS is a major social and health problem. It also threatens the country’s productivity and economy. The plan is to improve the system of health care delivery, with emphasis on HIV/AIDS and other prevent-able diseases, such as malaria, tuberculosis, and reproductive health-related illness.

. NEEDS calls for replacing the pension scheme, which is in crisis, with a contributory scheme. It proposes special programmes targeting people who have the weakest political voice and who are most vulnerable to the ravages of poverty. Laws and programmes will be implemented to empower women, children, the disabled and the elderly.NEEDS emphasizes the critical importance of improving infrastructure.

More –and more reliable–electricity and a new and better maintained network of roads will encourage business to expand.NEEDS gives special support to agriculture, industry, small and medium-scale enterprises, and oil and gas. Under the plan, the government will seek long-term capital for investment. Trade policy, so critical to Nigeria’s stake in the regional economy will be modified to unburden business of the red tape and complex procedures that hinder it from flourishing. NEEDS envisages forging stronger links between

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educational institutions and industry to stimulate rapid industrial growth and efficient exploitations of resources.

Empowering people: By allowing the private sector to thrive, NEEDS creates

opportunities for employment and wealth creation. It empowers people to take advantage of these opportunities by creating a system of incentives that reward hard work and punish corruption, by investing in education, and by providing special programmes for the most vulnerable members of society.

Promoting private enterprise: The private sector will be the engine of economic growth under

NEEDS. It will be executor, investor, and manager of businesses. The government will play the role of enabler, facilitator, and regular, helping the private sector grow, create jobs, and generate wealth. Deregulation and liberalization will diminish governmental control and attract private sector investment.

Changing the way the government does its work.NEEDS aims to restructure the government to make it smaller,

stronger, better skilled, and more efficient at delivering essential services. It seeks to transform the government from a haven of corruption to an institution that spurs development and serves the people.

The number of government jobs will decline, and the cost of running the government will fall dramatically, as in-kind benefits for civil servants, such as subsidized housing, transport and utilities, are

monetized. Reforms and regulations will be implemented to ensure greater transparency and accountability, and corrupt practices will be outlawed. Government activities and budgeting will be informed by a

frame work that connects policy with government income and expenditure.

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The Achievement of NEEDS so far We are already making progress

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NEEDS builds on the progress made between 1999 and 2003, it used the information and insights generated during the two-year effort to prepare the Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper and the wide consultative and participatory processes associated with it. The government has already delivered significant benefits.International relations Nigeria has reintegrated

with the regional and international community.

Nigeria is a founding member of the New Economic Partnership for African Development and the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

Nigeria is the current chair of the office of the Common wealth.

Nigeria has shown that it has strategic importance in Africa and is a source of stability in West Africa. It led an international peace keeping force to Liberia and Sierra Leone and is playing a continuing peace-keeping role in the subregion.

Infrastructure development Electricity generation in

Nigeria has doubled since 1999.

The number of telephone lines rose from just 400, 000 in 1999 to about 3 million in 2003.

Economic development Government support to

agricultural has boosted productivity. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Nigeria agriculture grew an unprecedented 7 percent in 2003.

Industrial capacity more than doubled, from 29 percent in 1999 to 60 percent in 2003

Income grew at an average rate of about 5 percent between 1999 and 2003- a significant increase over the 2.8 percent rate of growth during the 1990s.

Unemployment fell from 18 percent in 1999 to 10.8 percent in 2003, and 3.5 million new jobs were created.

Foreign direct investment in the nonoil sector grew at an average annual rate of 3.6 percent between 1999 and 2003.

Security The police force doubled

in size between 1999 and 2003.The government is committed to consolidating and expanding these achievements under NEEDS.

today and suggests how we can begin to solve them over the next four years and beyond. It sets realistic targets for progress and outlines a way of funding activities to achieve them.

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NEEDS is a development plan that integrates economic development efforts at the federal, state, and local government levels. It does not confine itself to specific sectors or limit itself to addressing only the major challenges identified. Instead, it looks at the big picture, examining how the challenges identified in each sector affect one another.

The plan enjoys widespread commitment, from the president to village chiefs. The government has set up a monitoring framework at the federal, state, and local government levels through commercial enterprises and community-based organizations. Using this frame work, it can check the progress it is making against the targets set out in NEEDS.

How is this Plan Different?NEEDS differs from earlier development plans in three important ways. First, it really is the people’s plan for prosperity. The process of writing this NEEDS plan reflects true partnership between the government and the people.

The process began in 2001, when people from all walks of life and all parts of Nigeria were given the chance to tell the government about their needs and ambitions. Information collected from farmers, labourers, factory owners, teachers and university professors, community-based organizations, charities, and other stakeholders was used to draft an Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy paper.

Needs builds on the information gathered for that strategy paper. We continued to consult with stakeholders in preparing the first draft of NEEDS. The government circulated the draft NEEDS in March 2004, asking the people for their comments and suggestions. This process gives us confidence that the final version of NEEDS reflects the true feelings of the Nigerian people about where the country stands today and how it should develop and grow over the next three years.

Second, NEEDS coordinates action at the federal and state levels. It connects problems on the ground with programmes at the federal and state levels. Each state drafts its own SEEDS, which identifies priority programmes for key areas of development.

This coordination is critically important when it comes to financing development programmes. For the first time in Nigeria, government and key beneficiaries will work at the national level to develop sector-wide strategies for key sectors, including agriculture,

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manufacturing, solid minerals and small and medium-scale enterprises. The federal government will be able to budget accurately for development programmes at the national and state levels.

Finally, NEEDS is a feasible plan. The fact that Nigerians have spent so much time and effort giving their views allowed the drafting committee to write a plan based on a thorough understanding of what life is like for people at all levels of society. The targets for progress are realistic, not “pie in the sky” objectives that will never be achieved. The targets are achievable, because they were set after taking into account the extent of the problems, the skills and funds needed to address them, and the amount of funding and expertise that can be mobilized over the next four years and beyond.

Key StrategiesNEEDS process achieving its goals in the following ways. Privatize, deregulate, and liberalize key sectors of the economy. Coordinate national sectoral development strategies for

agriculture, industry (especially small and medium-size enterprises), and services (especially tourism).

Develop infrastructure, especially electricity, transport, and water. Address the problems of financing the real sector, and mobilize

long-term savings and investment. Create effective regulatory regimes that include environment

standards. Target programmes to promote private sector growth and

development.

A major target of the current reform effort is the reduction of poverty. But the effects of some structural changes will be felt only after a lag. Medium-term growth performance is projected based on the assumption that given the reform efforts, almost every sector will perform better in the coming years. Stronger growth performance is expected as the private sector takes advantage of the different reform strategies and policies and as the government reduces its role in the economy and redresses the perverse incentive structure facing investors. Growth projections attach weights to different informal sector activities in order to capture the overall share of the sector in projected economic growth. Changes in agriculture will generally drive increases in growth.

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Critical to growth performance is improvement in power and other infrastructure; a reduction in the cost of doing business; creation of a more conductive investment environment, including security of life and property; and training and development of the human resources needed to increase capacity and productivity. Human resource development is needed to reduce the reliance on expatriates and increase the contribution of the local labour force in foreign investment.

Strong growth is expected in the primary and secondary sectors, particularly agriculture, manufacturing, and solid minerals. The manufacturing sector is expected to grow at least 7 percent a year between 2004 and 2007, while agriculture is expected to grow about 6 percent. Growth in other sectors may not be as strong as growth in the primary sector.Aggregate output for the four years of NEEDS is projected to increase 5 percent in 2004, 6 percent in 2005, 6 percent in 2006, and 7 percent in 2007. Output in the oil and gas sector is expected to remain unchanged. The projected decline in oil production as Nigeria maintains its OPEC quota is expected to be offset by increases in gas production, leaving net output in the sector unchanged. Growth of the nonoil sector, the major target of the diversification effort, is expected to rise from 6.8 percent in 2003 to more than 9 percent in 2007

Annual private consumption is expected to grow 4.8 percent in real terms. With projected population growth rate of 2.8 percent, this will mean a 2 percent growth in annual real per capital consumption. At the same time, public consumption expenditure is expected to steadily decline. Investible resources will be reallocated from the public sector to the private sector, and the investment pattern by both government and private investor will change. For example, with agriculture as a priority area in the medium term, the government will increase incentives for investment in the sector.

Factors that prevent National Development and ProgressThe National Planning Commission identified the factor that

prevents progress to include:-

Poverty and inequality The plan for prosperity must address a startling paradox: about

two-thirds of the Nigerian people are poor, despite living in a country with vast potential wealth. Although revenues from crude oil have been

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increasing over the past decades, our people have been failing deeper into poverty. In 1980 an estimate 27 percent of Nigerians lived in poverty. By 1999, about 70 percent of the population had income of less than $1 a day - and the figure has risen since then. Poverty levels vary across the country, with the highest proportion of poor people in the northwest and the lowest in the southeast.

Why are so many of our people poor? Poverty is dynamic and has many dimensions. People may move in and out of poverty as a result of natural disasters or health problems, lack access to credit, or the lack of natural resources. Poor people are more likely to live in rural areas, be less educated, and have larger families than the rest of the population.

Poverty has many causes, all of which reinforce one another. One source of poverty is the lack of basic services, such as clean water, education, and health care. Another is lack of assets, such as land, tools, credit and supportive networks of friends and family. A third is lack of income, including food, shelter, clothing, and empowerment (political power, confidence, dignity). Some of these factors directly affect poverty. Other contribute indirectly, by producing inequality – by stifling the political power of certain sectors of the population, for example, or denying them their dignity or human rights. All of these factors are affected by the environment in which people live. Discrimination on the grounds of gender, race, disability, age, or ill health increase vulnerability to poverty. So do natural or human-caused shocks-market collapses, conflicts, droughts, or floods.

The many strands of poverty intertwine and can pull people into a downward spiral. Because tackling one factor may not be enough to lift a family out of poverty, an effective poverty-reduction strategy must attack poverty on all fronts at the same time. Poverty is not the same as inequality, but solving the problems of inequality, but solving the problems of inequality can help lift people out of poverty. One of the key ways in which NEEDS is different from previous development plans is that it relies on a holistic view of the social and economic challenges facing Nigeria and offers a multi-pronged approach to tackling them.

Weak and Inappropriate Public SectorNigeria’s legacy of mismanagement and corrupt governance has

encouraged many people to seek ways of sharing the national cake

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instead of helping bake it. By 1999 corruption was practically institutionalized. Government was widely regarded as a provider of large contracts, distributed by officers in power to people wealthy enough to buy their influence. This was particularly so in the case of the oil industry. Over time, the judiciary became intimidated, as the rich and powerful manipulated laws and regulations to their advantage. Instead of engaging in productive activities that would help our economy grow, people chose instead to peddle their influence and position. The legitimacy and stability of the state suffered, as people began to devise ways to survive that lay outside the law.

Poor Economic ManagementPerhaps the greatest hindrance to progress has been the boom-

and-bust mode of economic management, encouraged by the dominance of oil in the economy. Past governments allowed oil income to influence spending: when income was high, spending was high, while dips in oil prices were treated as temporary. Together with poor coordination between federal and state governments in budgeting and expenditure, this practice led to spiraling debt. Today all tiers of government spend far more than they earn; the deficit for the past five years alone amounts to more than N1 trillion. With external and domestic debt of 70 percent of GDP, current revenue is largely eaten up just by debt service.

Nigeria has one of the weakest economies in the world, and it has lost decades of development as a result of slow economic growth. Despite oil export earning of about $ 300 billion since the mid-1970s, average income in 2000 was 20 percent lower than in 1975. Despite the mounting debt burden, past governments did not control public expenditure. Policies were not coordinated within federal departments or between federal and state governments. As a result, the national plan and budget have little relevance today as a guide to funding and implementing development programmes.

Hostile Environment for Private Sector GrowthOverdependence on oil and traditional sectors, such as

agriculture and services, is partly due to the hostile business environment. Businesses wishing to operate in Nigeria face many constraints, including poor infrastructure, particularly road networks and electricity supply; inadequate physical security; corruption; weak enforcement of contracts, and the high cost of finance. These factors

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have deterred foreign entrepreneurs from investing in Nigeria and induced many Nigerians to take their money and skills abroad.How will Needs change things

The success of NEEDS rests on three pillars: empowering our people, creating an environment that enables us to make the most of our natural resources and fair for business, and reforming our laws and the way our government works.Empowering People

Meeting the needs of our people and nation is the primary aim of the plan for prosperity. NEEDS insists that every Nigerian has the right to adequate water and sanitation, nutrition, clothing, shelter, basic education, and health care, as well as physical security and the means of making a living. NEEDS proposes a contract between the Nigerian people and their government in the form of a social charter, or bargain. This charter recognizes the people’s rights to government services that provide basic needs for life. In return, the people agree to work hard and honesty to make NEEDS a success. In formalizing the contract between the people and the government. NEEDS empowers the people to challenge the government if it does not keep its side of the bargain.

NEEDS recognizes that poverty has many strands and must therefore be tackled from several different directions at once. It recognizes that the government must work not only to improve incomes but to tackle the many other social and political factors that contribute to poverty. These are very difficult to separate and are therefore often thought of as a bundle of factors that result in social exclusion. A poorly educated farmer is less likely to know how to keep his family healthy and less able to find alternative employment. As a result, he is more vulnerable to external shocks, such as drought or falling market prices. NEEDS empowers the poor by tackling social exclusion head on, paying particular attention to generating jobs to improve incomes, housing, health care, education, political power, and physical security.

To improve the lives of the Nigerian people, NEEDS includes plans for creating jobs, creating affordable housing, improving health care services, strengthening the skill base, protecting the vulnerable, and promoting peace and security.Creating jobs: At 5.3 percent, the rate of urbanization in Nigeria is among the highest in the world. Since manufacturing is stagnant, there are few jobs for the growing urban population, and urban unemployment is currently estimated at 10.8 percent. The major focus

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of NEEDS is therefore economic empowerment. NEEDS policies will create about 7 million new jobs by 2007 by making it easier for private enterprises to thrive, by training people in skills relevant for the world of work, and by promoting integrated rural development in collaboration with the states (through their SEEDS programmes). Creating affordable housing: Nigeria needs more houses that average Nigerians can afford. To address the problem, NEEDS will take several steps: Make it easier for developers to buy land on which to build

affordable housing. Cut the cost of building houses by encouraging the use of

local building materials. Train a new generation of architects in designing low-cost

housing. Enable construction companies and local and state

governments to assume responsibility for providing low-cost housing.

Improving health care services: NEEDS will fully review health care services in order to design

a strong national health system that can deliver effective, good-quality, and affordable services to all Nigerians. The new policies will target priority diseases, such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and reproductive health-related illnesses. A stronger emphasis on health education will help make Nigerians more aware of their rights and obligations regarding health services as well as promote disease prevention. NEEDS will also prioritize the creation of a National Health Insurance Scheme and a Blood Transfusion Service. It will support the establishment of a strong manufacturing base for essential drugs and reagents. Antenatal, postnatal, and family planning services and outlets will receive targeted support in order to reduce maternal and infant mortality.

Strengthening the skill base. Nigeria’s future prosperity depends on producing children who

are well prepared to take their place in tomorrow’s society. The NEEDS strategy therefore seeks to implement the Universal Basic Education law

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in order to increase school enrolment and provide better schools and colleges and better-trained teachers and trainers. Specifically, NEEDS will ensure that more funds are spent on: Providing courses that build vocational and entrepreneurial

skills. Building technical schools and buying equipment. Improving training and exposure to information and

communication technology at all levels. Making French compulsory from primary through secondary

schools. Providing special distance learning programmes for specific

segments of the population, including nomadic peoples.NEEDS will promote strict adherence to the University Autonomy Act, which permits universities to attract private-sector funding and institute new mechanisms to cover their operating costs. The courses taught at universities will be changed to reflect the priority demands of the economy. Science and technology, particularly information and communications technology, will be mainstreamed. Innovative approaches will be developed to ensure that lecturers have access to continuing professional development so that they remain at the cutting edge of their disciplines. Wages will be linked to performance, and students will be exposed to mobilization and reorientation campaigns that emphasize the critical importance of hard work, discipline, and selfless service.

Protecting the vulnerable: In addition to these comprehensive measures, special attention

must was be paid to particularly vulnerable groups. NEEDS provide a safety net that will prevent people from becoming poor or poorer. Special programmes will protect the rural and urban poor, people living with HIV/ AIDS, women, widows, and widowers, and victims of ethnic violence, crime, unemployment, or loss of income (table 1)

Promoting Peace and Security: To promote peace and security, a national action plan will:

Reform the security sector. Reorient police officers to offer more people-friendly service.

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Establish an early warning and response system that will detect conflicts.

Provide a fairer allocation of revenues and responsibilities between federal and state governments.

Mainstream conflict prevention by establishing structures and processes that promote a peaceful culture.

Promoting Private EnterpriseIf the private sector is to become Nigerian’s engine of growth,

its motor needs to be primed. The government has to make certain fundamental changes to create an environment in which business will thrive. In the language of economists, it has to create a macroeconomic framework –a kind of overarching, national house keeping budget- that will ensure that Nigeria makes the most of what it earns as a nation, that it spends only what it can afford, and that all levels of government use the same budget.

NEEDS proposes that the government not spend more than it takes in, not pay for unbudgeted programmes or projects, not purchase goods or services that do not contribute to Nigeria’s development. It also suggests increasing tax revenues to pay for basic services. Under NEEDS the government will try to stabilize the values of the naira and create a system to ensure that it has sufficient foreign.

Targeted Instruments for Protecting Vulnerable GroupGroup Instrument and InterventionsRural poor Access to credit and land; participation in decision making: agricultural extension services; improved seeds, farm inputs, and implements; strengthening of traditional thrift, savings and insurance schemes Urban poor Labour-intensive public works schemes; affordable housing, water, and sanitation; skill acquisition and entrepreneurial development; access to

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credit; scholarships and adult education. Women Affirmative action (to increase women’s representation to at least 30 percent) in all programmes; education, including adult education; scholarships; access to credit and land; maternal and child health.Youth Education, entrepreneur development, skill acquisition, access to credit, prevention and control of HIV/ AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.Children Children’s Parliament, juvenile justice administration, universal basic education, education for girls, care of orphans and vulnerable children (children affected by HIV/ AIDS), prevention and treatment of childhood diseases.Rural communities Water, rural roads, electricity, schools, health facilities, communications.

Exchange to buy the goods it needs from other countries.Under NEEDS, the government will: Diversity the economy away from oil and solid minerals in

order to increase economic stability and generate jobs. Privatize, deregulate, and liberalize publicly owned industries to

promote competition, expand industries, generate employment, create wealth, and receive value for money.

Develop infrastructure, particularly power generation, transport, and telecommunications infrastructure, to stimulate growth of the private sector.

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2NEEDS proposes the following strategies to stabilize and rationalize public spending, increase domestic savings and private investments, and address the issue of public debt: Adopt a medium-term expenditure framework to

ensure predictable and sustainable public financing at all levels of government.

Implement tax reforms to increase revenues. Enact a Fiscal Responsibility Pact to ensure the

coordination of government expenditure across all tiers of government.

Adopt an oil price-based fiscal rule and a fund for excess revenues from crude oil sales.

Adopt a public expenditure rule that prohibits the deficit from exceeding 3 percent of GDP.

Many of Nigeria’s laws and regulations stifle private enterprise. NEEDS seeks to simplify import and export procedures to make importing and exporting a less daunting prospect and to increase the turnover of business in the sector. The reform programmes will also: Increase access to credit. Implement a coherent and consistent trade policy. Implement the comprehensive tax reform bill to eliminate

multiple taxation and remove barrier to the growth of a vibrant private sector.

Hold regular dialogue will private sector operators and participate in economic planning based on market principles.

Grant land use rights and facilitate private sector development in the area of social and environmental responsibility (box 3).

Empower indigenous small and medium-size enterprises by imposing minimum quotas for local produce in tendering and procurement processes.

Improving infrastructure: Reforms in the transport sector aim to complete the 3,000- kilometer network of roads and strengthen the Roads Maintenance Agency, which overseas the repair and rehabilitation of some 500 roads. The government aims to develop the country’s sea ports to handle modern shipping activities, upgrade the railways, and achieve total radar coverage of Nigerian airspace.

Power alone accounts for 5 percent of new business start-up costs. Simply providing more and more reliable power could triple the

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amount Nigerian industries produce by 2007. Under NEEDS the National Electric Power Authority, a government enterprise, will be unbundled into district business units, which will eventually be privatized. The industry will be regulated by a new regulatory agency, and a fund will be set up to increase access to electric power in rural areas.

Many people in Nigeria spend one to three hours a day collecting water for domestic use. Providing them with access to safe water can offer them the chance to use those hours in more

Maintaining the Environment Nigeria is endowed with a rich and diverse natural environment, but over the years it has reaped its riches with insufficient care of the livelihoods and well-being of future generations. NEEDS will address several areas of concern: Waste production and

disposal. Development has proceeded with no regard for waste management or pollution control. Cities have inadequate systems for the safe disposal and treatment of waste. As rural emigration to urban areas grows, the problem worsens.

Deforestation. Some 92,000 hectares- a quarter of our land-was once covered in forest. Today just half of our forests remain, and the potential for their future exploitation is extremely limited.Deforestation has been followed by erosion and desertification in some areas.

Conservation of unique habits. Nigeria has two-thirds of Central Africa’s mangrove stands and wetlands. These are among the most important mangrove habitats in the world, but they are under threat from exploitation of timber, oil spills, gas flaring, and the impacts of increasing coastal urbanization.

Pollution and other problems. Our environmental laws are inadequate and are not enforced. We do not know how much biodiversity has been lost as a result of oil and gas development.

NEEDS aims to turn this bleak picture around by establishing a regulatory agency to enforce environmental laws, monitor industry compliance, conduct environmental audits and impact assessments, and set standards.NEEDS seeks to develop a private-public sector partnership scheme to address the increasing problems of waste management.

economically productive activities. NEEDS aims to increase access to safe drinking water for at least 60 percent of the population.

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Promoting industry: NEEDS proposes developing the industrial sector by relying more on local resources and less on imports. It will be guided by a local research and development strategy that seeks to promote sciences and technology-based small and medium-size enterprises. These enterprises will be developed in science and technology parks and technology incubation centres. They will focus on food processing, industrial chemicals, information and communication technologies, biotechnology, electronics and space technology, and energy, oil and gas.A major policy thrust of NEEDS is the idea that Nigeria should stop squandering its natural resources by selling them as crude products. The more these products can be processed within Nigeria, the more jobs they will create and the more expert earnings they will generate. NEEDS sets ambitious targets for the sector: 7 percent annual growth, 70 percent capacity utilization, and 70 percent of investment made by the private sector by 2007.Improving agriculture: Agriculture is Nigeria’s second-largest sources of national wealth, after oil. NEEDS will promote the cultivation of improved, higher yielding crop varieties and provide extra support to agricultural research and training. NEEDS aims to encourage business interests to provide credit and supply and distribute agricultural inputs, such as seeds, fertilizers, and machinery. Silo complexes will be refurbished to increase the capacity of the food reserve programme and move closer to food security. Promoting other sectors: NEEDS will promote programmes that develop information and communication technology, tourism and entertainment and financial services. Proposed trade policy reforms will aggressively promote exports and harmonize tariffs with regional trade organizations while protecting local industries. The plan also envisages developing a deep seaport, free trade zones, and a shipbuilding facility in order to boast coastal shipping, international trade, and regional integration.Changing the way the Government Does its workNEEDS seeks to restore trust in government as a facilitator of development, an institution that creates or maintains an environment that enables Nigerians to implement livelihood strategies and achieve personal goals. The government has to stop trying to run businesses and redirect its effort to providing essential services. It must sell off the

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business currently under its control in order to free up labour and funds that it can use to improve basic services.

Changing the way the government works is a colossal task, but NEEDS will build on processes that have already begun to make a difference. The administration has already put several essential building blocks in place. In privatization and liberalization, the government has auctioned licences and begun the process of attracting private investment in areas such as power generation and infrastructure development. To prevent nepotism, favouritism, and corruption, the government has transformed the process by which private companies bid for government contracts. It established the new Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit, which reviews, oversees, and certifies government contracts to ensure value for money. Commonly known as “due process”, this mechanism has already saved the Treasury hundreds of millions of naira.

The government has also instituted massive anticorruption campaigns and established the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Crimes Commission and the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, which outlaw corrupt practices. The government is committed to the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, which encourages oil companies to fully disclose revenues and costs of operations. The government’s televised auction of digital mobile licences was hailed as one of the most transparent licence auctions in the world.

Under NEEDS, the government will build on these efforts by: Strengthening and modernizing the anti-corruption

organizations it has established . Exposing unethical and illegal practices and punishing those

who engage in them. Encouraging organizations to adopt and publish formal codes of

ethics. Establishing formal training in ethics and fostering leadership

by example. Enacting a Fiscal Responsibility Pact and a Right to Information

Act. The Fiscal Responsibility Pact will require government agencies to publish annual audited accounts within six months of their financial year end and set up a revenue stabilization fund

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into which windfall revenues will be transferred. The Right to Information Act will promote openness and feed back. To reform the bureaucracy, the government has begun cutting

civil service benefits. The government has monetized benefits such as utility services, domestic assistance, and drivers and reduced the incentive for corruption by offering civil servants higher wages, bonuses, and improved working conditions.

NEEDS policies will encourage all levels of government to adopt an annual budget framework and guidelines. The guidelines will promote balanced budgets, implementation of priority programmes, budget discipline, cost effective-ness, and the generation of internal revenues and savings. A peer review mechanism will enable heads of government agencies to compares their performance and nurture a common culture of excellence. The Joint Planning Board, the Joint Tax Board, and the National Economic Council will work together to achieve a more effective system of economic management. The NEEDS period should be characterized by the punctual release of annual budgets. As participants in the plan for prosperity, the Nigerian people will be kept informed of how well these measures are performing by the press and by special reports.

How is NEEDS Implemented?Effective implementation of policies and programmes is key to the success of NEEDS. Implementation defines the process, institutional framework, and instruments for translating aspirations, goals, and programmes into action and concrete results. Critical to successful implementation is an effective institutional framework, particularly a public service dedicated to excellence and supportive of reforms. Equally important is adequate infrastructure and an enabling environment for private investment. Other Critical factors are education, health care, and abiding commitment to change.

As a necessary complement to NEEDS, state governments are developing State Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (SEEDS). Local governments are also being encouraged to develop medium-term development programmes, specifying benchmarks, targets, deliverables, timelines, and implementation guides. These plans will complement SEEDS and NEEDS recognizes that effective local levels planning is critical to reduces inefficient resources allocation and to ensure integrated rural development and poverty reduction.

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Institutional FrameworkThe institutional framework for implementing NEEDS

recognizes the importance of coordination among the federal government (NEEDS), the states (SEEDS), and local government levels for achieving the national development goals (figure 2). State governments (through the National Economic Council and the National Council on Development Planning) constitute an integral part of the implementation, monitoring, and evaluation framework. The system is cohensive and provides for interaction with all stakeholders. At the apex are the President, the Vice-President, and the National Assembly. The Federal Executive Council and National Economic Council consider all matters pertaining to implementing NEEDS and SEEDS, presenting periodic reports to the President and the National Assembly.

A key institution is the Independent Monitoring Committee. The committee-chaired by the Secretary to the Government of the Federation and composed of government officials, representatives of the private sector, the press, and civil society-monitors and evaluates implementation of NEEDS and SEEDS programmes and projects. It informs the National Assembly of its findings and reports to the President and the National Economic Council for appropriate action. The committee will post quarterly reports on performance on the Nigerian economy web site (www. Nigeriaeconomy.com). A summary of the findings will also be disseminated to the Nigerian people, through print and electronic media. Members of the National

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Presidency


Source: National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy NEEDS

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Independent Monitoring Committee

National Economic Council

National Assembly

National Planning Commission/ NEEDS Secretariat

Public-private partnership (Peer Review Mechanis), National Council on Development Planning Board, SEEDS, labour, private sector, and civil society

Federal Executive Council

Private sector donor community, others

Service delivery unit

Line ministries and public enterprises

Ministry of Finance and Central Bank


Economic Council will use the results of the monitoring and evaluation to fine-tune implementation in their states. The reports of the National Economic Council review will also be forwarded to the National Assembly and the President.

The Secretariat of NEEDS is located at the National Planning Commision, which will coordinate the implementation framework, other critical agencies are the Joint Planning Board, the National Council on Development Planning, and the National Council.

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CHAPTER TWENTY ONE

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RURAL AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

The Nature and Characteristics of Rural Area Rural areas in Nigeria are characterized by oppression, degradation and deprivation. Abah (2001) noted that one common feature of all developing or under developed countries is widespread poverty. Thus, the most evident display of Nigeria’s under developed condition is the rural area .According to Obiukwu (1992), “the rural population constitutes the Nigerian peasantry, the Nigerian poor and the country’s largest illiterate groups. Their typology that Frantz/ fanon referred to as “ the wretched of the earth ,” whose endless striving for survival has not been helped by low incomes , inadequate infrastructure, lack of industry and lack of innovations in from practices (Abah 2000 ) All they are good at according to Sam Aluko is not line up receive and dance for local government chairman , state governors and commissioners if and when they visit their areas. Commenting on the economic social and physical condition of the rural area Okeli et al (2002) noted that the rural people have fever, opportunities for education , employment and good living .they lack economic and social amenities such as good roads, electricity, pipe-born water , hospital , bridges , banks, industries , telephone etc. the generally concluded that the rural communities are poor and line and are therefore referred to as economically underdeveloped . The rural society is marked by relative predominance of agricultural occupation, by the closeness of the people to natural environment as contrasted with a human environment smallness of its command aggregate by less internal differentiation and occupational and by less territorial occupational and vertical social mobility of the population. Individuals in rural areas have fever contacts with others that are outside their setting due to communication problems. They associate with people from smaller geographical and social areas. A greater proportion of their contact is face to face. (Obi and Chukwuemeka , 2006 ) . The rural poor a heterogeneous group including small- scale farmers, the landless nomads, pastoralists and fishermen, but they share common disabilities: limited assets; poverty, malnutrition environmental vulnerability and lack of access to public service, poor medical facilities, persistence of local endemic disease –sometimes without cure; a dependent deprived womenfolk, unproductive, subsistence agriculture; etc, Poor education is another features of Nigerian rural areas , the privilege of education which for instance is supposed to be a birth right of every Nigerian child is an illusion to many poor rural dwellers Okoli et al (2002) noted that in

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some places, there are no schools at all and in some others the school are ill-equipped and poorly staffed.

Features of Rural AreaThere are a number of features, which are associated with rural life.

Some are examined below.

Smallness in Size: The sizes of rural communities are usually small when compared with

urban communities or settlements. Some scholars refer to the rural community as little community.

Intimate Relationship: There is community consciousness which gives rise to a sense of unity

that makes their relationship to be intimate. There is a strong bond of togetherness and fellowship. There is face to face interaction as they know one another personally. They possess common culture, custom, conventions and jointly take part in religious celebrations. The village community is structurally and functionally a unit.

Agriculture is the main Occupation: The economy of the rural area is predominantly agrarian. In other

words, agriculture is the fundamental occupation of the rural communities. The members of the entire family share in this function year in year out. According to Nelson in Esenfor (1992), farming is a family enterprise. Almost everybody takes part in this family enterprise.

Homogeneity of Population: Rural communities are homogeneous in nature. There is the element

of sameness among the people, as one can also trace another to the parents because the sameness is there.

Social Mobility: Rural communities are not as mobile as their urban counterparts. This

is because occupants in the rural communities are limited. The people in the rural communities hardly move from one social status to another.

High Social Solidarity: This is one of the characteristics of the rural communities as there is

high degree of solidarity. This close neighbourhood relationship in the village leads people to share one another’s joy as well as sorrows. Life is also very simple in the rural communities.

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Class Extremities: Urban communities are characterized by class extremities. There are

the poor as well as the rich. There are people of abject poverty, living on pavements, bridges and hardly can get three meals a day. At the other extreme are those living in fluency. Also in existence in the cities are chronic unemployment and idleness caused by overpopulation.

Secondary Relationship: A major characteristics of the urban communities is secondary

relationship. People relate on the basis of the function they perform or what they can do for one another, in other words relationships is seen as a means to an end and not an end itself. There is low degree of intimacy.

Social Heterogeneity: There exist wide economic and cultural differences in urban

communities. This brings people from different parts of the earth together and are useful to one another.

Diversity of Occupation: There is also diversity in occupation in urban communities, unlike the

rural communities where agriculture is the main occupation. Here people take to different occupations which give rise to division of labour and specialization.

High Socialization: People move from one occupation to another and from one social class

to another and change in social status.

Over Population: Urban communities are densely populated as a result of rural-urban

migrant. This causes other vices in the society. Example is increase in crime rate.

The Major Characteristics of Urban and Rural Areas in Nigeria S/N RURAL AREAS URBAN AREAS1 Wealth:

Poorer and sometimes extreme poverty

Richer in wealth or show greater affluence

2 Industry:Agriculture based on land

Factories and various kinds of industries

3 Water Supply: Stream water where it exists,

More abundant good sources of water supply for homes and streets

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otherwise virtually non. Existing ones stinks because of pollution.

(Although some of the taps in urban areas are now dry).

4 Employment opportunity:Farming, mason, tapping of palm wine, petty trading, tailoring, etc.

Abundant jobs in industries, Ministries, firms, private business etc.

5 Sanitation and Sewage System:Inadequate sanitation and sewage system.

Better sanitation and sewage system.

6 Electricity: Virtually non existence.

Elaborate electrification system.

7 Communication / Transportation:Inadequate system of transportation mainly bicycles, motorcycles, rejected buses and foot. Non-telephone, where they exist, difficult to get dialing tones.

Adequate system of transportation ranging from good buses, planes, trains (in some areas with) rail lines, taxis bicycle motorcycles and many posh private cars.

8 Educational Institutions Schools:Poor schools with inadequate facilities and unqualified teachers mainly primary and secondary schools.

Richer, better-equipped schools. Have many primaries, secondary schools and even universities and other higher institutions of learning.

9 Social Amenities:a. Access Roads:

Poor and dilapidated roads,b. Recreational facilities;

Virtually non-existent. No centers like the stadium, standard hotels, clubs and cinema. Where these exist, they will be few in number and ill-equipped.

a. First class tarred and clean roads but sometimes (and infact most times now) not maintained.

b. Abundant entertainment enters of first class standard.

source

Rural DevelopmentThe United Nations Development Programme defined rural development as a process of socio-economic change involving transformation of agrarian society

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in order to achieve a common set of development goals based on the capacities and needs of the people.

Rural development is a strategy for bringing about desirable socio-economic, cultural, institutional and technological changes for developing human and natural resources and for upliftment of the standards of living of all peasants in the rural traditional societies.

According to the World Bank (1975), rural development is “a strategy designed to improve the economic and social conditions of a specific group of people the rural poor. it involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek livelihood in the rural area”.Abah (2000) sees rural development as a process of planned change for which one approach or the other is adopted for improvement and / or transformation of the lot of the rural populace. It is a process of ensuring that the poorer section of the population has some share in the fruits of economic activity Mabogunje (1980). Rural development is concerned with the improvement of the living standards of the low income people living in the rural area of a self-sustaining basis through transforming the socio-spatial structures of their productive activities. It implies a broad based reorganization and mobilization of the rural masses and resources, so as to enhance the capacity of the rural populace to cope effectively with the daily tasks of their lives and with the changes consequent upon this.

This definition has three important features:

Improving the living standards of the subsistence population: This involves the mobilization and allocation of resources so as to

reach a desirable balance over time between the welfare and productive services available to the rural subsistence populations.

Mass Participation: This requires that resources be allocated to low income regions and

classes and that the productive services actually reach them.

Making the Process Self-Sustaining: This requires the development of appropriate skills and implementing

capacity and the presence of institutions at the local, regional and national levels to ensure effective use of existing resource and to ensure effective development not reaching the rural people through development progranmes. (Uma Lele, 1975:17).

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According to Ndukwe (2005), rural development is the restructuring of the economy in order to satisfy the material needs and aspirations of the rural masses, and to promote individual and collective incentives to participate in the process of the development. the objective of rural development includes to improve income distribution, increased productivity, improved food for self-sufficiency and the provision of basic needs and amenities and full productive employment. The major aim is to improve the living standard of the rural masses with a view to participating in the transformation of the rural area.

The Overseas Development Institute sees rural development as “the improvement of living conditions in rural areas, through the increased productivity of agricultural and related enterprise and if it is to the benefit of the lower income earners, the equitable and fair distribution of the wealth as created, must take into account the need to maintain a balance between individual consumption and improvement in communal social services.

Aslam, (1981) defines rural development as “a process aimed at developing the rural poor , their economy and institutions from a state of stagnation or low productivity equilibrium into dynamic process leading to higher level of living a better quality of life”.

To Schumacher (1983) see rural development as “developing the skills of the masses to make them self-reliant through instruction which supply appropriate and relevant knowledge on the methods of self-help”.

For us, rural development is process of social change intended to transform the living standards of the rural dwellers, through mass participation and initiative. Thus rural development involves the participation of the rural populace, in identifying their needs, and also in formulating and implementing programmes and policies aimed to resolving them.

The overall aim of rural development is to extend the benefits of developing to the rural poor, in a process which involves them.

Objectives of Rural DevelopmentDiscussion in this section will be adapted from Obodoechi (2006)

Within the context of developing economics the objectives of rural development include the following:

1. Elimination / Reduction of Rural Poverty: This is perhaps the total embodiment of what rural development efforts are expected to achieve. In Nigeria for instance it has been shown that over 70% of the rural population are living below poverty line. This rural poverty stricken follows comprise of small farmers, landless tenant farmers and those in the informal sector. The reality of their poverty situation is demonstrated by their inability to save and therefore cannot generate any capital for investment, which implies that they will remain in a

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state of poverty. Again it has equally been shown that the high level of malnutrition, illiteracy and disease observed in the rural areas are positively related to low income. In order therefore to brake the villions cycle and liberated the rural man from the York of poverty, there must be planned development directed to the rural areas.

2. Elimination of Rural Unemployment: Provision of rural employment is the core of rural development. in rural Nigeria, there is scarcity of employment opportunities while seasonal employment, disguised unemployment and under employment are common features. This lack of employment opportunities arises from inequalities and imbalances in infrastructural development as well as from the low investments in rural areas. The crime rate of the urban centres could remotely be connected with this phenomenon. To remedy this situation there is need for an organized and planned approach to the provision of different types of productive opportunities in the rural areas.

3. Elimination of Major Inequalities both within Rural Sector and between Rural and urban sectorApart from inequalities in income distribution in the rural areas, there is also inequality in access to economic social and political opportunities as well as inequality in the distribution of the cost and benefits of development.These imbalances in access to jobs, education, factorial of production and political representations are intra-rural, inter-rural and more glaring between rural and urban areas. The spatial inequality is a consequences of the over concentration of projects and investments in some area to the neglect of others. When we therefore work perspective it could be argued and correctly too, that spatial restructuring of the rural landscape through rural development is basic to increased accessibility and promotion of spatial equity through which rural dwellers will be opportuned to reap the fruits of development.

4. Minimization and Eventual Elimination of Rural urban MigrationRural urban migration is a direct consequence of imbalance in the development of the economic opportunities between the urban areas. The development experience of Nigeria and perhaps most African countries reveals that the pattern of colonial exploitation through the introduction of money economy, taxation and crash crop and above

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all, by concentralizating jobs and essential socio-economic bases for survival from rural urban areas created the urban-rural pull.Rural-urban migration has resulted in quite a number of social problems in the form of urban squalor, crime/cellinquency unemployment and over crowding often leading

5. Participation of the Entries Rural population in Rural Development processDevelopment planning and implementation in Nigeria have been carried out by the bureaucrat with the result that the people for whom the projects are planned never showed interest thereby leading to failures. The concept and philosophy of rural development call for the involvement of the rural people from the time of project to the period of evaluation. With this approach the aspirations of the people will be captured in the plan. More importantly any plan miscarriage will be appreciated by all the parties to the plan. The rural people must also participate in financing and the administration of rural development programmes. This approach creates sense of belonging in the rural dwellers. It sis an acceptable fact that vitalization of rural development planning can meet the requirement of the target group and create more effective feed back mechanism.

CommunityAccording to Cox et al (1987), the term “community” is a word with

many meanings and uses. For example, it can be defined as “a relatively small isolated centre with a stable population, in which all economic and social services necessary to life can be maintained” (Bensman, 1994) This definition sees community as a unit of solutions to problems in society as well as a process through which people take initiatives and actions collectively.

Similarly, a community is viewed in terms of all the people or a group of people living within a specific geographical area, such as a village, a town, a city, a neighbourhood or a state. As Omoruyi (2001) contends, when conceived in this way, community is used in two senses: First, as a social unit and, second, as a geographical unit. This presupposes that such people are closely joined together and organized. This spirit of togetherness among them expresses a common feeling of oneness.

Furthermore, community can be conceptualized as a group of individuals who shares a common interest or a set of functions, such as an ethnic community/group. Other examples include cultural, religious, educational, farming/agricultural groups. Such a group may not include everybody in that geographical area but only the people who have a particular

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interest or function in common. This type of community is usually called a “functional community”.

In addition, a community can be perceived as a legal, political or administrative unit. In this perspective, it is like a municipality, a school district or a country with a clearly defined social structure. A community, in this sense, will formulate laws to guide the conduct of members. This is necessary to ensure its continuous existence. Usually, the laws or regulations are enforced by an administrative set up.

There is also the more traditional community in which relationships are personal, intimate and long-lasting. Such relationships are often seen as ends in themselves. They are usually formed to serve broad-based interests, purposes and needs. Such a community is homogeneous and static. Here, the people work as a team, and there are relatively few conflicts among them. One remarkable feature of this type of community is that every member is quite conscious of his place and accepts it. Besides, the moral code is properly defined and upheld individually and collectively.

Community as:a territorially bounded social system within whichpeople live in harmony, love, intimacy and sharea common social, economic and cultural characteristics as well as a population living within legally established city limits where the people have some social and economic features in common which make them to pursue common goals

The major characteristics of a community as defined above are:(i) Geographical limits which could be large or small;(ii) Population which also could be large or small;(iii) Common socio-economic problems or characteristics, such as

Poverty or affluence, lack of infrastructures or availability of facilities, highlySocialized or apathetic, and

(iv) Feeling of oneness and a sense of belonging which enable them to pursue common goals, such as the development of the people and their physical environment.

A community may contain more than one ethnic group with slight different ways of life. The common bond which holds the together is, more often than not, the socio-economic problem which they fight together to address.

Elements of a Community

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Olewe (1995) stated the following as the elements of a community1 Group of People: Community is a group,. When ever individuals

live together and by so doing share the basic conditions of a common life, they constitute a community.

2 Naturality: Communities are not made nor created by an act but are natural. An individual is born in a community.

3 Locality: A community is formed when a group of people settle down or reside in a definite locality. The community occupies a territorial area which is fixed permanently. But in the case of nomadic community, the area is not fixed. People derive strong solidarity from the conditions of their locality, and there is bound to be unity . Due to the extending facilities of communication in cotemporary world, the territorial bond has been weakened, yet “the basic character of locality as a social classifier has never been transcended” (Maclver, OP Cit 9).

4 Permanence: A community is characterized by a permanent life in a definite place, it is not transitory like a crowd.

5 Sentiment: Community sentiment is the feeling of belonging together. This is the feeling of belonging together. This is the we-feeling among the members. in the present period, this sentiment is lacking among the people occupying a specific local area. For instance, in big cities, most people do not know even their next door unity, there must be the sentiment of common living among the inhabitants.

6 No Legal Status: A community is not a legal person. It cannot sue and cannot be sued. It has no rights and duties in the eyes of the law.

7 Specific Name: Every community must have a specific name,. The name “indicates reality, it points identity, it points out individually it often describes personality, each community is something of a personality.

8 Broader end: People in a community associate not for the fulfillment of a particular object. The ends and/or objectives of a community are broad and also natural

9 Common Language: A community has its common language, and the customs more and folkways are also common. “A community being a cluster of people living within a narrow territorial radius, share a common way of life”.

Community DevelopmentCommunity development, according to Arch C. (2010) is “a process

whereby communities come together to perform various functions in order to give a face- lift to their immediate environment or communities, because each

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community is case study. So that they know their self-need better than the government.

The United Nations Organization (UNO) (156) see community development as “the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are limited with those of the government and non-governmental authoritative to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions of the countries, in order to integrate these communities intro the life of the nature and enable them contribute fully in the national progress.

Community Development, to Ekong E Ekong (1977) is any action in a locality by any regency with the primary intention of bringing some benefits to such locality

It is a movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with active participation and on the initiative of the community.

Anyanwu (1988) sees community development as “education in the best and fullest sense for the stimulation of the desire for better things and the means to attain such better things. It bothers fundamentally on striving to educate and motivate people for self-help with view to developing responsible lack leadership among them as well as inculcating in them a sense of citizenship and a spirit of civil consciousness.

A similar view by Baker (1995) affirms that “Communitydevelopment an educational process. Moreover, that it is not better regd, better bridges, pure mater, not better sanitation. It is something of the spirit more than something of material. It must reach into deep cultural patterns of people, examining them and testing them as principle of faith. It is not a temporary, physical construction, It is a building within the heart and mind of men, not a recreation center in the middle of a field.”

Thus, aligning with the above views, Emezi (1979) defined community development as “efforts provided for advancement of communities” the stated that the major emphasis of the concept was upon those activities, which aim at promoting the improvement of the basic condition of the condition of the community’s non-material needs.

Community Development is aimed at community action. Here community action is used as a phenomenon that recommends that community members resolve their problems by directly participating in development activities.

The above view was captured by Bola and Bellow, when they defined community development as “a process of social action in which people of the community organize themselves for the identification of their needs, planning an action to meet those needs with maximum reliance on their own initiative and resources, supplemented with assistance in any from government and non governmental oraganizations.

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Thus, Griffiths (1974) sees the primary objectives of community development as: to promote, to sustain, to support and maintain community action.

Assumptiomns Of Community DevelopmentUmeh (1987) outlined 5 assumptions on which C.D. stands They

include:-i. The worth and dignity of individual are the basic value in the

democratic society.ii. Every one has something to contribute to the life of his

community. iii. People have the ability to learn and growiv. Community can be promoted by conscious cooperative thought,

planning and actionv. Community development provides an opportunity and a means by

which the worth of an individual can be made and learning can take place.

Umeh concluded that C.D. is essentially concerned with making it possible for every one to have at least the minimum essential good in a community where people posses the quality of participation, self direction and cooperation.

Objectives/Scope Of Community DevelopmentWhether it is community or rural development, man engages in

relationship with others and with the world. Participation is the underlying essence of an effective community development (Obodoechi, 2006)

Simply put, community development has the following objectives:1. Improvement of life at the local community level as much as our

human and material resources can carry us.2. To develop all aspects of community living equitably so as to avoid

imbalance or neglect of any area of living.3. to achieve a self generating break through in productivity and to

raise the production potentials by stimulating the human and physical process of change.

4. To minimize poverty and unemployment in the communities. 5. To make families economically viable and to cross over the poverty

line6. To provide governmental services to communities7. To explore and use technical assistance available from outside the

community8. To cooperate with and coordinate state and national development

plans

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9. community development aims at agricultural extension and development, rural industrial development, rural sanitation, disease control and health programmes, rural education planning, planning for rural finance, cooperation, development of communication and other recreational facilities.

Characteristics Of Community Development (C.D.)The following are the features of community development:-

1. C.D. is concerned with all the people of the community instead if a group or segment of the population. However, all the people do not necessarily participate in community projects.

2. C.D. is concerned with the local community life and total needs of the community instead of any one specialized aspect, such as agriculture,Infrastructure, health, or education. This is the origin of integrated approach in C.D.

3. C.D. is always concerned with bringing about social change in the community.

4. C.D. is concerned with problem solving5. C.D. is based on the philosophy of self- help and participation6. C.D usually involves technical assistance in such forms as personnel,

equipment, supplies, money or consultation from government to inter-governmental sources or from voluntary organizations, both domestic and foreign.

7. C.D. is essential inter-disciplinary. It connotes a concerted approach to make available for the service of the community various programmes.

8. C.D. is concerned with both task goals and process goals; that is, it is concerned with achieving certain concrete objectives and with strengthening the qualities of participation, self-direction, and cooperation.

9. C.D. involves an educational process. Its major interest is people oriented

10. C.D. continues over a substantial period of time. In other words, C.D. is not an ad-hoc program. Indeed, CD is a process rather than a program.

11. C.D. is entirely based on “felt-needs” of the people of the community.12. C.D. emphasizes the desirability of decisions on the basis of consensus

or general agreement rather than on the basis of sharp cleavages or close votes that would tend to divide the community in this regard community development differs from social action and ordinary political action where conflict of dialogical and interest groups, formal

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parliamentary procedure, shape divisions, and decisions by majority votes are taken votes are taken for granted.By these expositions, it is believed that no reader is in doubt as to

what C.D is and what it is not C.D in a nutshell , connotes activities for the improvement of social organizations, actualizing themselves in terms of interest and love for fellow human beings and enhancement of the physical environments. (Obodoechi, 2006)

The Philosophy And Principles Of Community DevelopmentThe philosophy stems from the understanding that C.D. is organized

self-help to improve themselves through democracy, participation self-direction. C.D is people oriented with assistance, usually technical from governmental and voluntary organizations (Obodoech, 2006).

The principles of community development can be discussed as follows:a. C.D. is a programme of continuous education. C.D never ends. Ones a

goal is achieved, new goal is set. No community on earth is satisfied; it needs to keep on growing.

b. Recognition of dignity of the individual in the community, truthfulness, honesty, hospitality and reliability.

c. Understanding the community and its social structure, which includes businessmen, administrators, farmers, religious and political elites etc.

d. Efforts should be made for the development of effective community leadership through training and guidance.

e. Change in attitude of the people should be envisaged through education.

f. Development work in a community should develop active and effective line of communication within their active members and between the organization and the people.

g. The latent potentials and resources of the community should be utilized for the community work.

h. People should feel motivated by developmental projects going on in their community.

i. Organizations in the community responsible for initiating developmental projects must always involve all and sundry especially opinion molders and leaders.

j. Creating discontent with existing conditions and standard of living among members of the community. This is by showing the village people their actual situation and where they should have been and

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showing them the gap between the two situations. Unless this is known, they cannot aspire for higher standard of living.

k. The discontent, which initiates community development, must be widely shared in the community.

Approaches To Rural And Community DevelopmentApproaches to Community DevelopmentThere are many approaches to community development. motivated by the impressive works of Ezeh (1999) and Omoruyi (2001), we wish to delineate the following eleven approaches:

a. Directive approachb. Non- directive approachc. Integrated approachd. Team or multiple approache. Matching-grant approachf. Sectoral approachg. Idealist Political Activist approachh. Community work approachi. Social development approachj. Urban renewal approach, andk. Adult education approach

a. Directive Approach: This approach characterizes a situation whereby the government or another external development agency evolves a programme for the community. In this approach, the government or that development agency acts as if it is the ultimate arbiter of what is good for the people. The external development body therefore decides on what it feels the people need and goes ahead to plan for a project to achieve it. The government or agency, in this circumstance, supplies the staff, equipment, materials and programmes considered necessary to meet the needs and interests of the people. This is done with the hope that the people will avail themselves of the services or activities it provides.The directive approach is particularly useful where there is mass illiteracy, lack of resources or if community members are apathetic or lethargic to change and progress thereby making them incapable of projecting themselves into the mainstream of national development.

b. Non-directive Approach: This is the opposite of the directive approach of the community development. it stresses the involvement of the people. In this approach, which is sometimes referred to as the “inner resources” approach, the people are allowed or enabled to

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identify their needs or problems, prioritize such needs / problems to decide on what to do to meet the needs or solve the problem/s and take action on the basis of the plan drawn. The success of this approach depends on the condition that:

i. the people are dissatisfied with their present condition and with the way things are and identify their problems;

ii. they realize that the problem will perpetuate unless they do something about it by themselves; and

iii. they have sufficient resources (i.e. finance, manpower, equipment and necessary management capabilities) to tackle their problems or identified needs.

The role of the external agency or government, in this approach, is to act as a catalyst (i.e. to stimulate and motivate the people to be actively involved in activities intended to improve their condition or way of life).The non-directive approach provides the people with the opportunity to acquire skills or knowledge needed to induce and enhance desirable changes aimed at ensuring community development.

c. Integrated Approach: This approach recognizes the fact that community development transcends improvement in material or tangible artifacts such as roads, houses or the construction of dam or bridges through self-help. This approach emphasizes a comprehensive community development programme which must include provisions for the social, economic, cultural and political development of the people. Such a comprehensive programme, it is believed, will help to promote total communal development. the approach calls for full utilization and effective co-ordination of all the human, material and financial resources in a community to achieve its improvement. It promotes the judicious integration of all aspects of development of the people.

d. Team or Multiple Approach: This entails the use of a team or a group of experts to provide a variety of services such as education, recreation, medical or any other service to tackle all the problems of the community. This approach presupposes that, as a comprehensive programme, community development requies the participation of more than one or a single expert; hence its emphasis on the need to involve many experts in community development. if, for example, a community desies to improve its agricultural productivity, it will require more than agricultural experts. It will need the services of the adult educator to help educate the people on the need for seeking a

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change. It will also require the services of a structural engineer, a water engineer and so on.This approach can prevent unhealthy rivalry among the various development agents or agencies, prevent duplication of efforts and promote team spirit.

e. Matching-Grant Approach: The matching-grant approach is in form of partnership between government and the people. It takes the form of self-help projects initiated by a community or various communities, under the supervision of their local leadership structure, with the government providing managerial, technical and financial assistance. In this approach, the contribution of the people includes money, materials and labour which are needed to implement a part of the project. The approach is used in this way: the people are expected to identify their needs, arrange them in order of priority, and develop strategies for meeting them and subsequently, take action. When the action is on, the government adds its support in form of “matching grants” which are intended sustain the interest of the people in continuing with the programme to its successful completion.Although community development activities vary from a community to another, many communities are employing the approach in the construction of health facilities, schools, roads, bridges, among other things (Omoruyi, Op. Cit.).

f. Sectoral Approach: As the name implies, the sectoral approach involves the development of the various sectors in the community simultaneously. Here, different agencies, professional or government ministries or agencies may undertake different or various development programmes in the areas of agriculture, co-operatives, education, health, housing and recreation in a given community. Such programmes are usually undertaken separately (i.e. without any co-ordinating machinery).

g. Idealist Political Activist Approach: A common characteristics of this approach is a massive increase of voluntary action by young people to provide various kinds of social services, and this often leads to the promotion of projects designed to induce social change. There are various reasons for the adoption of this approach. Some people are moved by the observed pathetic, repellent and unjust nature of society which, they feel necessitates reform. Others are politically motivated. In this case, some dilsillusioned politicians who may have fallen out with party politics may engage in community action with the intention

428


of becoming leading participants of disadvantaged groups in social action against the government formed by the political party or parties.According to Ezeh (Op. Cit.), in some advanced socities of the world, this approach ranges from formally organized community service volunteers, task force and young volunteer force to the child poverty action group and further to individuals working alone with squatter groups or with branches of a claimant’s union.This approach focuses on (1) giving practical expression to radical change by means of conflict strategies, (2) encouraging military and social action, and (3) the attainment of favourable social change in the shortest possible time using the prospective beneficiaries of such a change the people.

h. Community Work Approach: This is an emerging social work methodological approach. Put differently, it is a professional approach to community development. it marks a departure from the initial concept of social work which was originally dominated by case-work method only. It was the discovery, from experiences in many parts of the world, that the demand for social services greatly exceeded what could be provided on a professional case-work basis that caused this shift. Besides, the use of institutionalization, as a means of dealing with some social problems, became inadequate.The community work approach aims at giving aids and support to community people who aspire to have more control over their lives thereby enhancing their standard of living.

i. Social Development Approach: In this approach, emphases are placed on the integration of economic and social development programmes as well as education for self-management and for political development. according to Sanda (1985), this approach shifted emphasis from the growth in Gross National Product (GNP) to a more encompassing view of development as a “transitional process sustaining a multi-faceted improvement in human condition resulting from positive structural nd functional changes in the social, economic, political, techno-scientific and even conceivable sphere of human endeavour”. In the words of Akukwe (1988), the emphasis of this approach is more on “person” rather than on “things” and more on “being” that “having”. Therefore, this approach is concerned with helping individual members of the community to grow integrally in an aspect of life.This perspective on community development, according to Ezeh (Op. Cit.), is more relevant in most developing nations especially Nigeria

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where all accounts in economic, social organizational and health terms have remained gloomy many years after political independence.

j. Urban-Renewal Approach: This community development perspective is commonly found in the advanced nations of the world. As the name suggests, it is a deliberate effort to renew urban areas through systematic decongestion activities. In societies where this approach prevails, such as in Liverpool, the development of the urban renewal approach was occasioned by a number of factors. In Liverpool, for example, there was a massive movement of people out from clustered urban centres to sub-urban estates and the fashionable new towns did not only solve problems but also created new ones, especially after World War II. It was then discovered that social problems persisted when people were offered better housing. Again, a massive resettlement of people in slum clearance schemes often severed social relationships and social systems for those who depended on them. This was because they lacked the social skills and economic resources to cope or survive without them. Even the benefit of better housing in a better environment did not help matters much as the cost to the individuals concerned was almost unaffordable. Consequently, the establishment of community centres and formation of community associations were encouraged. In addition, the idea of neighbourhood units, appointment of community development officers or community liaison officers and so forth were encouraged.To break down social isolation and give meaning to personal existence by encouraging the formation social groups of various types to organize their own affairs are the goals of this approach.

k. Adult-Education Approach: This involves giving support and encouragement to the development of community leaders, fostering concern for community life and empowering the communities to deal with contemporary problems by setting them. Here, the traditional adult education principles are replaced by such new terms as ”life long education.” In other words, the new trend is characterized by the provision of conventional as well as experimental forms of adult education designed to inform and develop local leadership.The goal of this model is to use education as a motivational strategy to approach community development.It is noteworthy, at this juncture, that though most of these approaches tend to produce specific kinds of community action, their goals are the same. Put differently, the emphasis remains on the people resolving to

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take action to improve life for themselves, for the community or for some other groups whose welfare is the onus of the community.

Approaches to Rural DevelopmentLike community development, there is a plethora of approaches or

models to rural development. Howver, while some of the models are common to both community development and rural development, others are quite peculiar to each discipline. This shows that some of the principles and practices of each discipline are applicable to the other while others are inappropriate.

Based on the brilliant works of Abah (2000) and Onyisi (2000), we wish to discuss the following ten approaches to rural development.

a. Basic-Resource Approach: This model assumes that development depends on existence, quantity and quality of basic natural resources in area. The exploitation and development of such natural resources will naturally attract large volumes of investment capitals and economic activities to the areas where they exist, and then increase employment and income. It is believed that economic development consists in these activities. Therefore, rural and endowed with such natural resources are expected to grow fast than other areas dissimilarly endowed.Nonetheless, the mere availability of basic natural resources does not guarantee economic growth as development. in fact, there are regions and countries that are known to be abundantly endowed with natural resources but which have remained underdeveloped. An additional ingredient to natural resources therefore is the availability of a technical competent labour force and a leadership strongly dedicated to the goal of economic development (Abah, Op. Cit).The basic economic resources approach was one of the approaches adopted for the development of rural Nigeria during the colonial era.

b. Urban-Development Approach: Otherwise known as the Growth Centre Approach, the model is closely related to, and is, in fact, an extension of the basic resource approach. Growth centres correspond with the colonial urban centres or townships. These are centres to which goods, services ideas etc. flow.This approach assumes that growth does not appeal everywhere at the same time but start at growth or urban centres. It is further assumed that as economic activities in the urban centres intensify, forces generated from the growth centres through expansion and linkage effects will influence the growth of adjoining areas, the growth space and, ultimately, the economy as a whole. In other words, the approach

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emphasizes the concentration of industrial and commercial activities in one geographical centre. It is predicated on the assumption that the effects of development in the urban centres would gradually trickle down to the rural areas or the hinterlands. This trickling down or spread mechanism may take the form of stimulation of good production for urban industrial markets; increased production of industrial raw materials for processing industries; employment opportunities foe any surplus rural labour following agricultural mechanization within the growth space; financial remittances to rural areas by migrant workers; diffusion of innovation into the growth space; and subsidiary investments made by rich firms located at the growth / urban centres in the surrounding region. This approach therefore advocates that in planning rural development programmes, growth centres should be created to help speed up and even out development in an area.However, going by the Nigerian experience so far, this approach has rather aggravated rural-urban drift with its negative consequences. Besides, there may some back-wash effects which can erode the gains of the spread effect on surrounding regions thereby stagnating, rather than stimulating growth in those areas. In addition, it can accentuate the ever-increasing phenomenon of urban-ruralism a familiar characteristic of the sprawling contemporary urban centres in Nigeria.

c. Export-led Growth Approach: This approach is based on the need to enhance the incomes and infrastructural facilities of the rural dwellers through commercialization and expansion of markets for their staple products. It is believed that the opening of world markets through international demand for the products of less developed countries will eventually lead to a full utilization of previously under-utilized land and labour in these countries. It will also hopefully result in cumulative growth of incomes, employment and government revenues. It will also induce the provision of infrastructural facilities such as ports, roads, railways, and banking institutions which are essential to growth.Like the basic resource approach, the export-led growth approach was one of the basic rural development strategies employed by the British colonial administration in Nigeria. Despite the dominance of oil as an international trade items contemporary Nigeria, government still recognizes the needs to expand the export of agricultural products and industrial materials as alternative foreign exchange earners. Government is also aware of the need for a corresponding expansion

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of financial incomes and employment leading to growth and developmental predominantly rural Nigerian agricultural economy.

d. Industrial Development Approach: This model is somewhat similar to the urban development approach as both of them emphasize the establishment industries and commercial activities in a place as a strategy development. They are however dissimilar in their processes. The industrial development perspective advocates the setting up of industries in a place or society in the hope the employment opportunities thereof will transform the neighbourhood through congenial industry-community relations.However, industries in rural areas in Nigeria tend to create “social enclaves” while the rest of the larger environment suffer even more social and ecological degradation. The experiences of the Niger-Delta shows that in the absence of genuine people centred development plans and programmes, industrial location can hardly result in a better condition of life of the host people.

e. Sectoral Development Approach: This involves the simultaneous development of the various sectors in the rural area(s) concerned. Different agencies, professional or government ministries or agencies may undertake different or various development programmes in the areas of agriculture, co-operatives, education, health, housing and recreation in a given area. The programmes are usually undertaken differently without any co-ordinating machinery (Omoruyi, Op. Cit).It could also involve a selective development of a sector or a group of sectors. Proponents of this approach believe that if agriculture is well developed, preferably through mechanization, it would improve the occupational returns of rural dwellers and also yield raw materials, funds and labour for industrial production (Onyisi, op. Cit).Nevertheless, this approach is myopic because of its narrow conception. It is noteworthy that improving agriculture activities is just one of the numerous strategies for uplifting rural life.

f. Area Development Approach: Area development approach is similar to the industrial development approach in that, like the latter, the former stresses the creation of a somewhat development enclave; that is an area which, because of some environmental factors, is earmarked and favoured by public authorities for a comprehensive development programme. Examples include the River Basin and Rural Development Authority, Farm Settlement Scheme, and Export Processing Zone Programme.

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The deficiency of this approach, as the name implies, is not far fetched. It can create envy and hatred rather than the stimulus for development on the part of the many areas or communities that surround the “development island”.

g. Integrated Development Approach: This is a multi-sectoral and multi-project approach to rural development. it therefore conceives rural development in a symbiotic macrocosm. It sees rural development as transcending improvement in material or tangible facilities such as roads, houses, bridges, water dams and so forth. This approach emphasizes a comprehensive rural development programme which must include provisions for the social economic, cultural and political development of the people. It calls for full utilization and effective co-ordination of all the human, material and financial resources in a rural area to achieve its improvement.A great deal of support is enjoyed by this approach. Its quite fashionable, auspicious and expedient among contemporary development donor agencies, such as the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), British Department for International Development (DFID), United State Agency for International Development (USAID) and other Proponents of this model contend that since rural poverty and underdevelopment are integrated, solutions to them also demand integrated approach.

h. Social Development Approach: The social development approach places emphasis on human beings around whom other factors of development revolve. In other words, it accentuates the integration of social and economic development programmes as well as education for self-management and for political development. According to Onyisi (Op. Cit.):The social mobilization, conscientization and participatoryschools are mere strands of this inclusive-model. Thesocial development theory of rural development thusshares the philosophical plank of Marxist-socialism in thatboth assign primary to man’s self-determinationdevelopment is inadequate if it excludes the beneficiary inthe process.The Economic Commission for Africa, a Regional Commission of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Organization, characterized integrated rural social development in 1971 thus:It does not mean isolated programmes of community development

Rural animation, mass education, agricultural extension or any of

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The other terms applied to sectoral programmes which are carried Out in the rural area or within the rural community; it means ratherA comprehensive development of rural area.As this approach emphasizes both the social and economic aspects of development in addiction to spatial linkage, it appears to approximate the ideal in rural development, especially in Nigeria.

i. Diffusion Development Approach:This model makes an attempt to explain the existence of productivity differences among farmers in the same economic and geographical region. It recognizes this disparity and explains it in terms of differences in the farmers’ adoptions of innovative methods as well as in the level of productivity. Some farmers in an environment would welcome and use modern methods or techniques such as mechanical equipment (such as tractors, harvesters etc.), improved seeds and chemical inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides etc.) and thus enjoy high yields from their farms. Others remain conservative and in consequence, continue to have poor harvests.Acoording to the diffusion model, the farmers need to embrace modern techniques to obviate the structural obstacles to high or improved agricultural productivity. This requires re-orientation, internalization and habituation on the part of the farmers and it necessitates the deliberate and concerted efforts of the government or external development agents or agencies to impart these new ideas to the farmers, most of whom are stark illiterates.The model has been graciously applied by many developing nations and it has led to the popularization of agricultural extension services, demonstration farms of experimental farmers, otherwise known as local innovators (Abah, Op. Cit)

j. Basic Needs Approach: The basic need approach sees agriculture as the major economic activity and occupation of rural dwellers. It however emphasizes that beyond subsistence farming or the creation of farm surpluses, the rural populace has certain basic human needs which are essentially social in nature. They include potable water supply, accessible health facilities, access roads, decent housing, good education, communication facilities, electricity and so forth.This approach therefore tries to relate development to the social, cultural and economic realities of a people. It is concerned with the practical identification of the soci-cultural and economic constraints that hamper the welfare of the society, and goes further to formulate

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and execute policies and plans for the eradication or containment of such impediments whether natural or man-made.The basic needs approach is a more recent and modern approach to rural development than the other models discussed above. Besides, it is more appropriate for the realization of the objectives of Nigerian rural development programmes. No wonder, the government has applied its tenets in its efforts to achieve substantial development in the rural areas. The establishment and operation of such agencies as the Agricultural Development Project (ADP); The River Basin and Rural Development Authorities (RBRDA); the Directorate of Food Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI); the Better Life Programme (BLP); the Family Support Programme (FSP); the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP) etc. are cases in point.

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AAbsorptive, 227Accountability, 109, 112, 150Accountant General, 226Ad-hoc, 246Administration, 2, 22, 32, 33, 35, 36,

37, 38, 39, 45, 80, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 113, 114, 115, 134, 135, 146, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 220, 243, 244, 262, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 330, 331, 333, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451

Adopted, 41Africa, 31, 39, 41, 42, 46Age, 37, 64Age-grade, 37Amalgamation, 41Amendment, 223Announcement, 57, 61Annual Conference, 241Appointment, 61Approaches, 435, 440, 447Attitudinal and Psychologic, 350Attitudinal and Psychological, 350Authority, 43Autonomy, 223

BBackground, 32, 34Bale, 35Basic Needs Approach, 445Bicameral Legislature, 19, 20British, 31, 34, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45,

46, 59Budget, 225

CCentralization, 101Characterized, 303Class Extremities, 423Classification, 122, 134, 219

Climate, 297Colonial, 32, 42, 45, 46Colonial Governor, 46Colonialism, 72, 84, 85, 312Commission, 224, 225, 226Committee, 26, 77, 78, 165, 177, 198,

199, 200, 212, 213, 214, 261, 269, 282, 417

Common Language, 14, 431Communication, 362, 424Community, 401, 428, 429, 430, 431,

432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 439, 447, 448, 450

Community Development, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 447, 448

Community Work Approach, 439Concepts, 54Conclusion, 369Consequent, 59, 361Constituency, 61Constitution, 227, 230Constitutional, 67, 72, 80, 82, 83, 449Consultation, 11Conviction, 28Corruption, 323, 330Cost – Benefit Analysis, 370Council, 38, 224Council of State, 78, 241, 242, 260,

263, 265Councilor, 64Cultural, 290, 298

DDecentralization, 180, 182, 183Declaration, 396, 397Definition, 62Democracy, 6, 10, 269Demographic Features, 366Dependency, 305, 306, 311Derivation Principles, 227Designing, 210Diplomatic Immunity, 28Directive Approach, 436Disaster Management, 222

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Discounted Techniques, 382, 392Dynamics, 450

EEastern Nigeria, 44Economic Environment, 334Economic Planning, 239Economic Recession, 138, 141Economic Relation, 235Efficiency, 228Election, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59Elections, 56, 57, 240Electoral Commission, 59, 60, 61, 62,

63, 78, 235, 241, 262, 266, 269Electoral Qualification, 63Emir, 33, 34Environment, 175Equality, 10, 27, 224, 226, 227, 229,

359Equality of State, 229Equalization Grant, 232Europeanization, 293, 294Even Development, 227Executive, 1, 2, 17, 20, 21, 29, 40, 74,

75, 77, 78, 82, 94, 144, 154, 162, 165, 166, 199, 257, 260, 263, 265, 417

External Control, 162, 163External Economics, 297External Funding, 159

FFederal government, 223Federal Structure, 218Federation, 223, 224, 226Federation account, 223Feedback, 340Financial Control, 163, 164Financial Relation, 223Fiscal Allocation, 226Fiscal Commission, 222, 224, 225Fiscal Efficiency, 228Functions, 46, 57, 61

GGaladima, 33General Administration, 146government, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39,

40, 43, 45, 46, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 173, 175, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 223, 224, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249

Governor, 40, 41Grant, 181, 183, 231, 232, 233, 270,

412, 437Grants, 160, 168, 223, 230, 232, 233,

234, 351Growth and Development, 137, 138Gwandu, 33

HHausa, 32, 33, 39, 42Hierarchical Control, 163High Level of Social Mobilization,

359High Socialization, 423Horizontal Relation, 219Human Development Indicators,

283Human Resources, 297, 451

IIgbo, 37, 39, 41, 43Implementation, 154, 269, 340, 368,

416Improved Transport, 297Inadequate Capital, 351Increasing Returns, 297Independence of the judiciary, 24Independent Revenue, 226, 228Indirect rule, 43Indirect Rule, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45Individual Capitalization, 160Information, 210, 339, 362, 395, 402,

416, 447

444


Information and Communication, 362

Instability, 246Integrity, 60Internal Funding, 159International Trade, 274

JJudicial Commission, 241

LLack of Political Will, 351Legal, 239Legal Service, 239Legislative, 55Legislative house, 55Legitimacy, 6, 9Loans, 160, 168, 223, 351Local government, 223, 224, 225Local Government, 31, 62, 223, 229,

237, 238, 240Local Government Election, 62Lord Lugard, 40

MMadawaki, 33Majoritarian Rule, 11Management, 4, 126, 135, 151, 153,

154, 155, 170, 184, 185, 187, 191, 197, 210, 211, 222, 342, 345, 406, 446, 448, 449, 450, 451

Marginalization, 281Market Failure, 349Mass Participation, 425Military Intervention, 255, 449Minimum Responsibility, 229Minimum Standard, 227Mobilization, 224, 225, 226Mobilization,, 224, 225Modernization, 280, 293, 294, 302,

318Modernization Theories, 293

NNational Assembly, 226, 237National Development, 129, 137,

140, 345, 353, 354, 404, 448National Financial Institutions, 161National Interest, 225, 228Native Authority System, 39Natural Resources, 297, 366Neutrality, 327Nigeria, 31, 32, 36, 37, 40, 41, 45, 59,

62, 63, 173, 175, 219, 220, 223, 226, 228, 229, 231, 237, 238, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247

Nigeria,, 219Northern Nigeria, 40NULGE, 240, 247

OOba, 34, 35, 36, 42, 43Oduduwa, 34, 36Ooni, 34, 35Organizing Function, 156Oyo, 34, 35, 37

PParadoxically, 282Parliament, 30, 67, 411Participation, 202, 425, 428, 433Penalties, 95Percentage grant, 231Performance, 150, 166, 171, 183, 211Permanent Secretaries, 242Person, 149Personality Trait, 245Personnel Department, 147Place, 149Planning Function, 156Policy Board, 144Political Administration, 32, 35, 37Political Freedom, 297Political Gerrymandering, 54Political Instability, 246, 351Political Parties, 50, 73, 87Political Relation, 234

445


Political System, 37, 39Politicians, 57Population, 15, 221, 224, 226, 227,

229, 241, 266, 282, 285, 422, 423, 429

Poverty, 238Poverty Alleviation, 6Practitioners, 26Pre-Colonial, 31, 32Prime Minister, 18, 199, 254, 255Private Investment, 160Process, 59Profitability Index, 382, 387, 389Promoting, 176, 243, 320, 399, 410,

414Promotion, 5, 6, 127, 258, 355Psychological Theory, 300Public Administration, 2, 98, 101,

102, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 114, 134, 135, 320, 331, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451

Public Opinion, 164Public Order, 221, 241Public Policy, 108, 450, 451

QQualification, 62

RReferendum, 54Reform, 173Regime, 246Regionalism, 257Religion, 34, 36, 37, 39Remuneration, 101Representative, 69, 78, 357Resources, 48, 297, 338, 348, 357,

366, 451Revenue Mobilization, 222, 224,

225, 266Rural and Agrigarian, 303Rural Development, 357, 425, 426,

428, 440, 443, 445, 450

SSchedule, 222, 237, 241Sectoral Approach, 438Sharia,, 33Social Development Approach, 439,

444Social Heterogeneity, 423Social Transformation, 302Socialism, 7, 12Sokoto, 32Sovereignty, 9, 15, 16State Agency, 444Status, 430Statutory Allocation, 223Structure, 218, 220Subsidies, 159

TTangible Benefits, 372Tax Effort, 229Team or Multiple Approach, 437Territory, 225The Ethical Environment, 334The General Manager, 145The Government, 2, 6, 16, 165, 208The Judiciary, 22, 23The Legal Environment, 335The Social Environment, 334The Technological Environment,

335Traditional Political System, 37Traditional Society, 298Training, 18, 124, 222, 238, 240Transport Section, 146

UUnconstitutional Measures, 246Unicameral Legislature, 19United States of America, 175

VVerification, 61Vertical Relation, 219

446


WWarrant Chief, 43, 44Waziri, 33

YYoruba, 34, 35, 36, 39, 42, 43

447

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Meaning and Nature · Web viewThe word “government” has no generally accepted definition, despite the fact that everybody in a civilized society knows what it is