i

Measurement of Radon concentration in water,

soil and air in and around earthquake hit areas

in N.W.F.P

By

Fayaz Khan

CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB

Ph.D Thesis

Department of Physics

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

Islamabad- Pakistan

Spring, 2011

ii

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology

Measurement of Radon concentration in water,

soil and air in and around earthquake hit areas

in N.W.F.P

A Thesis Presented to

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad

In partial fulfillment

of the requirement for the degree of

Ph.D

Physics

By

Fayaz Khan

CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB

Spring, 2011

iii

Measurement of Radon concentration in water,

soil and air in and around earthquake hit areas

in N.W.F.P

Thesis submitted to the Department of Physics in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of Degree of Ph.D.

Name Registration Number

Fayaz Khan CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB

Supervisor

Prof. Dr. Ehsan Ullah Khan, TI

Department of Physics,

Spring, 2011

iv

Final Approval

This thesis titled

Measurement of Radon concentration in water,

soil and air in and around earthquake hit areas

in N.W.F.P

By

Fayaz Khan

CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB has been approved

For the COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Islamabad

External Examiner: 1.----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Gul Feroz Tariq (KRL), H.No.496-F, Ibne-Sina Road, G-9/3, Islamabad

External Examiner: 2.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Nasir Majeed Mirza, Chief Scientist PIEAS, Nilore, Islamabad

Supervisor: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prof. Dr. Ehsan Ullah Khan, Department of Physics

HOD: -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prof. Dr. Mahnaz Qadir Haseeb, Department of Physics CIIT, Islamabad

Dean, Faculty of Science ------------------------------------------------------------------------

Prof. Dr. Arshad Saleem Bhatti

v

Declaration

I Fayaz Khan (CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB) hereby declare that I have under taken the

research work presented in this thesis, during the scheduled period of study. I also

declare that I have not copied any material from any source except referred to

wherever due. If any violation of Higher Education Commission (HEC) rules in my

research is found, I shall be legally responsible for punishment under the plagiarism

rules of the HEC.

Date: _________________ Signature of the student:

____________________

(Fayaz Khan)

(CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB)

vi

Certificate

It is certified that Mr. Fayaz Khan (CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB) PhD student in

Experimental Radiation Physics at the Department of Physics, COMSATS Institute of

Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad has carried out all the research related to

his thesis under my supervision. He has completed his experimental work in the

Radiation Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics, COMSATS Institute of

Information Technology (CIIT), Islamabad.

Supervisor:

Prof. Dr. Ehsan Ullah Khan, TI,

Department of Physics

Submitted through:

Prof. Dr. Mahnaz Qadir Haseeb

Head, Department of Physics

CIIT, Islamabad

vii

DEDICATED

To my parents, wife, daughters (Gull, Mah, Arsh and

Hayya) and son (Ahmad)

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all I thank the Almighty ALLAH, the most Merciful, and the most Beneficent,

Who blessed me with sound health and chance to complete this research work

successfully.

I pay my thanks to my Supervisors Prof. Dr. Ehsan Ullah Khan (TI),

Department of Physics and Prof. Dr. Iftihar Ahmed Raja, Department of

Environmental Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT),

Abbottabad, for their kind direction, leadership and assistance during this research

work. I whole-heartedly express my admiration to Prof. Dr. Nimatullah Khattak,

National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar Without his

careful consideration and encouragement, this project could have never been

completed. I am also highly obliged to Dr. Nawab Ali, Senior Scientific Officer,

PINSTECH, Islamabad, whose help in this research work is more significant than

anyone else. I also commend the cooperation and support extended to me by Prof. Dr.

Arshad Saleem Bhatti, Dean faculty of science and Prof. Dr. Sajid Qamar, Chairman

Physics Department, CIIT. I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Mahnaz Qadir Haseeb, Head of

the Department of Physics, for creating a lively scientific environment. I am really

thankful to Dr. Hameed Ahmed Khan, (SI) and Dr. Abdul Waheed (PoP), Advisors,

Radiation Physics Laboratory who always guided me with kind advice and extended

his full support in completion of my work. I am really thankful for the valuable co-

operation of Dr. Ishaq Ahmad. I desire to record my gratitude to Dr. S. M. Junaid

Zaidi(SI), Rector of COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT) and Prof.

Dr. Raheel Qamar (TI) Dean Research and Innovation COMSATS Institute of

Information Technology (CIIT) for their facilitation of a very high-quality research

atmosphere and facilities in the newly recognized institute; and deliver my

thankfulness to all the faculty members of the Department of Physics, for creating a

dynamic scientific environment.

Astounding credit to the HEC, Government of Pakistan, for bestowing upon

me the scholarship under Indigenous 5000 Scheme.

I am thankful from the core of my heart to all my colleagues in the

Department of Physics, CIIT, Islamabad, for their moral and physical help throughout

this research work. I would cordially pay special thanks to Dr. Zafar Wazir for

assisting me in order to complete the research work. I cannot ignore the help of

ix

Mukhtar Ahmed Rana and other members of the PINSTECH and pay special thanks

to all these beacons.

I would also like to pay honor to all my teachers for their continuous

encouragement and support during my education career. I am also thankful to my

parent institution (Pakistan International Public School & College) and I really admire

the full support and kind cooperation of the institute, Managing Director Brig(R) Ejaz

Akbar, Principal Brig(R) Muhammad Ehsan and Vice Principal Kanwer Tayyab Ali.

Last but not the least; I am extremely grateful to my loving parents,

respectable brothers, sisters and other family members who always pray for my

success in every walk of life. I am deeply thankful to my caring wife and lovely

children for their love and support throughout my Ph.D term.

Fayaz Khan

(CIIT/SP04-PPH-002/ISB)

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ABSTRACT

In this work measurements of radon concentration in water, soil and air in and around

earthquake hit areas in N.W.F.P, Pakistan( new name is now Khyber Pakhtun-Khwa

Province) were carried out keeping in view that there may be more radon

concentrations because the area was hit by an earthquake of ML= 7.6 on October 8,

2005. High radon levels in soil and water may have contributed to the indoor radon

concentration, subsequently a threat to the health of the people.

The centre of the October 8, 2005 devastating earthquake was the northwest-

striking Balakot–Bagh (B–B) fault, which had been mapped by the Geological Survey

of Pakistan prior to the earthquake but had not been recognized as an active fault

except for a 16 km section near Muzaffarabad.

The area had not been surveyed previously for radon concentrations. The area

has geological importance as well; because some of it lies on the active Balakot-Bagh

fault line while other is located in its surroundings. This survey was conducted in

three different media; water (from drinking sources), soil (sub-surface radon gas) and

air (in the dwellings).

The survey was carried out in the five districts of Hazara Division in general

and in Balakot area in particular, being located at or around the Balakot-Bagh active

fault, using two techniques: (i) the passive technique is based on tracks formation in

39CR (trade name of diethylene glycol bis allyl carbonate) alpha track recorder

used in the NRPB dosimeter with a known calibration and (ii) the active technique is

based on the α activity measurements through spectral analysis in the instant air

samples collected through the 7RAD instrument of Durridge company. This technique

is useful for getting average radon concentrations from the data integrated over certain

time period. Doses were calculated from the indoor air and groundwater radon

concentrations and the results obtained were then interpreted.

The water samples were from drinking sources of the area near the fault line of

Balakot especially and in the surroundings generally. The drinking sources include

surface, spring and bore-hole water. Near the fault line at Balakot, the drinking source

is the spring water so the spring water results of this area were compared with the

spring water of the other parts of the study area. However, the sources of drinking

water such as surface and bore-hole water in the Balakot area were also surveyed.

xi

Radon concentration in the spring water near the B-B fault line were compared with

the radon concentrations in the spring water in other part of study area away from the

fault zone.

Soil gas radon concentration in an area can be used not only to know about the

radon related health hazards but also can be used as a useful tracer for locating active

geological faults and for predicting any forthcoming earthquake within an area. The

soil gas radon concentrations near the B-B fault line and other parts of study areas

were measured. The results of B-B fault line were analyzed and compared with the

other parts of the study area.

Indoor radon survey was carried out in dwellings during four seasons of the

year for one year and also on year basis to study the seasonal variation and to

calculate the seasonal correction factor, respectively. The indoor radon concentrations

were measured in the houses near the fault line and the surroundings. The results for

the two regions were then compared. Indoor radon concentration levels of different

seasons were compared with each other and with those taken on yearly basis.

Comparison of radon levels in the indoor air of the houses made up of different

materials and among the radon levels of the same houses on different stories were

made.

The groundwater radon concentration is higher in some part of the area than

the US EPA recommended maximum contamination limit ( MCL ) of 11.0 3mkBq

nevertheless within the range of limit adopted by European countries.

Soil gas radon concentrations were found higher near the B-B fault line with

an average value of 11.9 3mkBq as compared to other sites of the study area. The

mean value of soil gas radon concentrations in the whole study area was found as 7.6

3mkBq .

The indoor radon concentrations were found to be higher than the world

average of 48 3mBq but most of the values are below the Environmental Protection

Agency’s US EPA recommended value of 148 3mBq and the annual doses which

the people of the area receive are within the safe limits of 3-10 mSv set by

International Council of Radiological Protection 65ICRP .

The indoor, soil gas and ground water radon concentrations were found to be

higher near the fault line as compared to the areas away from the fault zone.

xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of figures…………………………………………………………………xvi

List of tables………………………………………………………………...xviii

List of abbreviations………………………………………………………......xx

List of publications…………………………………………………………..xxii

Chapter one Introduction 1

1.1 Introduction.…………………………………………………………….1

1.2 Objective………………………………………………………………...2

1.3 Thesis organization……………………………………………………...3

Chapter two Background and literatures review 4

2.1 Radon daughters…………………...……………………………………4

2.2 Radon and risk….……………………………………………………….5

2.2.1 The life cancer estimate……………………...…………………..6

2.2.2 Excess of Lung Cancer Risk……………………………………..7

2.2.3 Radon in water…………………………………………………...8

2.2.4 Health risks due to waterborne radon...……………………….....9

2.3 Soil gas radon………………………………………………………….10

2.4 Indoor radon sources………………………………………………......11

2.5 Literature review……………………………………………………….12

2.5.1 Radon concentration in water………..…………………………12

2.5.2 Soil gas radon concentrations………………………..…………14

2.5.3 Indoor radon concentrations……………………..……………..16

Chapter Three Geology and demography of the study area 21

3.1 Landform of Hazara division…………………………………………..22

3.2 Abbottabad……………………………………………………………..23

3.2.1 Physical feature and topography……………………………...23

3.2.2 Geology……………………………………………………….23

xiii

3.2.3 Climate………………………………………………………..24

3.2.4 Population…………………………………………………….24

3.2.5 Construction materials of the houses…………………………24

3.3 Mansehra………………………………………………………………25

3.3.1 Physical feature and topography……………………………...25

3.3.2 Geology……………………………………………………….25

3.3.3 Climate………………………………………………………..28

3.3.4 Population. ……………………………………………………28

3.3.5 Construction materials of the houses. ………………………...28

3.4 Haripur. ……………………………………………………………......29

3.4.1 Physical feature and topography. …………………………….29

3.4.2 Geology. ……………………………………………………...29

3.4.3 Climate. ………………………………………………………30

3.4.4 Population. ……………………………………………………30

3.4.5 Construction materials of the houses. ………………………...30

3.5 Battgram. ……………………………………………………………...31

3.5.1 Physical feature and topography. …………………………….31

3.5.2 Geology. ……………………………………………………...32

3.5.3 Climate. ………………………………………………………32

3.5.4 Population. ……………………………………………………32

3.5.5 Construction materials of the houses. ………………………...32

3.6 Kohistan. ……………………………………………………………....33

3.6.1 Physical feature and topography. …………………………….33

3.6.2 Geology. ……………………………………………………...33

3.6.3 Climate. ………………………………………………………34

3.6.4 Population. ……………………………………………………34

3.6.5 Construction materials of the houses. ………………………...34

Chapter Four Measurement techniques 36

4.1 Passive techniques. ……………………………………………………37

4.1.1 Charcoal canister technique. …………………………………...38

4.1.2 Electrics. ……………………………………………………….38

xiv

4.1.3 Thermoluminiscent technique. ………………………………...38

4.1.4 Etched tracks detectors. ………………………………………..39

4.1.4.1 Membrane permeation samplers. …………………...39

4.1.4.2 Plastic bag permeation samplers. …………………...39

4.1.4.3 NRPB radon dosimeter. …………………………….40

4.2 Active techniques. …………………………………………………….40

4.2.1 Lucas cell (scintillation method). ……………………………...41

4.2.2 Ionization chamber. ……………………………………………41

4.2.3 Surface barrier detector (SBD). ………………………………..41

4.2.4 Two filter method. ……………………………………………..41

4.2.5 Working level method. ………………………………………...42

Chapter five Experimental 46

5.1 Radon level in water. ………………………………………………….46

5.1.1 Sampling. ………………………………………………………46

5.2 Soil gas radon………………………………………………………….52

5.2.1 Sampling………………………………………………………..52

5.3 Indoor radon concentrations…………………………………………...53

5.3.1 Sampling………………………………………………………..54

Chapter six Results and discussions 57

6.1 Radon concentration in water sources. ………………………………..57

6.1.1 Dose calculation from radon concentrations in water………….68

6.2 Soil gas radon concentrations………………………………………….70

6.3 Results of the indoor radon concentrations……………………………71

6.3.1 Seasonal correction factor……………………………………...73

6.3.2 Comparative study of yearly measured indoor radon and seasonal

averaged indoor radon………………………………………...73

6.3.3 Variation of indoor radon concentrations in different stories and

construction materials…………………………………………74

6.3.4 Dose estimation from indoor radon concentration……………75

xv

6.3.5 The excess of lung cancer in the study area………………….75

Chapter seven Conclusions and future recommendations 91

7.1 Conclusions. …………………………………………………………..91

7.2 Future recommendations………………………………………………94

7.3 References. ……………………………………………………………95

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Diagram showing the Radon decay chain ………………………………...2

Figure 2.1: Excess lung cancer risk as a function of indoor radon level…………..8

Figure 3.1: Map of N.W.F.P with black shaded portion of Hazara Division (study area)…………………………………………………………………..21

Figure 3.2: Map of the study area………………………………………………...22

Figure 3.3: The Balakot–Bagh (B-B) fault in the Hazara–Kashmir Syntaxis……27

Figure 3.4: Mapping of the study area near Balakot-Bagh fault line……………..26

Figure 4.1: The charcoal canister………………………………………………….43

Figure 4.2: Radon monitoring devices based on etched track detectors (a) filter

permeation sampler (b) plastic bag permeation sampler (c) NRPB

radon dosimeter………………………………………………………44

Figure 4.3: Diagram illustration of the key procedure involved in radon recognition

and assessment by means of an etched trail radon dosimeter………...44

Figure 4.4: Schematic of 7RAD ………………………………………………….45

Figure 4.5: A true picture of 7RAD ……………………………………………...45

Figure 6.1: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the spring water in

Balakot………………………………………………………….…….80

Figure 6.2: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the spring water (except

Mansehra) in the study area…………………………………………..81

Figure 6.3: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the surface water in the

study area……………………………………………………………..81

Figure 6.4: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the bore water in the

study area……………………………………………………………..82

Figure 6.5: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in all sources of water in

the study area…………………………………………………………82

Figure 6.6: Mean radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in all sources of drinking water

(except the spring water from Mansehra) in the study area………......83

Figure 6.7: Variation of radon concentration in spring water, along Balakot-Bagh

(B-B) fault line in the Balakot-section………………………………..83

Figure 6.8: Mean annual dose estimated from all sources of drinking water (except

spring water from Mansehra) in the study area………………………84

Figure 6.9: Frequency allocation of soil gas radon in the study area………….....84

xvii

Figure 6.10: Frequency allocation of soil gas radon in Balakot…………………...85

Figure 6.11: Mean soil gas radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in the study area……..85

Figure 6.12: Variation of soil gas radon concentration, along Balakot-Bagh (B-B)

fault line, in the Balakot-section……………………………………...86

Figure 6.13: Frequency allocation of indoor radon concentration in Balakot…......86

Figure 6.14: Frequency allocation of annual indoor radon concentration in the study

area……………………………………………………………………87

Figure 6.15: Annual mean indoor radon concentrations in the study area………...87

Figure 6.16: Mean indoor radon concentration( 3mBq ) in different seasons of the

year…………………………………………………………………...88

Figure 6.17: Mean indoor radon concentration ( 3mBq ) at ground and first floors in

three district of the study area………………………………………...88

Figure 6.18: Mean indoor radon concentration ( 3mBq ) in different types of

material made houses in the study area………………………………89

Figure 6.19: Seasonal correction factors for the study area………………………..89

Figure 6.20: Comparison of yearly averaged measured indoor radon levels and

seasonal average indoor radon levels in the study area………………90

Figure 6.21: Annual mean dose from indoor radon concentration in the study

area……………………………………………………………………90

xviii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Radon concentration in water in different parts of the world………...14

Table 3.1: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Abbottabad

district………………………………………………………………...25

Table 3.2: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Abbottabad district...25

Table 3.3: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Mansehra

district………………………………………………………………...29

Table 3.4: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Mansehra district…..29

Table 3.5: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Haripur

district………………………………………………………………...31

Table 3.6: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Haripur district…….31

Table 3.7: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Battgram

district. ……………………………………………………………….33

Table 3.8: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Battgram district…...33

Table 3.9: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Kohistan

district. ……………………………………………………………….35

Table 3.10: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Kohistan district…...35

Table 3.11: Estimated statistics of Hazara division in 2010………………………35

Table 6.1: Statistical analysis of spring water sampling data from the selected springs in

whole study area. ……………………………………………………...61

Table 6.2: Statistical analysis of surface water sampling data from the selected surface

water in whole study area. ……………………………………………...62

Table 6.3: Statistical analysis of bore-hole water sampling data from the selected wells

in whole study area……………………………………………………..63

Table 6.4: Statistical analysis of all types of drinking sources sampling data from the

selected springs, surface and wells in whole study area…………………...64

Table 6.5: Radon concentrations in the spring water in ( 3mkBq )……………...66

Table 6.6: The radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in surface and borehole water in

three districts, Abbottabad, Mansehra, and Haripur………………...66

Table 6.7: The radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in surface and borehole water in

two districts, Battgram and Kohistan and Balakot…………………...67

xix

Table 6.8: The comparison of radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in deep well water

with previous measurements from different countries……………….68

Table 6.9: Arithmetic mean (A.M), maximum and minimum radon concentration

and annual mean dose estimation from radon in all three sources of

drinking water in the study area………………………………………69

Table 6.10: Radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) in soil gas in Balakot (near fault line)

and other part of the study area……………………………………….71

Table 6.11: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations ( 3mBq ) in the study area in

the spring season……………………………………………………...76

Table 6.12: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations ( 3mBq ) in the study area in

the summer season……………………………………………………76

Table 6.13: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations ( 3mBq ) in the study area in

the autumn season…………………………………………………….77

Table 6.14: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations ( 3mBq ) in the study area in

the winter season……………………………………………………...77

Table 6.15: Statistics for weighted seasonal indoor radon concentrations ( 3mBq )

in the study area………………………………………………………78

Table 6.16: Weighted yearly indoor radon concentrations ( 3mBq ) in the study

area……………………………………………………………………78

Table 6.17: Arithmetic mean, maximum and minimum weighted indoor radon

concentration for different floors for three districts of the study area

weighted indoor radon………………………………………………..79

Table 6.18: Indoor radon concentration ( 3mBq ) in different types of material

houses………………………………………………………………...79

Table 6.19: Mean annual dose ( mSv ) from the weighted indoor radon

concentration in the study area……………………………………….79

Table 6.20 Excess of lung cancer per million per year (MPY) from the indoor

radon level according to various agencies, in the study area…………80

xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

N.W.F.P.(KPK) North West Frontier Province (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa)

UNSCEAR United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic

Radiation

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

NCRP National Council for Radiological Protection

WLM Working Level Month

MPY Million Per Year

MCL Maximum Contamination Level

USA United State of America

SSNTD Solid State Nuclear Track Detector

ASPF Alpha Sensitive Plastic Film

CR Columbia Resin

KDC Karlsruhe Diffusion Chamber

FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas

FJWU Fatima Jinnah Women University

UK United Kingdom

TLD Thermo Luminiscent Detector

NRPB National Radiological Protection Board

HPA Health Protection Agency

PMT Photomultiplier Tube

SBD Surface Barrier Detector

GS Gamma Spectroscopy

LC Lucas Cell

LS Liquid Scintillation

RCC Reinforce Cement Concrete

RCB Reinforce Cement Bricks

B.B Balakot-Bagh

MMT Main Mantle Thrust

WARn Weighted average Radon

DCF Dose Conversion Factor

CPM Counts Per Minute

xxi

DPM Decay Per Minute

AM Arithmetic Mean

SD Standard Deviation

H.No House number

xxii

LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

1. F. Khan, N. Ali, E.U. Khan, N.U. Khattak, K. Khan. Radon Monitoring in water

sources of Balakot and Mansehra cities lying on a Geological Fault line. Radiation

Protection Dosimetry 138 (2), 174-179 (2010).

2. N. Ali, E.U. Khan, F. Khan, P. Akhter, A. Waheed. Determination of aerosol mean

residence time using 210Pb and 7Be radionuclides in the atmosphere of Islamabad.

The Nucleus 47 (1), 25-29 (2010).

3. N. Ali, E.U. Khan, A. Waheed, S. Karim, F. Khan, A. Majeed. Varying track etch

rates along the fission fragments’ trajectories in CR-39 detectors. Chinese Physics

Letters 27 (5), 052903 (2010).

4. N. Ali, E.U. Khan, P. Akhter, F. Khan, A. Waheed. Estimation of mean annual

effective dose through radon concentration in the water and indoor air of

Islamabad and Murree. Radiation Protection Dosimetry 141 (2), 183-191 (2010).

5. F. Khan, N. Ali, E. U. Khan, N. U. Khattak, I. A. Raja, M. U. Rajput, M. A

Baloch. Study of indoor radon concentrations and associated health risks in the

five districts of Hazara division, Pakistan. J. Environ. Monit., 14, 3015-3023

(2012).

6. N. Ali, E.U. Khan, P. Akhter, N.U. Khattak, F. Khan, M. A. Rana. The effect of

air mass origin on the ambient concentrations of 7Be and 210Pb in Islamabad,

Pakistan. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 102, 35-42 (2011).

Doi:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2010.08.010.

7. F. Khan, I. A. Raja, E. U. Khan, N. Ali. Variation of indoor radon concentrations

at different stories in three districts of Hazara division- Pakistan. Accepted for

presentation at 5th International Conference “Environmentally Sustainable

Development”, ESDev-2013, to be held on August 25-27-2013, at Abbottabad

(submission No: BE-05).

8. F. Khan, E. U. Khan, N. Ali, N. U. Khattak ,I. A. Raja. Radon monitoring in soil

gas along active Balakot-Bagh fault line in Balakot-section. Presented at 2nd

International Conference “Environmentally Sustainable Development”, ESDev-

2011, held on August 24-26-2011, at Abbottabad (submission No: BE-02).

xxiii

9. F. Khan, E.U. Khan, N. Ali. Seasonally Variation in indoor Radon in Abbottabad

Pakistan. Presented at IOHA 2010 (Oral, Poster). Scientific program of 8th

International Scientific Conference HEALTH, WORK AND SOCIAL

RESPONSIBILITY.

10. F. Khan, E. U. Khan, N. Ali, H.A. Khan, I. A. Raja. Estimation of annual mean

dose from indoor radon concentrations in Abbottabad, Pakistan. Presented at 2nd

International Conference “Environmentally Sustainable Development”, ESDev-

2011, held on August 24-26-2011, at Abbottabad (submission No: BE-01).

11. F. Khan, E. U. Khan, N. Ali, N. U. Khattak , I. A. Raja. Radon monitoring in soil

gas along active Balakot-Bagh fault line in Balakot-section. Presented at 2nd

International Conference “Environmentally Sustainable Development”, ESDev-

2011, held on August 24-26-2011, at Abbottabad (submission No: BE-02).

12. F. Khan, I. A. Raja, E. U. Khan, N. Ali. Comparative study of indoor radon

concentrations for different types of material. Accepted for presentation at 5th

International Conference “Environmentally Sustainable Development”, ESDev-

2013, to be held on August 25-27-2013, at Abbottabad (submission No: BE-01).

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Radon is one of significant source of natural radiation amongst the decay series

products. The contribution in the natural background radiation from Rn222 alone is

expected to 50-55% of the mean annual dose [1]. Radon was discovered in 1900 and

was used in many effects of human use from toothpaste to hair cream till the

association among lung cancer and radon was revealed in 1950s in uranium miners,

bare to elevated concentrations of radon gas for the period of their labor [2].

U238 is present in abundance inside the earth core. The ultimate source of

radon is the uranium in the soil. The decay series of uranium is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Rn222 emanates through earth crust, depending upon porosity of the structure.

However the geological faults in the various tectonic plates provide an easy path

to Rn222 for the migration to the surface in the area.

Radon gas enters into people's houses from underlying soil and building

materials, build up to high levels and may cause the occupants to die from lung cancer

after many years [3]. Water radon concentrations also contribute to indoor radon in

the ratio of 1: 104. The study of radon is also important as it is an excellent tool of

research in variety of fields such as deeply buried uranium traced by it [2, 4]. To

estimate the health risk posed by indoor radon and to use it as a helping tool, a

systematic approach has to be adapted. Besides monitoring indoor radon

concentration levels, its entry sources have to be identified. In addition to this,

understanding and modeling of radon transport is also crucial.

The northern part of Pakistan is situated at the cross roads of various tectonic

plates, and has different well defined faults; the probability of excessive Rn222 in the

area is very high. Radon has no direct or immediate health effects, but it decays into

short-lived daughter products that are in solid form. These daughter products are the

main health risk [5].

In the present work, the measurement of radon concentration in the water

sources, soil gas and indoor air were carried out in some of the earthquake hit areas in

Hazara Division, N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa). It is most probable that there may

a considerable increase in the radon concentration in all these three media (indoor air,

2

water and soil). No study of radon concentrations in the area was conducted before

2005 earthquake. This study is therefore; equally important for the health protection

of the people of the area as the annual received doses were estimated from the

measure of radon levels. The current survey is also important as it provides the base

line data for future researchers in the field.

238U

234Th 234Pa 234U

230Th Alpha decay

226Ra

Beta decay

218Po

214Pb 214Bi 214Po

210Pb 210Bi 210Po

206Pb

Fig. 1.1: Diagram showing the Radon decay chain [6].

1.2 Objective

The work is aimed to determine radon concentrations in water reservoirs, soil and in

indoor air of the study area, situated in Hazara Division N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun

Khwa) which was hit by a devastating earthquake in October, 2005. The rocks below

the soil are fractured due to earth quake and resultantly radon movement is affected

by diffusion as well as convection flow. Radon may also move with ground water in

dissolved state. In order to escape the rock and soil the radon must migrate relatively

quickly before it decays and progeny combines chemically with surrounding

elements. In area where soil has high porosity and permeability or is in proximity to

fractured rocks and fault lines, greater quantities of radon may reach the earth surface.

Likewise, radon formed in close proximity to ground water may dissolve in the water

and travel with it.

222Rn

3

Rn222 , α-emitting gas, is present in the environment especially in the region

where U238 is in abundance. We inhale it through our respiration system and emitted α-

particles can decay right in our lungs which may become a source for the lung cancer.

In all the radioactive nuclei, 45% contribution to the lung cancer is because of radon.

Though the excessive Rn222 in environment may be reduced due to precautionary

measures in the dwellings, there is still a possibility that Rn222 is dissolved in natural

water reservoirs. Hence it is significant to measure the Rn222 level in the water

reservoirs. Although many surveys have been carried out to measure Rn222 gas in

dwellings in settled areas of Pakistan, however no radon survey in water has been

conducted so far in any part of the country.

1.3 Thesis organization

This thesis comprises of seven chapters. The first chapter briefly introduced the work

done and the objectives of this study. The second chapter thoroughly reviews the

experimental efforts carried out throughout the world in this field. Chapter Three

describes the topographical and geological features, houses structure, climatic

condition and population of the area. Chapter Four describes the techniques used in

this field for the radon measurement. It also describes the relative advantage and

disadvantage. Chapter Five describes the experimental arrangements, while the

chapter Six describes the results and discussions and these results concluded in the

same chapter. Chapter Seven includes the future recommendations for the future

researcher in the field, on the basis of the current work.

4

CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW

The possibilities of Rn222 within the earth, its waters, and atmosphere make it a

valuable tracer for noteworthy range of geophysical, geochemical, hydrological, and

atmospheric purposes. These applications include searching of possessions for

instance uranium and organic deposits, studying gas course and mixing in the

atmosphere, to identify fluid transportation inside earth, in endeavor to forecast

seismic and volcanic proceedings resultantly premonitory variation in radon levels

within the earth. Alternatively, the presence of extra radon has special significances

due to its health threat as Rn222 is the second foremost reason of lung cancer following

cigarette.

2.1 Radon daughters

Radon decays into its daughters known as radon progenies starts from

polonium Po218 and become stable at its eighth daughter which is lead Pb206 . Radon

itself is considered to have no immediate effects but its progenies are responsible for

main health risk. The decay chain which originating from U238 is given below

PoRnRaThUPaThU 218222226230234234234238

StablePbPoBiPbPoBiPb 206210210210214214214

Due to longer half life (3.82days) of radon than breathing time, most of the

radon that is inhaled is exhaled without decaying [7] Negligible amount of radon gas

decay inside the lungs which can be ignored. The decaying progenies of

radon PoandBiPbPo 214214214218 ,,( ), being more chemically reactive, may attach to

particle surface (attached fraction), characteristically aerosols, which can be inhaled

and deposited in the nose or the pharynx (3% chance of adhering to the lungs lining);

the free fraction (ions) have chance (50%) of settle on the surface of bronchi[8].

Paradoxically, in dust free areas for the same radon levels; the risk from elevated

radon is lower than in dusty areas. While the top of the four, Pb214 , has a half life of

not as much of 27 minutes, the full series of decays is being concluded prior to the

5

usual clearance procedures of the lung can eliminate them away. Consequently the

susceptible surface of the bronchi are irradiated by these decays the mainly energetic

stern of which are the greatly ionizing short-range α particles from polonium

isotopes Po214 and Po218 while the third α emitter of Po210 contributes relatively little

because its decays needs the earlier decay of Pb210 having 22-years half-life [9].

2.2 Radon and Risk

Lung cancer is the principal health hazard of radon as it comes to the body through

breathing. The correlation among radon and lung cancer in miners has increased

apprehension that radon inside homes may be the source of lung cancer to the

common public, even though the radon levels in most of homes are much lower than

in mines. Serious epidemiological investigations have been realized on the health risk

but study related to the general public is fairly odd. The general public is exposing to

lesser levels of radon progeny than the workers in the uranium mines. Beside the

radon progeny levels, the miners exposed to the cigarette smoke which can also

contributes in the lung cancer. Supplementary differences relate to work state are

inhalation rate, nature of aerosol distribution, people characteristics such as gender,

age and relative lung working. Subsequently link of the results for the uranium miners

and general public is very complex and highly unsure. There are three common

models used for analytical connection between the dose of a cancer-causing

substances and the outcome (growth of cancer); (i) The linear model assumes that as

the dose increases there is a linear increase in the effect (cancer), (ii) The threshold

model assumes that there is no effect at all with a very low dosage but as the dosage

increases to a certain value (threshold) at which the effect (cancer)is seen and (iii) The

quadratic model assumes that at lower dose the effect decreases more rapidly than

dose. According to all these three models there is no health risk at zero dose and

some health risk at high dose as they all are based on the obtainable data such as the

underground miners studies. The dose- effect connection for high dose is practically

well recognized. The difficulties come up from making link between these data and

lower dose levels as the largest part of the people are exposed to, much lower

concentration than miners [10].

The acknowledged risk model of lung cancer by NCRP is based on data in

high exposure of underground miners. The projection to low- level exposure is

6

supported by epidemiological studies of lung cancer in non- smokers. Following

assumptions were made to develop these models:

No lung cancer occurs prior to the age of 40 years.

There is an inactive age of 5 to 10 years between the exposure and the

happening of cancer.

It is understood that after the age of 85 years there is no input to lung

cancer.

The chance of lung cancer decreases with the increase in age for a

particular exposure.

The level rate for lung for a single exposure is foremost when age at

exposure is highest.

The nucleus age linked with indication of lung cancer is around 60

years for non-smokers and 50 plus for smokers.

2.2.1 The life cancer estimate

The life cancer is calculated in the following manner [10]

First the annual danger is determined, following to an annual exposure of 1WLM at t0.

000, ttetCNttA (2.1)

Where 0, ttA = the chance of cancer generation at time t (t =40) due to a single

yearly exposure at t0

C is the risk coefficient per year per WLM

0tN is the number of WLMs of exposure at age t0

λ is the constant accounted for decrease in rate of risk of due to revamp, cell loss

or indeterminate means (λ= ln2/20yr-1)

Now the lifetime risk, R at the age of tm for manifold exposures is obtained by

summing the annual risk as follow;

mt

t tttAR

0

0

85),( (2.2)

Where t = 40 to 85 for t0 < 35, and t = (t0+5) to 85 for t0 >35

7

2.2.2 Excess of Lung Cancer Risk

The excess of lung cancer risk is defined as the incident of excess deaths per million

people per (MPY) due to the lung cancer as a consequence of revelation to radon and

its progenies. The risk coefficient, defined as the quantity of lung cancer cases per

MPY per working level month (WLM) is calculated using the epidemiological

records of the occupationally exposed mine workers. A statistics is obtainable for lung

cancer cases owing to the inside radon exposure as can be seen in references [11-15].

According to this information, the risks emerge to be regular by the previous

approximate that are based on the records of mine workers. So whenever the lung

cancer risk is measured because to the indoor radon exposure, the data of mine

workers is frequently deemed. There are numerals models for calculations of the lung

cancer risk owing to the indoor radon exposure have been given in the text [16-19].

The excess of lung cancer per MPYas a function of the indoor radon

concentration level is given away for the risk coefficient of the scheduled agencies in

Fig. 2.1 It can be seen that there is a large disparity among the probable values of the

excess lung cancer risk. The excess lung cancer risk calculated using the

UNSCEAR upper limit of the risk coefficient is the uppermost conversely; the lower

limit of the risk coefficient recommended byUS EPA capitulate the lowest excess

lung cancer risk value. This is because that unlike assumed parameters were used in

the models planned by the above- stated organization whose reliability is not sure for

the reason, that of the non-availability of the requisite information concerning the

deaths owing to the lung cancer arise by indoor exposure to radon and its progenies.

Using these models a probable calculate approximately of the lung cancer risk is

possible.

It is appealing that the approximation of lung cancer risk per WLM published

by theUNSCEAR andUS EPA are based on the Western populations. The numerical

models derived from epidemiological data must be taken for suitable risk

measurement by considering the statistical error in mind. The lung cancer risk due to

tobacco usage and due to radon cause per WLM fluctuates in different inhabitants

[11].

A complete calculation of risk for people of a specific area would entail

information of the age–specific lung cancer rates and on the whole death rates in the

populations. If such information is not available then it is suitable to use the risk

8

coefficient reported by EPAUSandUNSCEAR . The excess lung cancer risk is

measured by means of the following relation [20],

RiskCancerExcess = WLMfactorrisk 8.05.0 (2.3)

Where 5.0 is the factormequilibriu and 8.0 is the residence part (the part of moment

used up indoor).

Fig. 2.1: Excess lung cancer risk as a function of indoor radon level

2.2.3 Radon in Water

Radon is produced from the radioactive decay of uranium and radium deposits.

Almost in all soils and rocks uranium and radium can be found, in draw amounts. As

radon is gas, so it can get away from mineral outside and dissolve in ground water,

which can transmit radon from the position of derivation to any other point. Radon

concentration is not found, considerably in surface water, owing to its quick diffusion

into the environment.

Usually groundwater sources have mean concentration between 200 and

600 1lpCi more or less 10percent of community drinking water provisions have

concentrations greater than 1000 1lpCi and approximately1percent exceeds

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 1800

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

2600 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

UNSCEAR (uuper limit)EPA (upper limit)

BEIR IV

UNSCEAR (lower limit)

NCRP 1984

EPA (lower limit)

Exc

ess

Lung

Can

cer

Mill

ion

Pe

r Y

ear

(MP

Y)

Radon concentration (Bq m-3)

9

10,000 1lpCi . Slighter water systems come out to be disproportionally influenced by

elevated radon [21].

J.J. Thomson was the first one to discover radon in water stores, break a new

ground in the discipline of radioactivity, in the start of nineteen century [22]. In the

beginning, scientists and doctors thought radioactivity to have kind, still remedial,

outcomes on the person cadaver. Untimely study connected elevated radon levels to

innate warm spring's wide attention to have marvelous powers. However later,

knowledge proved the threats of radiation revelation, following a numeral of solemn

mishaps and victims [23].

2.2.4 Health risks due to waterborne radon

In the 1950s the radon decay yields in air appeared as the possible reason of soaring

occurrences of lung cancer amongst underground mine workers. Further works

exposed usually elevated groundwater radon levels in the surrounding area of

Raymond, Maine. In the 1960s, scientists started to study the result of ingested and

breathe in radon gas, monitored the radon taken by digestive organs and its dispersion

throughout the bloodstream [24]. Till 1970, radon was generally acknowledged as

most important part of our natural radiation exposure. By the overdue 1970s, Maine

had started a plan to endeavor to diminish community exposure to radon from water,

having revealed cases in which groundwater concentration greater than

1610 lpCi [22].

Federal action in USA, on the crisis of the radon in drinking water focused in

the 1980s with a countrywide plan to study consumption water stores for radioactivity

and estimate the danger to community health. The Environmental Protection Agency

)(EPA had been directed by Congress, to take notice of radioactivity in drinking

water, in this regard, in 1991 the EPAUS formally projected a Maximum Contaminant

Level(MCL) for radon in community drinking water of 300 1lpCi (11.1 3mkBq ).

This )(MCL could one day turn into bind on community water supplies [25].

Radon due to water go ahead to health danger by two ways: first the radon and

its progenies inhalation, subsequent the discharge of radon gas from water into family

unit air, second the straight intake of radon in drinking water.

10

The hazard of lung cancer owing to inhaled radon progenies has been well

recognized during the survey of undergrounds mine workers. The cancer risk due to

intake, mainly includes, abdomen and digestive organs cancer. This has been

projected from survey of the movement of radon through the gastrointestinal zone and

bloodstream. So far cancer is the only health hazard associated with radon than any

other disease. The cancer risk from the inhalation pathway is more than from the

ingestion pathway [24].

In the majority of houses, radon from water is less important source of inside

radon, than by soil gas flow. It is a known belief, although not an unusual one, that

radon from water is the main provider to high radon in air [26].

2.3 Soil gas radon

A radon level in outdoor air is due to the exhalation rate of radon gas from the upper

soil. It is so reduced that its concentration is insignificant at knee-height is of the level

(8-14 3mBq ), exceptions are present. Special metrological circumstances could favor

the keep on the radon gas in situ in the open air. The radon gas spreads only by

dispersal of its atoms. The radon gas stays in the air above the point of exhalation,

giving radon concentrations of the order of 100 3mBq due to inversion condition.

The occurrence of the radon progenies in the air is extremely unpredictable due to

dilution of radon gas.

The concentration radon in the soil depends on soil depth. It rises with depth,

and could achieve a limit at a depth of about 2 m in the soil. Generally there is a

rupture in the increase of the radon concentration at a depth of 2 m. The upward move

of the radon gas is because of diffusion and forced transfer, which elucidate a long

distance transport of radon [27, 28]. One likelihood is a mover gas, like bubbles

stirring upwards through water-filled snaps. One more is a force upshot by

compression and decompression in the ground, probably in link with seismic

activities. The radon concentration zC at depth z in the soil can be illustrated in

theory by the expression:

zC = kzeC 10 (2.4)

Where 0C is constant and

11

k =

DD

v

D

v 22

2

42 (2.5)

With as the porosity of the ground medium, v as the flow velocity D as the diffusion

coefficient, is the radioactive decay constant.

The complication of the radon carrying shows that its level increases with

depth in the sand [27]. Usually, the depth dependence of the radon concentration is

dissimilar in diverse kinds of the soil. The porosity is a significant factor since it

fluctuates from one type of soil to another [29]. A second key factor is the diffusion

coefficient [30]. The radon concentration with respect to moisture in the soil shows

that the radon level for the most moisture is less as compare to the low moisture soil

for the same thickness and same nature of the soil [31].

The uranium content of the soil is imperative for the nearby formed radon gas.

The uranium content is one more main parameter along with the porosity and

diffusion coefficient [32]. A growing range of the uranium content shows a higher soil

radon level which is based on a biogeochemical mapping technique. (1-25 ppm) [33].

To get a better impending, the contribution of soil in the radon concentration

the study has been carried out in the Hazara division in all three media indoor air, in

sources of drinking water and in the soil, especially in the earth-quake hit area as it is

expected that the radon concentration may be increased after the earth-quake and a

high radon concentration is observed with soils lying over extremely cracked rocks

such as geological faults and active volcanoes [34-37].

2.4 Indoor radon sources

The soil adjoining to the construction, drinkable water supply and construction

materials are the main sources of radon and its progenies [38]. Radon in outdoor may

also enter in the building as the air exchanged. Yet this is usually balanced by the loss

of radon to the outside as the indoor radon concentrations are typically higher than

those outside the structure. A natural gas usage can also contribute very small in the

indoor radon concentration as contrast to the other sources. Categorization of the

indoor sources of radon requires consideration of the rate at which radon is generated

in the source materials and its form of transport through different materials which will

be discussed later.

12

Radon can move in to houses through cracks or holes in the groundwork from

the soil gas near buildings. This also provides a fractional justification for the

observed higher radon levels in the basements and on ground stories as compared to

upper stories. The key factor may be the typical air exchange pattern.

In general buildings materials contribute very little except when the radium

contents in it is above the usual values. Many of the building materials such as

concrete or wallboard and the bricks are adequately permeable and allow radon to

enter into the indoor air. Materials which are not derived from the earth's crust, such

as wood, tend to have very low radium concentration [39]. As a result radon

concentrations in dwellings to a certain extent depend on construction practices and

materials used.

All of the radon produced from the radium in the soil and building materials

cannot migrate and enter into home. Some of the radon atoms are ensnared within the

grains of soil and are not able to escape to pore spaces [40]. The un-trapped radon

somewhat absorbed in ground water and some diffuses through the soil. The radon

concentrations in soil gases and dwellings primarily depend on the emanation and

exhalation rate of radon respectively, besides some other parameters.

2.5 Literature review

2.5.1 Radon concentration in water

Radon level in the ground water and its variableness with time and space has been

calculated often in modern time. The outcomes of the investigation are extremely

significant for radon movement processes in the lithosphere and the job of

groundwater as radon transporter fluid. It is too imperative to identify the function of

geological formation and rocks kind as a cause of radon dissolved in groundwater

[41-63]. For that reason, it is doable to decide regions where one could suppose

groundwater steady flows with high radon concentrations. Moreover, it is probable to

employ such outcome for applying radon as a natural radioactive tracer of various

developments occurring in hydrosphere (in groundwater and surface waters,

predominantly in the zones of their mixing--- for instance, Karst areas) and

lithosphere [64-74].

The levels of radon vary in different types of water (spring, bore and surface

water). By and large very low radon concentrations are found in surface water, the

13

levels in the range of a small number of 3mkBq [75]. At the same time as the highest

concentrations of dissolved radon are found in ground water flowing through granite

or granitic sand and gravel arrangements, ranging from 1-50 3mkBq in aquifer and

sedimentary rocks, 10-300 3mkBq in very deep wells and 100-50000 3mkBq in

crystalline rocks [76, 77]. The data of radon concentration from 300 samples

composed from 41 states of USA showed that the average value of radon

concentration ranging from 1.24 3mkBq in Tennessee to 65.6 3mkBq in Rhode Island

[40].

The radon concentrations in hot spring water hotels in Guangdong, China ranging

from 53.4–292.5 3mkBq [78]. These values obtained for faucet water in Baoji, China

were 12 3mkBq and 41 3mkBq for different water sources [79]. The radon levels in

drinking groundwater and in surface water in Tehran, Iran were 50.1140.46 and

20.150.2 1lBq correspondingly. The average radon level in faucet water was

94.070.3 1lBq [80].The radon concentrations were measured in the faucet water,

spring water and in the river water in the area of Tokat city in Turkey. These values

are ranging from 22.048.0 to 27.03.1 1lBq from 17.013.0 29.020.1

1lBq and from 12.009.0 to 17.083.0 1lBq in faucet water, spring water and

Yesilirmak river water correspondingly [81]. The radon concentrations in

groundwater were measured at diverse points located in Tassili (Algeria). It varied

from 0.50 to 19.3 1lBq [82]. Radon concentrations in the ground water of

Uttarkashi, India over and around the landslide were in the range of 0.51 to

86 3mkBq [83]. The radon levels in the hot spring water in the Venezuela are varying

from 1 to 560 3mkBq [84]. The radon concentration values in groundwater of the

Polish part of the Sudety Mountains (SW Poland) are ranging from 0.2 to

1645 3mkBq , with the mean value of 240.0 3mkBq [85]. The survey carried out for

the radon level in natural water in the Transylvania region in Romania. The study

revealed that the radon levels are within the range of 0.5-129.3 3mkBq with average

value of 15.4 3mkBq for all types of water covered in the survey [86]. The radon level

in ground water is usually to a large extent, higher than it is in surface water [87].

Typical values of radon in surface water are around 40 3mBq , while in ground water

14

it ranges from 4 to 40 3mkBq table (2.1) shows the radon concentration in various

part of the world [19].

Quantity of radon in natural water provides valuable information regarding the

uranium deposits and in addition to this it helps in searching hidden fault. While to

protect from the radiation hazards and to differentiate between ground and surface

water, over and above, to look for seismic linked variation in the radon contents of

water, constant check of radioactivity in drinking water, mineral water and thermal

water is required [52, 88].

There are many technique and instrument through which radon concentration

in water can be measured. The most appropriate method for the study of partition

patterns in the groundwater or surface water sources is the active method through

which in-situ measurements are obtained [89].

Table 2.1: Radon in water in different parts of the world.

Country/location Average radon concentration ( 3mkBq ) Austria Saizburg

1.5

Finland Helsinki and Vantaa Other areas

1200 280

Italy 80 Sweden 19 United states Aroostock, Maine Cumberland, Maine Hancock, Maine Lincoin, Maine Penobscut, Maine Waldo, Maine York, Maine

48 1000 1400 560 540 1100 670

2.5.2 Soil gas radon concentrations

The soil radon level is related with the occurrence of Ra226 and its final source

uranium in the earth crust. Though these elements come about in all kinds of rocks

and soils, yet their level fluctuates with particular locations and geological substances.

The half life of the Rn222 is 3.82 days, and being an inert gas it can travel great

distances all the way throughout rocks and soils. Therefore radon is, equally, a danger

as well as helpful [7]. As radon transports through waters within earth and atmosphere

this ability of radon formulate it a valuable tracer for a noteworthy range of

15

geophysical, geochemical, hydrological, and atmospheric uses[90]. These uses

include searching of possessions such as uranium and hydrocarbon deposits, studying

gas flow and integration in the atmosphere, recognizing fluid transport inside the

earth, attempting to forecast seismic and volcanic actions through premonitory

variation in radon concentrations in earth [77, 91]. These uses of radon make it useful

even than its health hazards. A constant exposure of individual to elevated levels of

radon yields possibly will create lung cancer, hence radon measurement play a vital

position in examine individual health and protection, together in homes and mines.

Radon concentration measurements in the soil is important for many reasons

first, is to sort out houses with high indoor radon levels. The further cause is particular

building regulations. The radon must be prevented from entering the house from the

soil and the constructor of fresh house must consider that. In large-scale of soil radon,

many geological and other records are required; but there is no hesitation that regions

with elevated uranium content in the bed rock or in the soil are danger area as the

indoor radon concentrations values are correlated with predominantly soil radon gas

[92].

The time-dependent changes in the soil radon levels are generally of two

kinds: Long-time variations and short-time variations. The long- time variations are

provisioned by parameters of seasonal nature. Such parameters are ground-water

levels and temperature. The radon concentration is higher in one part of the year than

in the other part of the year [93]. One possible factor disturbing the calculated radon

concentration is the ground water level, which could be soaring in the autumn or in

the winter. An additional likelihood is the result of lower temperature.

For porous soils the ground water levels has less weight; as compare to clay

[94]. Soil radon measurement has to be done at certain depth that is not affected by

temperature.

It is obvious from above discussion so as to soil radon level depends on, a

number of parameters. A few of these parameters and their outcomes have been

discussed above. Numerous of the parameters have a geological or a metrological

origin. Occasionally one parameter controls the radon concentration in soil greatly at

one position of measurement, but only a few meters away this influence could be

insignificant [27]. This information makes it difficult to identify or estimate the soil

concentration, particularly if one or two central parameters are unidentified. It is then

16

easy in a given measurement to incorrectly indict the soil radon detector for giving the

incorrect reply.

Building materials, adjacent soil and faucet water if it is supplied from the

groundwater in radium behavior aquifers, are the major sources of indoor radon

levels. The contribution from the tap water and building materials is not significant it

make only a small fraction of all radon sources. Therefore the most important source

is the underlying soil [95].

The soil-gas radon level was in the range of 3 to 219 3mkBq and it was found

high in active landslide area of Uttarkashi, India [83].

2.5.3 Indoor radon concentrations

A very detailed study has been carried out for indoor radon levels and radon in

workplaces throughout the world in the last 30 to 35 years. Regardless of the large

research work which had been done on radon there is still a room for further

investigates from the radiation safety point of view.

One of the most primitive works associated to radon measurement in Pakistan

was reported elsewhere [96], where CA80-15, LR-115 and cellulose nitrate detectors

were used. They had calculated the annealing properties of the latent damage tracks

created by the particles emitted from radon and thoron.

Radon may be utilized to foretell the coming of volcanic and seismic

activities, to locate the uranium and oil deposits [28, 97, 98]. In this regard, radon

signals were used to guess the coming of an earthquake, to trace geothermal energy

sources, oil and uranium deposits [99, 100]. The radon variations were being

monitoring frequently to develop an earthquake caution signal method. For the first

time radon was used, in measuring radioactivity in the area of Kirana hills, Punjab

Pakistan and to look for the uranium ore deposit in the area [101]. The radium and

uranium in various ore samples can be measured from radon exhalation rate for the

collected samples from different parts of Pakistan [102]. Alpha Sensitive Plastic Film

)(ASPF method can also be used for the earthquake forecast and for the site of re-

mobilized uranium ore bodies in sand stones [103-105].

Largely CN-85, CR-39, LR-115, etc were used for the radon measurement in

order to evaluate the radiological risks to the job-related workers in the underground

mines; the radon measurement study has been carried out in some of Baluchistan coal

mines. In this survey passive technique was utilized in which 85CN track detectors

17

in box type dosimeter were used [106]. The utility of an alpha sensitive plastic

SSNTDs for radon measurements were quantified in the experimental work [107]. The indoor radon concentration level besides others factor depends on the

porosity in the building materials and diffusion length of radon. In this regard, the

diffusion length, porosity of soil and sand has determined by means of

39CR detector [108]. Track dosimeter in combination with mica nuclear filters was

used in some fundamental experiments to measure the radon track densities in a

diverse atmosphere of radon and thoron have been reported [109].

Radon study has been carried out in the Makarwal coal mines of Pakistan by

both passive and active techniques [110]. In this study passive technique CR-39

detectors were used at different positions in the mines and in the active technique an

air pump was used for drawing the air through a filter paper. The radon decay

products were then trapped by the filter from which the alpha activity counted using

Thomson and Kusnetz techniques. The equilibrium factor dependence on the

shape/effective volume of the chamber has studied in using the SSNTDs and surface

barrier detectors in Karlsruhe Diffusion Chamber (KDC) [111]. The majority of the

works, on the subject of radon concentration level measurement have been done in the

residential area of the Pakistan. Few survey have also been carried out to find out the

work-related radon danger. Indoor radon has measured in other study by means of

CR-39 and CN-85 detectors [112].

In one of the study, carried out in the mines of Chakwal and Makarwal regions

of Pakistan high radon concentration level was observed in poor ventilated mines. In

this survey closed-can technique was used to measure radon exhalation rate from

shale and coal samples which were accumulated from different mines [113]. Radon

concentrations were measured from the samples composed from different coal mines

in the Punjab and Baluchistan regions of Pakistan using hybrid technique and CR-39

trail detector [114].

The largest part of the houses in Pakistan is mostly made from soil, sand,

bricks and marble, etc. Hence, study of radon exhalation rate from the aforesaid

construction supplies is very important. For the reason the soil samples were

composed from the seven cities of Bahawalpur Division and four metropolis of

N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa) in which radon exhalation rate have calculated

[115]. In an another study, radon exhalation rate have measured in soil, sand and

18

bricks samples, composed from the North West Frontier Province (N.W.F.P) and

Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), Pakistan [116].

As it is stated previously that in Pakistan a large amount of the radon

measurement related available figures is about indoor radon measurements. The

radon/thoron concentrations were measured in Lahore and Kasur cities by using

85CN (SSNTD) pipes from which radon flux; concentration and annual dose have

been calculated [117]. In Skardu city, northern Pakistan indoor radon concentrations

were measured [118]. A related survey has been reported in residences of the Jhelum

valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir [119]. In one more survey, the indoor radon level

has calculated in the city of Muzaffarabad and in the Rawalakot areas of Azad Jammu

Azad Kashmir [120, 121].

CR-39 and CN-85 detectors have been utilized in measuring indoor radon and

its progenies in Islamabad, in bed rooms, kitchen and drawing rooms of the houses

[122]. A similar sort of study have done in Islamabad, Lahore and Rawalpindi cities,

using CN-85 trail detectors in container kind dosimeter [123]. In one of the survey

internal, external doses were estimated from radon concentration measurement, and

gamma ray activities in residences of the Dera Ismail Khan [124].

Indoor radon concentration levels have measured in seven major cities of

Bahawalpur Division, using CR-39 detectors in polythene bag [20]. Radon level has

been measured for the Islamabad and Rawalpindi cities by means of SSNTDs and

from these data the lung cancer risk have been determined [104]. Similarly radon

concentrations have been measured in the new and old buildings of the Fatima Jinnah

Women University )(FJWU campus, Rawalpindi, Pakistan [125]. CR-39 based

NRPB dosimeter have used for the indoor radon concentration in numerous districts

of the North West Frontier Province ( PFWN ... ) and federally administered tribal

areas )(FATA Pakistan [116]. In one more survey, seasonal variation have measured

in the indoor radon concentration levels in the same region taking four set of

measurements round the year [126]. Indoor radon concentrations calculated in the six

districts of Punjab from which seasonal correction factors have obtained for the region

[127].

A lot of literature is available on seasonal deviation of indoor radon

concentrations. The concentration of radon and its progenies confirm large time and

local variations in the indoor atmosphere due to the variations of temperature,

19

pressure, nature of construction supplies, ventilation circumstances and breeze rate

[128].

In general winter season shows elevated radon concentration than in summer

means that better ventilation is adopted, in principle, by the dwellers in summer. For

example, In the U.K, correction factors have been anticipated for seasonally

normalizing radon values [129]. Yet, this rule, whereas recounting an average

behavior could not be valid in individual's case and can lead to incorrect

approximation of the annual average. Even this rule does not hold for the residences

located on the slope [130, 131]. In this regard, a survey has carried out in Poland in

which a large number of buildings investigated, show negative long term correlation

between radon and temperature; however, some showed the opposite behavior [132].

In another survey which was carried out on monthly basis, indoor radon levels

were measured in three houses over a period of 2 years and on different floors. A

sturdy seasonality was for ground and first floor, with high radon concentrations in

winter, and negative link with outside temperature have confirmed [133]. The study

which was carried out in several houses of Greece for indoor radon levels confirm that

the radon level is changing with the floor level. This study further reveals that in

winter season the radon concentrations are highest and varies with the floor level

[134].

A recent study carried out for indoor radon concentrations subjected to

seasonal changeability at different floors of buildings southern part of Italy. It reveals

that the atmospheric pressure does not show to be a noteworthy control, changeable

for indoor radon in any case on an annual basis. From this study higher radon

concentrations were observed in rainy season and lower in dry season. For the

uniform condition of the soil, geology and uniform climatic condition the trend shows

that a high indoor radon concentration on the first floor and lower on the second

[135].

According to EPAUS , long-term test for determination of indoor radon level

must be more than 90 days and that short-term must be less than 90 days [136]. As

different studies have also revealed a considerable variability in indoor radon levels,

both on an each day and seasonal basis, however it is not always easy to explain the

exact reasons [137-140].

20

The construction materials in the houses play a significant task in the indoor

radon concentrations for the same condition (metrological, geological and soil nature)

the mud made houses have high indoor radon concentrations than bricks made and

concrete made houses [141]. A similar behavior was observed by others [142]. The

adobe walls and floors have the highest indoor radon concentrations [92].

Most of the work in Pakistan was carried out for indoor radon levels using

passive technique; however a very little work has been carried out for soil gas radon.

There exists hardly any work studying radon concentration in water before the present

work.

21

CHAPTER 3

GEOLOGY AND DEMOGRAPHY OF THE

STUDY AREA

As the radon, natural radioactivity, their hazard, and the measurement techniques are

discussed in the previous two chapters now it would be useful to discuss the salient

features of the selected area. The selected area is the Hazara Division in the N.W.F.P (

or now Khyber Pakhtun Khwa) - Pakistan (Fig.3.1), hit by the earthquake in October,

2005. It includes five districts namely Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and

Kohistan which are shown by the shaded areas in Fig. 3.2. Khyber Pakhtun Khwa is

the province of Pakistan which is 12% of the hole populace of Pakistan from 1998

census details. The selected area corresponds to 20% of the total inhabitants of the

N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa) and approximately 3% of the total population of

Pakistan. A short narrative of Hazara Division and apiece district is discussed below.

Fig.3.1: Map of N.W.F.P with black shaded portion of Hazara Division (study area)

22

Fig.3.2: Map of the study area

3.1 Lanform of Hazara Division

In Hazara Division the landform between Hassan Abdal and Thakot mainly consists

of reworked loess and alluvial deposits [143]. These deposits occur in the form of

terraces and overflow plain deposits beside the vale slopes and banks of the major

streams in the region. These alluvial plains are well developed in the low lands of

Haripur, Abbottabad, Hassan Abdal and Battgram regions, but inadequately

developed in the highlands connecting Mansehra and Shinkiari. The loess is partially

consolidated and interlayered with sandy gravel. Small alluvial pieces are there beside

the highway, which are poised of gravel and boulder deposits. The Batal alluvial

deposits of are composed of to some amount, customized and weathered material

resulting in Mansehra granite.

The Thakot-Gilgit part of the thoroughfare consists of sharp inclines and

cavernous ravine. The geography of this region is irregular and rough. A large range

of igneous and metamorphic rocks is revealed in the vicinity that has undergone

widespread deformation owing to the soaring degree of tectonic movement

exceptionality of the area. One or more times this area has been glaciated. Glacial

sediments comprise interbedded glaciofluvial and morainic deposits with less

common happening of glaciolacustrine material. Surficial materials occur to a large

23

quantity in glacially deposited terraces in the river valleys, as alluvial fans at the

convergence of the Indus River and its streams, and as newly deposited alluvial stuff

in and along the riverbed.

3.2 Abbottabad

The Abbottabad district lies between 34.150 º N latitude and 72.58 º to 73.51 º E

longitude 1998. In north-east it touches the Punjab province through Murree hills and

Muzaffar Abad of Azad Kashmir. In south-west Haripur district, and in the north the

Mansehra district. The district covered an area of 1976 square kilometer. The district

includes two tehsil namely, Abbottabad and Havilian.

3.2.1 Physical features and topography

Abbottabad is the main city of Abbottabad district in the Khyber Pakhtun Khwa. It is

situated 205 km from Peshawar and 150 km north of Islamabad, at height of 1236 m

above sea level. The adjoining areas are Mansehra, Muzaffarabad, Haripur,

Rawalpindi, to the north, east, west and south respectively. The city is a part of the

Orash Valley, enjoy the pleasant weather. The city has educational institutes of high

values and military establishments. The people come in summer from all parts of the

country and even from abroad to Abbottabad.

3.2.2 Geology

The Abbottabad region is underlain by Pre-Cambrian to Cretaceous partly

metamorphosed sedimentary rocks [144]. The Cambrian rocks are pushed

southeastward above the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Hazara and Tanawal Formations

beside the Panjal Thrust, and are unconformably overlain by Jurassic to Cretaceous

Formations [145]. The Cambrian rocks in the survey region are separated into two:

below and above, the Abbottabad Formation and Hazara Formation respectively. The

Hazara Formation is overlain unconformably by the Samana SukLimestone of

Jurassic era. The Phosphorite mineralization is found at two horizons; the upper and

lower surrounded by Abbottabad pattern. Close to Abbottabad there is a component of

cohesive soils (clays) underlying a previous marshland and the water table in this

component is within 1-2 m of the ground surface [146].

24

Abbottabad’s rocky ground is rich in minerals, containing deposits of biotite,

granite, limestone, phyllite, schist, slate, soapstone and quartz. These mineral soils

occur as residual deposits in the hills and alluvial deposits on valley floors. Most of

the soil is grey in color (under moist forests) and coarse in texture. The soil is formed

by snow deposits as well as water and sedimentary rock and is mostly dry-farmed for

subsistence cropping. Farm soil may be classified into four categories:

a). loam and clay, mainly non-calcareous;

b). loam, steep and shallow soils (humid mountainous region);

c). loam and clay, partly non-calcareous with loess traces; and

d). loam with stones, and shallow (sub-humid mountain region).

3.2.3 Climate

The weather of the Abbottabad district is very pleasant in the summer and very

freezing in the winter. The winter starts from the month of October continues till mid

April. The summer starts in June continues till end August with average temperature

of 38 ºC. In the month of December, January and in even February the temperature

reaches below the freezing point because of snow fall most on top of the hills of the

areas and least on the city of Abbottabad. The remaining months of the year are very

pleasant due to frequent rainfall and wind blowing. The average annual rain fall in the

district is more than 1000mm in which the hilly area receives more than urban.

3.2.4 Population

The official population of Abbottabad district stands 0.928 millions according to 1998

census.

3.2.5 Construction Materials

Baked bricks, cemented blocks and shapes stones are the main construction stuffs

used in the structure of the outer walls in entire urban and rural area. Table 3.1

provides the detailed data on the construction materials used walls. However in most

of the rural areas the homes are made of wood and the mud combination. About 40%

of the housing units used reinforce cement concrete or bricks (RCC/RCB) other

details are revealed in Table 3.2.

25

Table 3.1 Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Abbottabad district.

Walls materials All area Rural Urban Baked bricks/Blocks/Stones 84.4 73.6 95.2 Un-baked/bricks/Earth Bounded 12.3 20.7 3.9 Wood/Bamboo 2.9 5.1 0.7 Others 0.4 0.6 0.2

Table 3.2 Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Abbottabad district.

Roof materials All area Rural Urban RCC/RCB 46.6 14.3 78.9 Cement/Iron sheet 9.2 3.7 14.7 Wood/Bamboo 9.2 3.7 5.7 Others 1.3 1.9 0.7

3.3 Mansehra

The district lies between 73.19º to 73.68º east longitudes and 34.56º to 35.12º north

latitudes. It is situated in Khyber Pakhtun Khwa province with an area of about of

4600 square kilometers. Abbottabad, Battgram and Kashmir lie to the South, North

and West of the Mansehra respectively. Mansehra district is divided into three

administrative areas; Tehsil Mansehra, Tehsil Oghi, Tehsil Balakot and one tribal

administrative area Kaladaka (recently got a position of district with name, Turr

Ghar).

3.3.1 Physical features and topography

Topography is rugged in the hills and foothills: however, in the plains it is regularly

uniform. The valleys and foothills have been greatly dissected in to depths and ridges

because of water erosion over the time. The track is composed of mountains to its

north and northwest with mark variation in altitudes. The highest peaks are"Musa-ka-

Mussala" (4075m) on the northeastern boarder with Kaghan Valley and "Churku"

(4285m) over looking Allyee Valley.

3.3.2 Geology

The western portion dominantly consists of upper Cretaceous to Eocene Mansehra

Granites and Ordovician Tanawal Formation. The eastern and northeastern portion

has many different rocks and geological structure. The most important of these

structures is the Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. The syntaxis contains Murree Formation of

26

Miocene age in its core and Salkhala, Abbottabad, Kingriali, Panjal and Samana Suk

formations of Precambrian to Jurassic rocks on its limbs. On the rim of syntaxis

Salkhala slates of Precambrian age are exposed. The Salkhala Formation is thrusted

over Tanawal Formation of Ordovician age. The different units of the syntaxis are in

faulted contact with one another along Murree fault and Panjal fault [147-149].

The northeastern part of Mansehra district contains dominantly Salkhala Slates

with subordinate Kingriali and Panjal formations. Near the contact with Kohistan

district Jijal/Sapat ultramafics, Jijal/Sapat granulites and Kamila amphibolites

outcrops. The Jijal/Sapat ultramafics, Jijal/Sapat granulites and Kamila amphibolites

are thrusted southward over Salkhala, Kingriali and Panjal formations along Main

Mantle Thrust. Besides these large scale structures there are a number of mesoscopic

scale faults and folds in the Mansehra district [148].

The soils of Mansehra region are poised of metamorphic rocks and silts of

mica granite, like in the north-western parts of Abbottabad [150]. Usually, the valley

soils are productive and alluvial, and are; consequently, able to maintain fruitful

agriculture and the hilly soils are thin, steep and barren, except transformed to terraces

and irrigated.

Balakot area of district Mansehra, severely damaged from October, 2005

earthquake. Most of the area of Balakot lies on the Balakot-Bagh fault line known as

B-B fault line. The northwest-striking B-B fault was the cause of the 8 October 2005

earthquake of 7.6M. This fault line had been mapped by the Geological Survey of

Pakistan before the earthquake but had not been identified as active, apart from, 16

km piece near Muzaffarabad [151].

The Fig. 3.3 show the B-B fault line in the Hazara-Kashmir Syntaxis [152]

and Fig.3.4 shows the mapping of the sampling sites near the B-B fault line.

27

Fig. 3.3 : The Balakot–Bagh(B-B) fault in the Hazara–Kashmir Syntaxis.

28

11

Fig.3.4: Mapping of the sampling sites near Balakot-Bagh fault line

3.3.3 Climate

Mansehra remains warm in summer and cold in winter. While the northern part like

Naran, Kaghan etc remain even cold in summer due the snow covered mountains in

the area and very cold in winter. The total annual rainfall of the district is about 8640

mm. Temperature varies from 2 ºC to 36 ºC in the district.

3.3.4 Population

According to the available sensor data of the year 1998 the population of the district

was 1.152 million; the current growth rate is 2.4 per cent. The population density is

252 persons per square kilometer.

3.2.5 Construction materials

Baked bricks, cemented blocks and shaped stones are the main construction stuffs

utilized in the structure of the outer walls in largely in the town area and smallest

29

amount in the rural area. In the rural area the mud made walls and houses are also

found abundantly. The details of construction materials used in the housing units in

the outer walls and roofs are revealed in Table 3.3 & 3.4 respectively.

Table 3.3 Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Mansehra district.

Walls materials All area Rural Urban Baked bricks/Blocks/Stones 84.4 73.6 95.2 Un-baked/bricks/Earth bounded 12.3 20.7 3.9 Wood/Bamboo 2.9 5.1 0.7 Others 0.4 0.6 0.2

Table 3.4: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Mansehra district.

Roof materials All area Rural Urban RCC/RCB 46.6 14.3 78.9 Cement/Iron sheet 9.2 3.7 14.7 Wood/Bamboo 9.2 3.7 5.7 Others 1.3 1.9 0.7

3.4 Haripur

District Haripur is located in the Hazara Division in Khyber Pakhtun khwa. It is

situated at latitude 33º 44' to 34º 22' and longitude 72º 35' to 73º 15'. Haripur district

comprises of Haripur and Ghazi tehsils. The district is bounded on the north-east by

Abbottabad district, north-west Mansehra district, and west Swabi district and on the

south Punjab province, district Attock. The most of the part of the district is the plain;

however the hilly areas also exist in North West and east parts of the district. The total

area of the district is approximately 2000 square kilometer.

3.4.1 Physical features and topography

Haripur is the main city of Haripur district in the N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Kkhwa)

Province. It is situated 115 km north of Islamabad and 170 km from Peshawar, at an

altitude of 432 m. Hazara Division which is known for its pleasant weather and for

the tourism as a gate for the northern part of the Pakistan starts from Haripur. The soil

types district are Rohi (finest natural soil),Doshani or Missi (fine clay soil),

Maria,Tibba,Kallar (sour or barren clay) and Bela (raverine soil).

3.4.2 Geology

Geographically, Haripur is a gateway between both the Hazara and the Khyber

Pakhtun Kkhwa, and the capital Islamabad. The Haripur plain covers about 350

30

square kilometers. The Haripur plain is bordered by mountain ranges from three sides.

The southern portion of the Haripur plain merges with the Potohar plateau. The plain

is covered with alluvial deposits [153]. Alluvium mainly contains gravels and

boulders beside the left bank of River Doar. The area lying at the base hill of

Gandgher Range consists of piedmont deposits, which are mainly clay with small

beds of sand and gravels. Consolidated rocks exposed around Haripur ranges from

Precambrian to recent deposits. Hazara slates, Tanawal Formation and Abbottabad

Formation are predominant among them.

3.4.3 Climate

Climate of the district is very hot in summer and cold in winter. June and July are the

hottest months, while in December and January the weather is cold. Moreover other

natural possessions, nature has talented the region by vast water resources in the form

of rivers, streams, lakes, springs, and underground water. These possessions of water

are adequate for meeting necessities of irrigation and drinking. For the irrigation

purposes a number of canals have been constructed from these water resources in the

district.

3.4.4 Population

Haripur has a population of 0.692 according to the 1998 census report in which only

12 percent people lives in town areas, while, the rest of the population lives in the

rural areas.

3.4.5 Construction materials

Baked bricks, cemented blocks and shaped stones are the main construction

substances exploited in the structure of the boundary walls, in most in the urban area

and least in the rural area. In the rural area the mud made walls and houses are also

found in large quantities. Table 3.5 illustrates the information of the structure matter

utilized in the outer wall of the housing units and the Table 3.6 illustrates the

information of the structure matter utilized in the roofs of the housing units.

31

Table 3.5: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Haripur district.

Walls materials All area Rural Urban Baked bricks/Blocks/Stones 79.2 68.3 90.2 Un-baked/bricks/Earth bounded 18.4 27.7 9.1 Wood/Bamboo 1.6 3.1 0.4 Others 0.8 0.9 0.3

Table 3.6: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Haripur district.

Roof materials All area Rural Urban RCC/RCB 48.2 18.3 78.1 Cement/Iron sheet 11.2 6.4 16.0 Wood/Bamboo 38.7 73.5 4.1 Others 2.1 1.8 0.8

3.5 Battgram

The district Battgram lies between 72.15º to 73.35º east longitudes and 34.20º to 34.60º

north latitudes with height 600 m above the sea level. This district has two tehsils

Battgram itself and Allyee tehsil. The district is surrounded by Kohistan district in the

north, Shangla district in the west north, Mansehra district in south east. Total area of

the district is 1301 square kilometer. The large part of the people speaks Pushto

language (98%). However other languages such as Kohistani, Gojjri and Balti are also

spoken in the some part of the area.

Large part of the area earn their living hoods from the agriculture but

significant number of people also having government job as well as working in the

other part of the country and outside the country. The area has lower literacy rate and

lacks basic facilities such as health and social awareness. The October 2005 earth

quake severely affected this area and most of the infrastructures destroyed along with

the lost of valuable lives of people.

3.5.1 Physical features and topography

Battgram is the major city of Battgram district in the Khyber Pakhtun Khwa. It is sited

205 km north of Islamabad and 260 km from Peshawar. The city is situated in the

north part of the Hazara Division which is known for its pleasant weather and for the

tourism. It serves as a gate for Kohistan the northern part of the Pakistan.

32

3.5.2 Geology

The bulk of district Battgram consists of Mansehra Granite and Tanawal Formation of

Ordovician to Devonian age. In the northeastern part of the district, Tanawal

Formation, has been thrusted over Salkhala Formation along Balakot Fault. In the

northern part Kingriali and Panjal formations has been thrusted over Tanawal

Formation along Banna Fault. Further northward the Kingriali and Panjal formations

are thrusted over by Kamila amphibolites and Jijal/Sapat granulites along Main

Mantle Thrust (MMT). The MMT is marked by Kishora Melange zone rocks bounded

in the north by Kohistan Fault and in the south by Kishora Fault. In the northwestern

part of district Battgram the Kishora Melange zone rocks are thrusted over lower

Proterozoic Kotla and Reshian granites, and Besham Granites of lower Paleozoic age

[147-149]. Gravel and associated sand occurs in the bed of the Allyee River and its

tributaries near Allyee and Banan.

3.5.3 Climate

The summer season is hot which usually starts from May and ended in September. In

the month of June the temperature reach up to 41.5 ºC. The temperature drops rapidly

from October onward. December and January are the coldest months in which

temperature fall below freezing point in the hilly areas. Owing to thorough cultivation

and artificial irrigation, the area is humid. July, August, December and January are the

rainy months for the area. A little rain falls in the remaining months of the year. The

comparative dampness is fairly high all over the year, yet the month of December has

the maximum humidity of 63.35%.

3.5.4 Population

The people of the district according to 1998 survey details was 0.5 million. The

literacy rate in the area is very low and has lack of basic facilities such as health and

social awareness. The October 2005 earth quake severely affected this area and most

of the infrastructures destroyed along with the lost of valuable lives of people.

3.5.5 Construction materials

As the district consists most of the area rural where the mud made walls and houses

are common. Beside the mud made houses and walls, the wood, baked bricks,

33

cemented blocks and shaped stones made houses and wall are also common in the

area. However it found little in the rural and most in the urban area. The details of the

construction material used in the housing units are given in Table 3.7 & 3.8.

Table 3.7: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Battgram district.

Walls materials All area Rural Urban Baked bricks/Blocks/Stones 58.3 32.5 84.1 Un-baked/bricks/Earth bounded 24.6 34.4 14.8 Wood/Bamboo 14.2 27.6 0.8 Others 2.9 5.5 0.3

Table 3.8: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Battgram district.

Roof materials All area Rural Urban RCC/RCB 41.5 14.1 68.9 Cement/Iron sheet 10.8 4.2 17.4 Wood/Bamboo 44.6 76.3 12.9 Others 3.1 5.4 0.8

3.6 Kohistan

Kohistan lies between 74.0º to 74.9º E longitude and 34.5º to 35.1º N latitude. Kohistan

district is an administrative district of N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), an area of

7,492 square kilometer. District Kohistan borders district Swat in the west, district

Shangla southwest and district Batagram in south, district Mansehra in northeast,

district Diamir in northwest, district Astore in the north, district Skardu in the

northeast and Azad Kashmir in the east. Kohistan district is divided into three sub

divisions that are Palas, Pattan and Dassu. The capital of Kohistan district is Dassu.

3.6.1 Physical features and topography

Kohistan is the gate way to Northern part, Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Kohistan is place

where three mountain system meet these are Hindukush, Karakuram and Himalaya

and serve as a natural frontier for environmental areas in the shackles of the

Himalayas, Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountains.

3.6.2 Geology

Kohistan means the land of mountains. One can hardly found plain area in Kohistan.

It could be properly explained as all mountains with no land. The Indus River flows

through the centre of Kohistan from begin to end and separate it into two parts -

34

Hazara Kohistan and Swat Kohistan. This then combined in 1976 to form Kohistan

district.

The Kotla and Reshian granites of lower Proterozoic age and Besham Granites

of lower Paleozoic age outcrop in the southwestern part of district Kohistan. These

rocks have a faulted contact with Kishora Melange Zone rocks and Jijal/Sapat

ultramafic rocks in the south western part of the district Kohistan along Kohistan and

Kishora faults. Main Mantle Thrust passes in the southern part of district Kohistan.

The dominant rocks in southern Kohistan are the Kamila Amphibolites with

subordinate Jijal ultramafics and Jijal/Sapat granulites. The northern and northwestern

parts of district Kohistan contain Chilas gabbronorites and Kohistan batholith rocks

[147, 148].

3.6.3 Climate

The climate of the district has a tendency to be moderately soft. The district receive

rain and snow fall in winter, so the winter is cold and the summer somewhat hot.

Kohistan has mountains and the agricultural regions are found on the hills. Those

areas in Kohistan lie at altitude below 900m have very hot summer and very cold

winter. Pleasant weather is found in summer in the higher areas. Owing to the

concentrated snowfall, subsequently the people of the area restricted inside to their

homes in winter.

3.6.4 Population

From 1998 census report the population of Kohistan district was 0.473 millions.

3.6.5 Construction materials

As the district consists most of the area rural where the mud made walls and houses

are common beside the mud made houses major portion of the houses are also wood

however baked bricks, cemented blocks and shaped stones are the main construction

materials used in the construction of the outer walls in most in the town region and

least in the rural region. The information of the structure matter utilized the housing

units in the outer walls and roofs are shown in Table 3.9 & 3.10 respectively.

35

Table 3.9: Construction materials used in the outer walls (%) of the Kohistan district.

Walls materials All area Rural Urban Baked bricks/Blocks/Stones 58.3 32.5 84.1 Un-baked/bricks/Earth bounded 24.6 34.4 14.8 Wood/Bamboo 14.2 27.6 0.8 Others 2.9 5.5 0.3

Table 3.10: Construction materials used in roofs (%) of the Kohistan district.

Roof materials All area Rural Urban RCC/RCB 41.5 14.1 68.9 Cement/Iron sheet 10.8 4.2 17.4 Wood/Bamboo 44.6 76.3 12.9 Others 3.1 5.4 0.8

The estimated population of the Hazara in 2010 is around 5 million. The

estimated statistics is revealed in Table 3.11.

Table 3.11: Estimated statistics of Hazara Division in 2010*.

District Area (km2) Population (Millions) Abbottabad 1802 1.15 Mansehra 5957 1.6 Haripur 1763 0.82 Battgram 1310 0.6 Kohistan 7581 0.71

*Since there is no official (state) census survey after 1998 till June, 2011.

36

CHAPTER 4

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

The radon measurement technique is selected on the basis of whether to measure

radon itself or its daughter products. In both cases, α and γ radio activities are

measurables, that can be measured separately or at the same time. However few of the

daughters, β radioactivity can also be measured. One of the following techniques can

be used for detection and thereby for measurement.

Nuclear emulsion

Adsorption

Solid scintillation

Gamma spectroscopy

Beta monitoring

Solid state nuclear track detector

Electrometer or electroscope

Ionization chamber

Surface barrier detectors

Thermo luminiscent phosphors

Electrets

The measurement of radon can be done either in the laboratory or in the field.

Nearly all the methods that are exercised in the field measurement can be used in the

laboratory, yet some techniques are such that are not common in the field

measurement rather they are used in the laboratory.

In the laboratory one relies essentially on common techniques for the

determination of radioactivity and counting. The major distinction is the adaptation of

these techniques to the gaseous nature of radon.

Scintillation counting in the gaseous stage has been mostly used for the

reason(gaseous nature of radon). Lucas was perhaps the earliest one to publish

something concerning it. It is one of the oldest and most dependable method [154]. In

this method the apparatus is a glass vessel coated inside with scintillation substance

such as ZnS or barium cynide called phosphor. Once the alpha particle hits the

37

phosphor it produces tiny light flashes which are further amplified by photomultiplier.

Some time it is replaced by micro channel plates.

Sensitivity depends primarily on the duration of the counting period. It gets better

somewhat by raising the capacity of the container. A sensitivity of a few 3mBq can

be attained. It can be extra amplified by electrically collecting 218Po atoms straight on

the detector [155]. A more advanced edition of the Lucas cell is the multiple

scintillation chamber apparatus which offers, as a function of time, an superior quality

respond [156].

Scintillation counting can also be performed for radon level estimation in the

liquid phase, once it has been pulled out. One fine example of radon removal by

solvent is the case of radon measurement in the ground water. Radon can be extracted

from water by mixing it with toluene. The quantity of radon enclosed in the toluene is

measured via liquid scintillation, whichever using the toluene itself as the scintillating

liquid or by adding known amounts of liquid scintillator such as PPO and POPOP

[157, 158].

Ionization chambers [159] and proportional counters [160] are the main

extensively applied radiation measurement methods functional to radon determination

by means of sampling it from the environment. Spectroscopy can, in general, be used

for indirect radon determination. In all these cases, radon progenies are the emitting

material, in which α spectroscopy is very common.

Radon measurement in situ requires detector to be put in place and left for

ample duration of time. A measurement can be nonstop (continuous) or distinct. It can

be passive or active depending upon the sampling whether these are taken in the

natural way or forced to enter in the detection instrument. So keeping this in view the

detector can be mainly classified in to two types (i) passive (ii) active . Some major

passive and active techniques are discussed as below:

4.1 Passive Techniques

To get results which comprise the seasonal, climate and ecological conditions on the

radon concentrations in the dwellings, it is imperative to take measurements over a

lengthy phase of time. It is the long term average in dwellings that determines the

damage to human's health. For this purpose the integrated devices are used. Hence

38

these techniques are also used beside the active technique in the present work in order

to find out the annual mean radon concentration at a fix point.

4.1.1 Charcoal canister technique

This technique is utilized in the survey where quick radon measurement is needed.

The radon is adsorbed and retained through activated charcoal. A canister contains

activated charcoal uncovered to the air for few days, so that radon enters in the

canister (see Fig.4.1). The quantity of radioactive substance collected in the activated

charcoal is calculated by gamma spectroscopy or by liquid scintillation counting. The

first problem with this technique is that it needs a classy electronics for analysis and

secondly the results cannot be reproduced even in the same site for the similar

experimental situation.

4.1.2 Electrets

These detectors, containing an electro-statically charged Teflon disk, are extensively

used for long-term measurements. Decay products strike the Teflon desk which

causes the decrease in its surface voltage. The decrease in the voltage gives the

measurement of the radon concentration.

4.1.3 Thermo luminiscent technique

Thermo luminiscent is the property of the substance whereby it can proficient of

energy that can be released in the form of light when it is heated. These materials are

called Thermo Luminescent Detector (TLD) chips. TLDs are sensitive to alpha, beta

and gamma radiation for this a method is adapted to determine the alpha contribution

only. Two TLDs are mounted in an inverted cup and placed in the ground. One of the

TLDs is wrapped in the foil that will keep out all of the alpha particles that it must be

made radon tight, but the beta and gamma radiations are not excluded. After a certain

time the TLDs are retrieved and analyzed by heating up to 300 ºC in the suitable read

out equipment. When a chip is heated, a light is emitted, which is comparative to the

amount of radiation present. The part from alpha radiation can be determined by

subtracting the intensity of the energy in first TLD (exposed to only beta radiation)

from second TLD (exposed to Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation) and hence the radon

activity is measured [161].

39

4.1.4 Etched Track Detectors

All the above stated passive techniques require extensive electronics and sophisticated

laboratory amenities. This makes it inappropriate for use in the far-flung and rugged

areas. Besides this, the instruments used, in all the above passive techniques are

expensive and not easily available [5]. The most extensively used method for long

monitoring period is based on materials known as Solid State Nuclear Track Detector

( SSNTDs ) or etched-track detectors. The technique is simple to use and

comparatively economical. In this regard several materials have been developed; the

most suitable for indoor radon measurements appears to be 39CR since of its good

sensitivity, steadiness against environment factors and high level of visual clearness

[162]. So in present study the SSNTDs -based method was used for the indoor radon

measurement while one of the active techniques was used for the measurement of

radon in water and soil gas. Their detail study will be discussed in the later chapter.

To detect the radon gas alone in a given environment, the instrument should

have mechanism to detach the radon gas from its particulate daughter products and to

permit just radon to enter into the sensitive volume of the detector. For this, several

configurations have been developed which used etched track detectors to measure

indoor radon. Few of them are discussed below.

4.1.4.1 Membrane Permeation Samplers

The dosimeter schematically is shown in Fig. 4.2a. Here the permeable filter closes

the open end of the cup [2]. The enclosure eliminates the emitters, and the filter

area and thickness are planned to excluded unnecessary Rn219 ( 2/1 = 3.96s) and

Rn220 ( 2/1 = 55.6s) without particularly diminishing Rn222 ( 2/1 = 3.82d), beside with

the daughters that are formed following the 222Rn goes into the detection space. The

filter is made of a permeable material for instance fiber glass, micro porous paper or a

plastic such as polyethylene (10µm thick).

4.1.4.2 Plastic bag permeation samplers

The infiltration sampler is shown in Fig. 4.2b. This infiltration samplers made from a

heat-sealed plastic bag (filter) prepared of polyethylene. There are two

39CR detector foils and aluminized polycarbonate degraders face the detector foils

to optimize the detector responses and to make their surface conductive. The

40

polyethylene bag protects the detector from humidity, dust, thoron and radon

daughters [6]7. The advantages of such type of dosimeter are: (i) easy heat sealing

and therefore small expenditure,(ii) undersized dimension and quick sampling

time,(iii) high radon permeability and (iv) removal of water vapors. Besides, the

majority of the radon dosimeters have a rejoinder which depends on the atmospheric

pressure, as sensitive volume depends on the range of particles, which varies with

pressure. On the contrary, the plastic bag sampler with polycarbonate degraders has

little reliance on the atmospheric pressure, since the degrader is not the air but the

plastic foil.

4.1.4.3 NRPB radon dosimeter

The NRPB radon dosimeter, designed by the National Radiological Protection Board

of UK with current name Radiation Protection Division )(HPA is shown in Fig. 4.2c.

It has two polypropylene parts: a circular base with an alcove to keep the detection

element in place and a vaulted circular upper section with an inner circular base-

retaining swagger. The detector component uses a section of 39CR plastic that

registers the alpha particle tracks from the decays of radon and its progenies products

in an enclosed volume. The overall size of the assembled dosimeter are; a diameter of

about 6 cm and an utmost depth of 2 cm the two parts fit fairly tight in order to

eliminate dampness and radon progenies. Radon enters through a petite opening

between the two halves. It is a passive radon detector to measure the time

incorporated radon gas concentration in the mediate environment of the detector

[163].

The same detector and dosimeter was used for indoor radon levels in the present

survey.

4.2 Active techniques

Active techniques are those in which electronic detectors are used to take the data on-

line. Such techniques are used for a short term measurements. The active techniques

are based upon methods in which grab sample of the air (in case of indoor radon) is

collected at a moment of time, followed by measurement of radon concentration

through its α-particle activity. Following are the some active techniques:

41

4.2.1 Lucas cell (scintillation method)

One of the oldest techniques is the Lucas Cell; it consists of glass pot coated inside

with scintillating material such as ZnS, apart from the bottom end surface, which is

transparent and attached to a photomultiplier tube PMT . It is typically of cylindrical

form but can be of any shape depending on the type of PMT in use to count the

scintillation produced. Since α can travels only short distances in air before stopping,

the volumetric capacity of the Lucas cell is up to a few hundred cubic centimeters. A

sample of air is exhausted into the cell, and the α- particles produced from radon

decay cause scintillations in ZnS, detected by the photomultiplier tube and generate

the electric pulse.[refence]

4.2.2 Ionization Chamber

The ionization chamber is filled with filtered radon. The α-particle emitted in the

decay of radon and its progenies ionizes the air in the chamber. The electrons and ions

are drifted towards the electrodes in the presence of the voltage applied. The resulting

current is a measure of the quantity of decayed radon atoms. Counting is made after

the equilibrium recognized between the radon and its progenies and the radon

concentration can be taken from the number of the pulses. [refence]

4.2.3 Surface Barrier Detector (SBD)

It is the p-n junction diode operated under the reversed biased setting. The α-particles

from radon decay enters the depletion region and creates electron hole pairs, both

move in the opposite directions and total number of electrons collected can form an

electronic pulse whose amplitude is comparative to the energy of the radiation.

4.2.4 Two filter method

This technique measures both radon and its progenies. Through first filter air is passed

so that radon progenies are detached, and allow the air to pass through a long decay

chamber so that the progenies are produced again and collected on the second filter.

The filters are counted independently; from the first filter the radon progenies

concentration and from the second filter the radon concentration are determined.

42

4.2.5 Working level method

Air is pumped through a filter for a particular time. Alpha particles emitted from

radon progenies deposited on the filter are counted using surface barrier (SB).

Mensura Working Level Meter is the modern gadget used for this purpose. This

operates by sampling air from the environment at a continuous rate. It is operated by

portable battery.

The active measurement techniques are not so useful for accurately

measurement the radon levels because of temporal variation in radon level due to the

temperature and pressure gradients. But active techniques become more important for

the large sampling and to cover more area in short period of time. To make this

method more advantageous over passive techniques, a regularly monitoring is

required of the radon concentration in water or in air or even in the soil. Usually radon

measurements, especially in inaccessible zones, are done through SSNTDs , but these

can give only integrated results and they need a frequent substitution to read the

tracks. We preferred an active device (RAD7) for sampling of soil gas into the

detecting instrument. The option of an active detection allowed radon monitoring for

short time periods and both short and long term analysis [164].

Both active and passive techniques are used in the present survey. For radon in

water and soil gas, active technique was used while for radon concentrations in

dwelling passive technique ( SSNTDs ) which consists of 39CR , was used. Radon in

water were measured by number of ways through active techniques, using Gamma

Spectroscopy (GS ), Lucas Cell ( LC ) and Liquid Scintillation ( LS ).

Gamma spectroscopy measures the gamma rays emitted from radon's decay

progenies from the closed container of containing radon water. In this method it is

possible to measure low value radioactivity which is still considered to be significant.

The Lucas Cell method has been in use for decades for laboratory study

of Rn222 and Ra226 (by means of radon emanation). This method tends to some extent

effort concentrated, using an intricate structure of glassware and a vacuum drive to

empty a Lucas Cell, and refilling it from the radon in water sample. The cell then

counted by standard technique. An expert technician can produce correct, repeatable

measurements at fairly low concentrations using this method.

The Liquid Scintillation technique has been used since 1970. A liquid

scintillation cocktail is mixed to the sample in a 25mL glass LS vial which extracts the

43

radon from water, consequently that decays α particle and scintillate the cocktail. The

technique uses normal LS counters, which are extremely mechanized and can count

more than a few hundred samples in series with no disturbance. The EPA has accepted

that the LS technique is as correct and sensitive as the LC technique, although less

effort demanding, and inexpensive.

In contrast with the stated techniques, the 7RAD offers a technique as correct

as LS however quicker to the first reading, moveable, still less labor demanding and

less costly. It also abolishes the requirement for harmful chemicals. The large part of

the present study was carried out using the 7RAD besides using the passive technique

such as 39CR . For indoor radon concentrations passive technique was used while

for soil radon gas concentrations and for water radon concentrations active technique

of 7RAD was used. Fig. 4.4 and 4.5 show the schematic and true picture

of 7RAD respectively. The working of the 7RAD for radon levels in the water, soil

and air will be discussed in the coming chapters in detail.

Fig.4.1: The charcoal canister

44

Fig.4.2: Radon monitoring devices based on etched track detectors (a) filter permeation sampler (b) plastic bag permeation sampler (c) NRBP radon dosimeter

RADON CONCENTRATION

Fig.4.3: Diagram illustration of the key procedure involved in radon recognition and assessment by means of an etched trail radon dosimeter [7]

Exposure Latent track Visualization Visible Evaluation Track

45

Fig.4.4: Schematic of 7RAD

Fig. 4.5: 7RAD

46

CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL

5.1 Radon Level in Water

Radon gas is formed when Uranium decays to Radium and which then decays to

radon. Uranium is found in minute quantity in most rocks, soil and groundwater.

Measurement of radon in natural water such as lake, spring, well and groundwater

provides useful information about the Uranium deposits and also helps in exploring

hidden geological faults. To protect public from harmful radiation hazards of radon

and to determine seismic related changes in the radon content of water, constant

supervision of radioactivity in drinking, mineral and thermal waters is necessary [55,

88].

The distressed earthquake of October 8, 2005 in Pakistan resulted in vast loss

of valuable lives and belongings. It is usually believed that the level of radon

concentration in an area increases considerably[refence] before a predictable earth-

quake to happen. It is therefore, necessary to monitor and asses the concentration

levels of radon in the earth-quake hit areas of North West Frontier Province

{N.W.F.P.(Khyber Pakhtunkhwa)} Pakistan in the post earth-quake scenario.

5.1.1 Sampling

A total 279 water samples were collected from various sites of the districts Haripur,

Abbottabad, Mansehra, Battgram, Kohistan and from their surrounding, and from

Balakot as a special case as it lies on the fault line. These sites are located not very

far-flung from each other and lying in a radius of about 10 to 20 kilometers the

sources of drinking water to the community of these localities are definitely different.

Numbers of samples from surface, borehole and spring water were 114, 93 and 72,

respectively.

A total 54 water samples were collected from Abbottabad district, which

incorporate 20, 19 and 15 of surface, borehole and spring water respectively. All the

surface water samples were collected from nallah Harno at different points (S.No. 1 to

20) in Table 6.6. Out of 19 borehole water samples, 3 from Mandian (S.No. 4 ,5 &6 in

Table 6.6), six from city (No. 1,2,3,7,8 & 20) in Table 6.6, four from Nawan sher

47

(S.No. 10,12,13 & 18) in Table 6.6, 2 from Jhangi Khoja (S.No. 14 &15) in Table 6.6

and the remaining four from Qalander Abad (S.No. 11,16, 17, 19) in Table 6.6

regions, were collected. These samples were taken at different site from these areas.

Four spring water samples out of 15 from Tandyani (S.No. 1, 2,3 & 4) in Table 6.5 ,

five from Tandachoha (S.No. 8, 9, 11,12 &14) in Table 6.5, three each from Ilyasi

(S.No. 10, 13 &15) in Table 6.5 and Kakul (S.No. 5, 6 &7) in Table 6.5 regions, were

collected, from different points.

From Mansehra total 47 samples were obtained including, 24 and 23 of

surface and borehole water respectively. Out of 24 surface water samples 14 from the

river Siren (S.No. 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 19, 20, 21, 23, 22, 24 &25) in Table 6.6 and the

remaining 10 from the Chata Bata nullah (S.No. 2, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 & 18)

in Table 6.6 regions, were collected, from different points. In the 23 borehole water

samples, 3 each from Dab#1(1, 2, & 3) in Table 6.6, Dab#2 (S.No. 4, 5,&6) in Table

6.6, and Jabri (S.No. 7, 8 & 9) in Table 6.6, 4 from Lari Ada (S.No. 10, 11, 12 &13)

in Table 6.6, 5 from city (14, 15, 16, 17 &18) in Table 6.6, 2 from Attar shesha (S.No.

20 & 22) in Table 6.6 and 3 from Batrasi (S.No. 23, 24 &25) in Table 6.6 regions,

were collected, from different sites.

From Haripur, 59 samples were collected which comprise of 14, 30 and 15 of

surface, borehole and spring water respectively. Out of 14 surface water samples, 6

samples from Sari saleh (S.No. 1, 3, 5, 6, 9 & 12) in Table 6.6 and 8 from Khan pur

(S.No. 13, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 26 & 28) in Table 6.6 regions, were collected, from

different sites. In 30 borehole water samples, 3 each from sari Saleh (S.No. 1, 2 &3)

in Table 6.6, Ali Khan (S.No. 4, 5 & 6) in Table 6.6, and Shah Maqsuad (S.No. 7, 8 &

9) in Table 6.6, 6 from city (S.No. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 &15) in Table 6.6, 4 from

Malikyar (S.No. 16, 17, 18 & 19) in Table 6.6, 5 from Kot Najeeb ullah (S.No.20, 21,

22, 23 & 24) in Table 6.6, 4 from Hattar (S.No. 25, 26, 27 & 28) in Table 6.6 and 2

from Sari Kot (S.No. 29 & 30) in Table 6.6 regions, were collected, from different

points. Out of 15 spring water samples, 2 from Chupra (S.No. 1& 2) in Table 6.5, 2

Chajian (S.No.3 & 4) in Table 6.5, 3 from Jabba (S.No. 5, 6 &7) in Table 6.5, 2 from

Kunara (S.No. 8 & 9) in Table 6.5, 3 from Kuhala (S.No. 10, 11 & 12) in Table 6.5, 2

from Najaf Pur (S.No. 13 & 14) in Table 6.5 and 1 from Bagra (S.No. 15) in Table 6.5

regions, were collected, from different points.

From Battgram, 45 samples were collected which comprise of 11, 19 and 15

of surface, borehole and spring water respectively. The surface water samples were

48

collected from the Allaie Khwar from different points in Allayee region (S.No. 1, 5, 8,

9, 11, 14, 15, 19, 22, 25 & 27) in Table 6.7. Out of 19 borehole water samples, 5 each

from city (S.No. 1, 2, 3, 4 &5) in Table 6.7 and surrounding to city (S.No. 6, 8, 9, 10,

& 12) in Table 6.7, 5 from Thakot (S.No. 14, 17, 18, 20, & 23) in Table 6.7 and 4

from Allyee (S.No. 15, 24, 25 & 28) in Table 6.7 regions, were collected, from

different points. In the15 spring water samples, 8 from Ajmera (S.No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,

7 & 8) in Table 6.5, 7 from Allyee (S.No. 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14 &15) in Table 6.5

regions, were collected, from different points.

From Kohistan district, a total 39 samples were collected which consist of 13,

11 and 15 of surface, borehole and spring water respectively. Surface water samples

were collected from the river Indus, flows across the Kohistan area. These samples

were collected from at different points, of course the source was the same. Out of 11

borehole water samples, 5 from Patan (S.No. 1, 5, 9, 26 &29) in the Table 6.7, 6 from

Dassu (S.No. 12, 15, 16, 19, 21 & 24) in the Table 6.7 regions, were collected, from

different points. These points were within the radius of 10 to 20 Km. In the 15 spring

water samples, 5 each from Dassu (S.No. 1, 2, 3, 4 &5) in the Table 6.5, Palas (S.No.

6, 7, 8, 9 & 10) in the Table 6.5 and Patan (S.No. 11, 12, 13, 14 & 15) in the Table 6.5

regions, were collected, from different points within the radius of 20 km.

From Balakot, 35 samples were collected which include 11, 12 and 12 samples

of surface, borehole and spring water respectively. Surface water samples were

collected from the river Kunihar at different points such as at Balakot (S.No. 1, 3, 5 &

6) in Table 6.7, Bisian upper (S.No. 9 & 11) in Table 6.7, Bisian Lower (S.No. 13 &

14) in Table 6.7 and from Gari Habib ullah (S.No. 16, 19 & 23) in Table 6.7. In the 12

borehole water samples four each from city (S.No. 1, 3, 5 & 8) as given in Table 6.7,

Met office and its surrounding (S.No. 10, 11, 14 & 18) in Table 6.7 and Garlat (S.No.

21, 24, 25 & 28) in Table 6.7 regions, were collected, from different points.

Twelve spring water samples were collected from Balakot from near the fault

line at different longitude (S.No. 1, 3-9, 11, 13, 14 &15) in Table 6.5. These points

were lying in the dimension of 16 km × 10 km (160 km2 area).

Most of this area (Abbottabad, Mansehra and Battgram) was severally affected

in October 2005 earthquake. The bore/well water samples were obtained with the help

of a tube, attached to the faucet in a controlled flow rate, while the surface and spring

water samples were directly collected in the 500 ml glass bottles, filled and caped

inside the respective sources so that to stop the entrance of outside air into the bottles.

49

A number of duplicates samples were also taken from random sites for checking the

stability and robustness of the method. Acidification of all water samples was carried

out by adding concentrated 3HNO ( 1lml of sample water) for the preservation and

were then transferred to the laboratory for the measurement and investigation. These

samples were collected for a period of one year from August (2009) to July (2010),

during which temperature remained in the range of 15 to 30 ºC.

As radon concentration in water can be either measured by active or passive

technique. The passive techniques include many, in which solid state nuclear track

detector (SSNTD) is widely used due to its advantages over others mentioned earlier.

Similarly there are many active techniques for radon concentration measurement in

water. Although SSNTD has some advantages but installation, collecting, etching and

analyzing its sample take long time, which makes this type of detector unsuitable for

the large number of samples and quick measurements. The present studies were

carried out using active techniques with the help of two types of devices available in

the laboratory, they are, (a) The Pylon WG-1001 Radon System (b) 7RAD Electronic

radon Detector; the measurement technique of each is explained as follows;

For accurate measurement of radon concentration, using the Lucas cell, by

counting particles emitted from radon and its progenies ( BiandPbPo 214214218 , ), a

time wait of 4 hours is essential so that the radioactive equilibrium between radon and

its progenies achieved. The Lucas cell was placed for 4 h before particles were

counted by the a-scintillation counter (Pylon counter). Therefore the total time for one

sample from preparing to count of a particle was approximately 5 hrs. The time of

counting ( CT ) was noted. The radon concentration is measured, by means of the

following equation [165] :

VSDF

BCA

66.6

100)( (5.1)

where A is Rn222 activity in pico-Curie per liter( 1lpCi ), C is the gross count rate

in ,CPM B is the background count rate in ,CPM F is the cell counting efficiency

(0.745 DPMCPM / ), 6.66 is the product of the number of α-emitters (3) and the

conversion factor for DPM DPM to 1lpCi (2.22), D is the degassing efficiency for

300A cells (0.9), S is the correction for the decay of radon from sampling time ST to

50

counting time CT (0.97026)s and V is the sample volume (190 ml). The radon

concentration thus obtained in 1lpCi was converted to 3mBq (1 1lpCi =

37 3mBq ).The background radiation was measured in a scintillation cell (Lucas cell)

for three 5-min intervals and the average was taken in CPM . Before taking each new

sample, flushing of the degassing unit’ and the Lucas cell was done. A sample of

water of 190 ml was taken in the sample graduated tube of the Degassing unit. The air

was sucked through the bubbler inlet, water trap, Drierite tube and exhaust tube to the

Lucas cell by the air pump to a pressure of 68.58 cm of Mercury. The process took 5–

6 min in preparing a sample in the Lucas cell. The time of sampling ( ST ) was noted.

For counting, the cell was placed in a radiation monitor 4 hours after sampling so that

the radon activity in the cell reaches equilibrium with its progenies. After the decay of

fluorescence, the cell was counted for three 5-min time intervals in a Pylon counter. In

this way the analyzing time for one was approximately 5hrs.

7RAD Electronic Radon Detector (Durridge Co.) is a solid state α detector as

shown in Fig. 3.4. A solid state detector is a semiconductor material (usually Silicon)

that converts alpha radiation directly to an electrical signal. The internal sample cell

of 7RAD is a 0.7 litre hemisphere, layered on the inside with an electrical conductor.

A solid state, ion entrenched, planar Silicon alpha detector is at the centre of the

hemisphere. The high voltage power circuit charges the inside conductor to a potential

of 2000-2500 volts relative to the detector, creating an electric field throughout the

volume of the cell. The electric field pushes the positive charges onto the detector.

The 7RAD detector calculates the concentration in water sample by

multiplying the air loop concentration by a preset conversion coefficient. This

conversion coefficient has been resulted from the volume of the air loop, the volume

of the sample and the equilibrium radon distribution coefficient at room temperature.

For 250 ml volume of water sample, the conversion coefficient is about 4.

In some cases where in-situ measurements of water samples were not possible,

and the measurements were made after 10 hours of the collection of samples, the

measurements were corrected for the decay time by employing a decay correction

factor ( DCF ) in the measured values, using the equation[165]:

( )132.4

T

DCF e (5.2)

Where T is the decay time in hours and 132.4 is the mean life of Rn222 .

51

A Rn222 nucleus that decays within the cell leaves its transformed

nucleus, Po218 as a positively charged. The electric field within the cell drives this

positively charged ion to the detector to which it sticks. When Po218 decays upon the

active surface of the detector, its alpha particle has a 50% probability of entering the

detector and producing an electrical signal proportional in strength of the energy of

alpha particle. Following decays of the same nucleus produce beta particles which are

not detected here or alpha particles of different energies (other than 6MeV, 7.69MeV)

. Different isotopes of polonium have different alpha energies and produce different

strength signals in the detector which are then displayed in different windows. After

about 30 minutes, the average radon content is determined from the activity of Po218

without bringing the radon in the samples to equilibrium with its daughters. This

technique enables one to take more samples analyzed in less time and thus covering

vast area for the survey purpose in a specified time. The sensitivity of the instrument

is 0.508 and 0.247 1( lpCiCPM ) in normal and sniff modes respectively. The

dynamic range of the instrument is 0.1-10,000 1lpCi .

7RAD is designed to detect alpha particles only, so focus will be on the alpha

particles in this type of detector. When a radon nucleus decays, it releases an alpha

particle with 5.49 Mev of energy, and the nucleus transforms to 218Po . Polonium

atoms are metals and tend to stick to surfaces they come in contact with, e.g., a dust

particle in the air, or a wall, or the inside of lung. Like radon, 218Po emits an alpha

particle when it decay, but with an energy of 6.00 Mev rather than 5.49 Mev with a

half life of 3.05 minutes. After a few decays the polonium-218 becomes polonium-

214 and it emits alpha energy of 7.69 Mev with a half life of 0.000164 seconds. Due

to long half life of 210Pb it is ignored in the radon measurement, though it affects the

background of some instruments but not of 7RAD . Also the alpha from 210Po creates

unwanted background for the other type of instruments but not for the 7RAD .

Similarly radon-222, every radon -220 (thoron) nucleus decays to 208Pb through a

sequence of 5 transformations. 7RAD uses a solid state alpha detector. It is a

semiconductor material (usually silicon) that converts alpha radiation directly to an

electrical signal. The energy of the alpha particles are determine electronically which

tells, which isotope of polonium produced the radiation so that it can be distinguish

between old and new radon , radon from thoron and signal from noise.

52

Measurements of both active devices (a) Pylon counter (b) 7RAD α detector

were within the deviation of the measurement. However 7RAD measurement has

advantage over Pylon counter as the first one can perform the in situ measurements

(which were essential in the present case) and the time taken for radon measurement

from a sample was less than, a second. Therefore the measurements given in the

present work were made on 7RAD .

5.2 Soil gas radon

For soil gas radon concentrations, study was carried out in the Hazara Division. The

soil gas samples were collected in all five districts of the Division. In case of

Mansehra district, the samples were taken from Balakot beside the Balakot-Bagh (B-

B) fault line.

5.2.1 Sampling

A total 67 soil gas samples were composed from different sites of the study area for

one year of period from August (2009) to July (2010), during which temperature

remained above 10 ºC and in the range of 15 ºC to 30 ºC.

From Abbottabad a total of 14 soil gas samples were taken. Out of these 14

soil gas samples, 3 samples from Mandian (S.No. 1, 2 & 3) in Table 6.11, 4 from city

(S.No. 4, 5,6 & 7) in Table 6.6, 5 from Nawansher (S.No. 8, 9, 10, 11 & 12) in Table

6.11 and 2 from Kakul (S.No. 13 &14) in Table 6.11 regions were collected from

different points. These sites were within the radius of 10 to 20 km.

A total of 14 soil gas samples were taken from district Haripur. In these

samples 4 from Sarisalh (S.No. 1, 2,3 & 4) in Table 6.11, 5 from city (S.No. 5, 6, 7,8

& 9) in Table 6.11, 3 from Kot Najeeb Ullah (S.No. 10,11 & 12) in Table 6.11 and 2

from Hattar (S.No. 13 & 14) in Table 6.11 regions were collected from different

points, the sites of sampling were within the radius of 20 km.

From Battgram 14 soil gas samples were taken. Out of these samples, 5 each

from main city (S.No. 1, 2, 3,4 & 5) in Table 6.11 and Allyee (S.No. 6, 7, 8,9 & 10) in

Table 6.11 and 4 from Thakot (S.No. 11 12,13 & 14) in Table 6.11 regions were

collected from different points. These sites of sampling within the radius of 15 km.

From Kohistan district 14 soil gas samples were taken. which incorporate 5

each from Palas (S.No. 1, 2, 3,4 & 5) in Table 6.11 and Dassu (S.No. 6, 7, 8,9 & 10)

53

in Table 6.11 and 4 from Patan (S.No. 11, 12,13 & 14) in Table 6.11 regions were

collected from different points.

From Balakot 11 soil gas samples were collected near the fault line at different

longitudes (S.No. 2 -11 &13) in Table 6.11. The soil gas radon study in Balakot was

carried along active Balakot-Bagh (B-B) fault line in the 16 km section in length and

7.8 km in width lies between 34.50º–34.58º N latitude and 73.28º–73.38º E longitude

which covered about 125 square kilometer area.

The soil gas samples at each site were collected with the help of a probe,

engrossed in the soil to a depth of about 90 cm, which was then connected to the

7RAD Detector with a special accessory for the purpose. The probe was penetrated

inside the soil with a rotating handle or immersed with placid strokes of a hammer

where the soil was hard. The water lock and measuring instrument were then attached

to the probe for sucking soil gas from the deep soil. The soil gas was sucked through

the tube pipe into the measuring instrument for 5 minutes pumping phase and then the

data along with the respective bar charts and cumulative spectra of each sample were

printed out on the printer attached with the instrument. The sniff protocol and Grab

mode were used for the soil gas samplings on 7RAD at each site.

5.3 Indoor radon concentrations

Methodological studies were carried out to measure the indoor radon levels in five

districts of the N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa), namely Haripur, Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Battgram and Kohistan in different season in order to find out the seasonal

and spatial variations in the indoor radon levels. This study will provide a baseline

data for these areas which would be of great help for radiological database of

Pakistan. In addition to these weighted average indoor radon concentrations and

seasonal correction factors were also determined because no such data was available

for this area for calculating the annual effective dose.

Most of the houses were built of bricks, sand, cement, wood etc. in each

district. A total 120 houses were surveyed for seasonal and yearly measurements for

the indoor radon concentrations. Twenty each in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra,

Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan. These houses were in the radius of 1km, the nature

of the houses was both single and double stories and each house consists of two to

three rooms having at least two windows. The ventilation system of the houses in

54

Abbottabad was good while the other districts houses have poor natural ventilation.

More than that the houses of district Kohistan, Battgram and most of the hilly area

have closed type ventilation system and used the wood as the fire tool for heating and

cooking purposes inside the houses which may be the other reason for high indoor

radon concentration.

In Abbottabad, Mansehra and Haripur double story houses and in the

remaining part of the study area single story houses were selected. This arrangement

had been done to find some correlation of indoor radon concentrations with height of

the floors. Similarly the houses surveyed, were divided in to three categories (i) mud

made (ii) bricks made and (iii) concrete made. In this survey 58%, 27% and 15%

houses were concrete, mud and bricks made respectively.

5.3.1 Sampling

Large size sheets of 39CR having thickness of m500 were taken. These were

provided by Page Mouldings, Ltd.,UK . The sheets were cut into small parts each of

size 2 × 2cm . Some of the detectors were placed in the refrigerator for the

background measurement and the remaining detectors were set inside the NRPB radon

dosimeter holders. The assembly of the dosimeter is shown in the Fig. 4.2(c) which is

the diffusion cup and designed by the Radiation Protection Division of the Health

Protection Agency (HPA) previously known as National Radiological Protection

Board (UK ). Radon gas diffuses into the dosimeter and expose 39CR detector

[163].

A total of 1260 dosimeters with 39CR were installed, at height of 1.8-2.1m

in the living rooms and bedrooms of the chosen houses. One each dosimeter was

installed in the bedroom and living room of the selected house (2 dosimeters per

house). Out of the total samples 1200 were collected while the remaining 60 were lost

for different reasons. These dosimeters were allowed to expose to indoor radon for

one year (1st March 2008 to 28 February 2009) in four cycles and in the same period

for one year. 160 samples, eighty each for living and bedrooms were collected in each

one year on the seasonal basis(40 per season) and 40 samples each twenty for living

and bedrooms were collected on the year basis, each in Balakot, Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan. However weighted indoor radon level,

was calculated for each house (H.No. 1-20 for each season and for the year in the

55

Tables 6.12, 6.13, 6.14, 6.15 & 6.16 respectively) in the present case by using the

relation (5.3).

In this area of the Pakistan the winter season is long while the summer season

is short; the temperature in the summer is not more than 40 ºC and the temperature in

the winter fall below the freezing point of the water. Dosimeters were installed for

year long measurements in the living rooms of the studied houses in order to find the

effect of long term exposure on the 39CR detectors. After exposure to radon,

39CR detectors were etched in 25% NaOH at 80 ºC for 14 h and tracks were

counted using an optical microscope. After correcting for the background, track

densities were then related to the radon concentration level using calibration factor of

2.7 1112 )( mkBqhcmtracks [102, 163]. Annual average was calculated from the

measurements taken in the above long exposed detectors. By dividing the arithmetic

average of each season by the annual arithmetic average seasonal correction factor

was calculated [164]. The weighted average Rn222 concentrations ( ARnW ) were

calculated using the following formula:

4.0ARnW slivingroom bedrooms6.0 (5.3)

After through social survey of the area it was come to know that the people of

the area spent nearly 60% of their indoor time in bedrooms and 40% of their indoor

time in living rooms. Similarly weighted seasonal correction factors were determined.

Radon and its decay products contribute about 60% of the total annual

effective dose from all natural sources [166]. Radon is most effective in the indoor

atmosphere of dwellings and work places as the health related hazards of radon arise

because of the inhalation of air containing radon and its decay progenies. For indoor

air, the annual mean effective dose was calculated by using the parameters adopted by

a reportUNSCEAR 2000, [25].

DCFOFCamSvH Rn )( 1 (5.4)

Where H is the annual mean effective dose in 1amSv ,

RnC is the indoor radon concentration ( 3mBq ),

F is the equilibrium factor between radon and its decay products (0.45),

O is the average indoor occupancy time per person (7000 h a-1)

56

and DCF is the Dose Conversion Factor for radon exposure [9nSvh-1 ( 3mBq )-1].

All these samples were collected for one year in different seasons of 2009,

namely winter (December to February), spring (March to May), summer (June to

August) and autumn (September to November), from which some correlations among

radon level in different seasons have established. Similarly doses have been calculated

for the study area. The variations in temperature of the study area during this period

were observed from -4 to 10 ºC, 12 to 30 ºC, 16 to 38 ºC and 10 to 28 ºC in winter,

spring, summer and autumn respectively.

57

CHAPTER 6

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this chapter, the results of radon concentrations in all three media, namely indoor

air, drinking water and soil gas are presented and discussed. At first, the radon

concentrations were measured in three types of drinking water sources i.e. bore/deep

well water, spring water and surface (river and nallah) water. The doses associated

with these sources of drinking water were calculated from the radon levels.

The radon levels in different water sources of all sampling sites were

measured and then the radon concentration in spring water of other sites of the study

area were compared with that of Balakot site, which lies on an active geological fault

line.

The radon concentrations in soil gas samples were measured in the five

districts of the study area. The measurements were taken along the transact from

Balakot- Bagh fault line in the Balakot section and were then compared with soil gas

radon concentrations of the remaining part of the study area.

In the last, the indoor radon levels (weighted average values) were carefully

determined in four seasons at all five districts including that of Balakot. The results of

Balakot are of special importance due its geology and its proximity with the fault line

known as Balakot-Bagh Fault line (B-B Fault line). The results are compared with

those of other sites of the study area.

The seasonal correction factors were employed for the calculation of seasonal

radon levels at each site. The annual mean indoor radon levels were determined and

compared with seasonal mean values. The similar or otherwise, the results have been

discussed in detail in the subsequent sections. The indoor radon levels were also

analyzed for different structures, stories of the houses in different sites of the study

area and finally, dose contributions from the weighted annual mean indoor radon

levels were estimated.

6.1 Radon concentration in water sources

In situ measurements of radon concentrations were taken in all three types of drinking

water sources (spring, surface and bore/well) by collecting samples from the study

58

area. Spring, surface and bore/well water samples from Balakot city and its

surroundings (especially near the fault line where there is no other source of water

except spring water), were collected in which spring water from fault line was treated

as a special case due to its past history of severe earth-quake on October 8, 2005. The

measurements of radon concentration in spring water samples from Balakot were

clearly different than the spring water samples of other sites in the study area is shown

in Table 6.5.

Table 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3 show the statistical analysis of spring, surface, bore hole

water respectively, while Table 6.4 shows the statistical analysis of all drinking

sources, from the selected sites in whole study area.

From Table 6.1 the data for the Balakot followed that most (75% of the total)

of the spring waters samples have radon concentrations within 18-21 3mkBq and very

few are below 19 kBq m-3. As compare to other parts of the study area in which only

5% of the total are fall in this limit (18-21 3mkBq ) and the remaining are well below

the said limit.

Sampling data for surface water from Table 6.2 shows that most (74% of the total) of

the samples have radon concentrations in the range of 1.7 to 9.0 3mkBq and only 2

values are in the range of 12 to 15 3mkBq . Table 6.3 shows that most (58% of the

total) of the samples have radon levels within 12-21 3mkBq and very few (4% of the

total) are above 24 3mkBq . Table 6.4 shows the statistical analysis for all types of

drinking sources from selected points in whole study, it revealed that most (23.6% of

the total) of samples have radon levels within 6-9 3mkBq .

Table 6.5 shows radon concentrations in the spring water, ranging from 15.1 to

22.9 3mkBq , 3.6 to 20.6 3mkBq , 5.8 to 15.3 3mkBq , 9.3 to 16.9 3mkBq and 6.3 to

20.4 3mkBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Haripur, Battgram, and Kohistan respectively

with the mean values of 19.4 ± 2.0 3mkBq ,7.7 ± 4.0 3mkBq ,9.4 ± 2.7 3mkBq ,12.8

± 3.78 3mkBq and 13.3 ± 4.2 3mkBq .

Tables 6.6 and 6.7 contain all measurements of water samples of surface and

bore-hole/well sources collected from different sites of the study area. The results

obtained from these measurements reveal that radon concentrations in surface water

are in the range from 1.7 to 5.4 3mkBq , 4.9 to 11.8 3mkBq , 4.5 to 10.2 3mkBq , 4.8

59

to 13.8 3mkBq , 5.4 to 12.3 3mkBq and 7.4 to 11.8 3mkBq in Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram, Kohistan and Balakot respectively with the mean

values of 2.8 ± 0.90 3mkBq , 8.3 ± 1.5 3mkBq , 6.7 ± 1.8 3mkBq , 7.6 ± 2.5 3mkBq ,

9.2 ± 2.1 3mkBq and 9.2 ± 1.3 3mkBq . Similarly radon concentrations in bore water

samples are ranging from 7.0 to 24.0 3mkBq , 17.3 to 24.5 3mkBq , 9.5 to

25.4 3mkBq , 13.9 to 22.3 3mkBq , 14.3 to 23.1 3mkBq and 18.6 to 24.5 3mkBq in

Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram, Kohistan and in Balakot respectively with

their mean values of 9.4 ± 3.7 3mkBq , 20.4 ± 1.6 3mkBq , 16.3 ± 4.8 3mkBq , 17.6 ±

2.4 3mkBq , 18.7 ± 2.9 3mkBq and 20.9 ± 1.8 3mkBq . Table 6.8 shows the

comparison of our observations in bore water samples with that of various studies

carried out at different parts of the globe.

Fig. 6.1 demonstrates the frequency allocation of the radon concentrations in

the spring water from Balakot only. Fig. 6.2 demonstrates the frequency allocation of

radon concentrations in the spring water samples (except the spring water of

Mansehra) in the study area. Fig. 6.3 and 6.4 show the frequency allocation of radon

concentrations in surface and bore/well water samples respectively in the study area.

Fig. 6.5 shows the frequency allocation of radon concentrations in all types of water

sources from the whole study area. The results of mean radon concentrations obtained

from all drinking water sources (except the spring water of Mansehra) are

demonstrated in Fig. 6.6.

Fig. 6.7 shows the variation in radon concentrations of spring water samples

with longitude, next to the B-B fault line of Balakot section. Higher radon levels were

observed near the fault line with maximum value of 22.9 ± 3.7 3mkBq at longitude

73.34º E. High values of radon were found in the spring water samples composed

from the fault line of Balakot region, where the soil is permeable for the flow of radon

in the underlying rocks. Radium and radon are soluble in water. When ground water

moves through radium/radon behavior soil and rocks they are dissolved and

transported with the water. Faults, can accumulate uranium from circulating fluids,

and as a consequence, strongly enhance radon potential locally. The other important

reason may be the uranium deposits yet to be studied. The highest value of radon

concentration in spring water was found at 73.34º E longitude on Balakot-Bagh active

fault line as can be seen from the Fig. 6.7.

60

Large variations in radon levels were observed in the spring water of

Abbottabad. The reason for this may be the phosphate bearing rocks such as that

found in Kakul (one of Abbottabad site) which contain approximately 22 ppm

uranium [147]. While the rest of sampling points in the study areas do not show

significant variation in radon levels. This shows the positive correlation between

radon levels in water and the dissolved solids in Abbottabad region.

In surface water the radon levels were found almost consistent in the whole

study area and no large intra-site variations were observed in all sampling points. In

bore water, the maximum radon value was found in one sampling point at Haripur.

The reason may be the uranium deposits or the porosity of the soil which is

responsible on the large scale migration of the radium or radon to the water in the

under-lying rocks.

Bore-hole water samples were composed from the public water as well as

private water supply. However most (more than 80%) of the samples were from

public water supply and the rest from private supply. The water samples were

collected at different depths. These depths are ranging from 60 to 90m. However no

correlation was found between the depth of the well and the water radon

concentration from Table 6.9.

Mean radon levels in the bore water of all districts except Abbottabad are

above the EPAUS recommended level (11.0 3mkBq )[ 167]. The mean radon levels

in the surface water of the whole study area are lying within the suggested

EPAUS limit. The mean radon levels in the spring water samples of Balakot,

Battgram and Kohistan are found above the EPAUS recommended value but the

observed mean values are within the range of radioprotection standards recommended

by some European countries.

The average radon levels in the spring and bore water samples of the whole

study area are higher than the maximum contamination level )(MCL which is 11.0 3mkBq while in the surface water the radon levels are below the said limit.

Therefore the waters of the areas where the drinking sources are spring and bore hole,

must not be used, before some remedial steps are to be taken, which include the

aeration and filtration through charcoal filter. The uncertainties in measurements that

are given in the tables, figures and text include both statistical and systematic errors

[168].

61

Table 6.1: Statistical analysis of spring water sampling data from the selected springs in

whole study area.

Range of 222Rn content )( 3mkBq

Frequency Percentage frequency Cumulative frequency

Abbottabad 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 5 7 2 0 0 1 0 0

0

33.3 46.6 13.3

0 0

6.6 0 0

0

33.33 79.99 93.32 93.32 93.32

100.00 100.00 100.00

Haripur 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 1 6 5 2 1 0 0 0

0

6.6 40

33.3 13.33 6.6 0 0 0

0

6.66 46.66 79.99 93.32

100.00 100.00 100.00

Battgram

0-3 3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 3 7 5 0 0 0

0 0 0 20

46.6 33.3

0 0 0

0 0 0 20

66.66 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Kohistan 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 4 2 4 2 2 1 0

0 0

26.6 13.3 26.6 13.3 13.3 6.6 0

0 0

26.66 39.99 66.65 79.98 93.31

100.00 100.00

62

Balakot 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 0 0 2 9 1 0

0 0 0 0 0

16.6 75.0 8.3 0

0 0 0 0 0

16.66 91.66

100.00 100.00

Table 6.2: Statistical analysis of surface water sampling data from the selected surface water

in whole study area.

Range of 222Rn content )( 3mkBq

Frequency Percentage frequency Cumulative frequency

Abbottabad 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

14 6 0 0 0

70.0 30.0

0 0 0

70.0

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Mansehra 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

0 1 17 6 0

0

4.1 70.8 25.0

0

0

4.16 74.99 100.00 100.00

Haripur 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

0 7 5 2 0

0

50.0 35.7 14.2

0

0

50.0 85.71 100.00 100.00

Battgram 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

0 3 5 2 1

0

27.2 45.4 18.1 9.09

0

27.27 72.72 90.90 100.00

Kohistan 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

0 2 3 6 2

0

15.3 23.0 46.1 15.3

0

15.38 38.45 84.60 100.00

Balakot 0-3

3.1-6

0 0

0 0

0 0

63

6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15

6 5 0

54.5 45.4

0

54.54 100.00 100.00

Table 6.3: Statistical analysis of bore-hole water sampling data from the selected wells in

whole study area.

Range of 222Rn content )( 3mkBq

Frequency Percentage frequency Cumulative frequency

Abbottabad 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 13 4 1 0 0 1 0

0 0

68.4 21.0 5.2 0 0

5.2 0

0 0

68.42 89.47 94.73 94.73 94.73 100.00 100.00

Mansehra 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 0 0 1 15 6 1

0 0 0 0 0

4.3 65.2 26.0 4.3

0 0 0 0 0

4.34 69.55 95.56 100.00

Haripur 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 8 5 6 5 3 3

0 0 0

26.6 16.6 20.0 16.6 10.0 10.0

0 0 0

26.66 43.32 63.32 79.98 89.98 100.00

Battgram 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 0 4 6 7 2 0

0 0 0 0

21.0 31.5 36.8 10.5

0

0 0 0 0

21.05 52.62 89.46 100.00 100.00

Kohistan

64

0-3 3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 0 2 3 2 4 0

0 0 0 0

18.1 27.2 18.1 36.3

0

0 0 0 0

18.18 45.45 63.63 100.00 100.00

Balakot 0-3

3.1-6 6.1-9 9.1-12 12.1-15 15.1-18 18.1-21 21.1-24 24.1-27

0 0 0 0 0 0 6 5 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 50

41.6 8.3

0 0 0 0 0 0

50.0 91.66 100.00

Table 6.4: Statistical analysis of all types of drinking sources sampling data from the selected

springs, surface and wells in whole study area.

Range of 222Rn content )( 3mkBq

Frequency Percentage frequency Cumulative frequency

Abbottabad

0-3

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

14

11

20

6

1

0

1

1

0

25.9

20.3

37.0

11.1

1.8

0

1.8

1.8

0

29.92

46.29

83.32

94.43

96.28

96.28

98.13

100.00

100.00

Mansehra

0-3

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

0

1

17

6

0

1

0

2.1

36.1

12.7

0

2.1

0

2.12

38.29

51.05

51.05

53.17

65

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

15

6

1

31.9

12.7

2.1

85.08

97.78

100.00

Haripur

0-3

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

0

8

11

15

7

7

5

3

3

0

13.5

18.6

25.4

11.8

11.8

8.4

5.0

5.0

0

13.55

32.19

57.61

69.47

81.33

89.80

94.88

100.00

Battgram

0-3

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

0

3

5

5

12

11

7

2

0

0

6.6

11.1

11.11

26.6

24.4

15.5

4.4

0

0

6.66

17.77

28.88

55.54

79.98

95.53

100.00

100.00

Kohistan

0-3

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

0

2

7

8

8

5

4

5

0

0

5.1

17.9

20.5

20.5

12.8

10.2

12.8

0

0

5.12

23.06

43.57

64.08

76.90

87.15

100.00

100.00

Balakot

0-3

0

0

0

66

3.1-6

6.1-9

9.1-12

12.1-15

15.1-18

18.1-21

21.1-24

24.1-27

0

6

5

0

2

15

6

1

0

17.1

14.2

0

5.7

42.8

17.1

2.8

0

17.14

31.42

31.42

37.13

79.98

97.12

100.00

Table 6.5: Radon concentrations in the spring water in )( 3mkBq .

Balakot Abbottabad Haripur Battgram Kohistan 1. 21.9±3.1 9.3±1.5 6.2±1.3 14.1±1.6 16.3±2.0 2. ---------- 9.6±1.4 7.9±1.4 9.3±1.1 17.1±2.3 3. 19.7±2.5 6.8±1.1 11.1±1.6 14.0±2.0 18.4±2.4 4. 18.4±3.2 5.4±0.9 5.8±1.3 13.4±1.6 6.3±1.1 5. 15.1±2.1 9.0±1.0 10.3±1.4 12.8±1.5 12.4±1.7 6. 19.8±3.6 20.6±2.6 9.2±1.3 12.7±1.7 9.4±1.5 7. 20.3±3.8 4.5±1.0 10.2±1.5 10.4±1.3 8.7±1.4 8. 20.9±3.3 3.6±0.7 12.5±1.6 15.6±1.8 11.3±1.7 9. 22.9±3.7 6.7±1.2 6.9±1.0 13.7±1.7 19.6±2.8 10. ---------- 8.4±1.5 7.2±1.1 12.9±1.8 20.4±2.6 11. 19.6±3.1 3.7±0.4 6.4±1.2 15.4±1.6 8.9±1.3 12. ---------- 6.7±1.2 9.7±1.4 15.3±1.9 13.7±1.6 13. 19.1±2.9 8.4±1.5 15.3±1.7 12.0±1.4 14.9±1.7 14. 16.8±2.5 4.2±0.9 13.4±1.3 16.7±1.6 13.2±1.7 15. 18.9±2.6 8.5±0.9 9.2±1.2 16.9±1.3 8.8±1.1

A.M 19.4 7.7 9.4 12.8 13.3 S.D 2.0 4.0 2.7 3.78 4.2

Maximum 22.9 20.6 15.3 16.9 20.4 Minimum 15.1 3.6 5.8 9.3 6.3

Range 15.1-22.9 3.6-20.6 5.8-15.3 9.3-16.9 6.3-20.4

Table 6.6: The radon concentration )( 3mkBq in surface and borehole water in three districts,

Abbottabad, Mansehra and Haripur.

Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Surface Borehole Surface Borehole Surface Borehole

1. 5.4±1.0 9.0±1.0 10.0±1.6 22.5±3.2 4.9±0.5 10.1±1.7 2. 3.0±0.6 10.2±0.9 8.9±1.3 21.1±3.1 ---------- 11.6±1.8 3. 3.5±0.8 8.8±1.2 8.1±1.2 19.8±2.9 4.6±0.7 14.9±1.9 4. 2.1±0.5 7.0±1.0 9.5±1.7 18.7±2.7 ---------- 19.6±1.8 5. 2.5±0.3 9.8±1.1 10.3±1.8 19.3±2.8 5.7±0.9 21.5±2.1 6. 3.8±0.7 12.3±1.1 11.8±1.4 22.8±3.2 6.3±1.2 24.8±2.4 7. 1.9±0.4 7.7±0.9 7.9±1.1 22.9±3.1 ---------- 13.3±1.5 8. 3.9±0.9 8.1±1.2 10.7±1.3 24.5±3.3 ---------- 9.5±1.7

67

9. 2.7±0.4 --------- --------- 20.5±2.9 7.5±1.3 9.8±1.8 10. 1.8±0.3 7.2±0.9 7.8±1.2 21.4±2.8 ---------- 10.2±2.0 11. 2.1±0.2 9.2±1.0 7.4±1.1 19.5±2.5 ---------- 10.4±1.8 12. 3.2±0.6 8.9±1.0 8.4±1.4 18.6±2.2 4.5±0.6 11.6±2.3 13. 2.4±0.6 7.5±0.8 9.7±1.6 19.7±2.5 9.6±1.5 23.4±3.0 14. 1.7±0.2 7.1±0.9 8.3±1.5 20.3±2.8 ---------- 20.1±2.3 15. 3.8±0.8 24.0±1.6 7.3±1.3 20.0±2.7 ---------- 19.7±2.2 16. 2.8±0.7 8.0±1.3 6.7±1.0 17.3±2.2 8.7±1.4 25.4±2.8 17. 2.1±0.5 7.2±0.7 6.8±1.1 18.4±2.5 10.2±1.7 24.6±2.5 18. 2.2±0.5 8.3±1.1 8.0±1.4 20.7±2.9 7.9±1.2 15.7±1.9 19. 2.4±0.3 9.1±1.0 7.2±1.3 ---------- ---------- 16.2±2.3 20. 2.1±0.4 8.4±0.9 8.6±1.6 20.4±2.9 ---------- 11.8±1.7 21. ---------- ---------- 4.9±0.9 ---------- ---------- 18.7±2.9 22. ---------- ---------- 7.6±1.7 20.8±2.8 7.3±1.1 17.4±2.5 23. ---------- ---------- 8.4±1.8 19.2±2.7 5.4±1.2 17.6±2.7 24. ---------- ---------- 7.0±1.7 21.2±2.9 ---------- 16.4±2.5 25. ---------- ---------- 7.9±1.6 20.0±2.7 ---------- 13.4±1.9 26. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 5.9±1.3 18.9±2.5 27. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 22.4±3.1 28. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 5.3±1.1 12.8±1.8 29. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 16.5±2.4 30. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 10.7±2.3

Mean 2.8 9.4 8.3 20.4 6.7 16.3 S.D 0.90 3.7 1.5 1.6 1.8 4.8

Maximum 5.4 24.0 11.8 24.5 10.2 25.4 Minimum 1.7 7.0 4.9 17.3 4.5 9.5

Range 1.7-5.4 7.0-24.0 4.9-11.8 17.3-24.5 4.5-10.2 9.5-25.4

Table 6.7: The radon concentration )( 3mkBq in surface and borehole water in Battgram,

Kohistan and Balakot.

Battgram Kohistan Balakot S.No. Surface Borehole Surface Borehole Surface Borehole

1. 5.4±0.7 22.3±3.2 8.7±1.3 17.2±2.5 10.0±1.6 22.5±3.2 2. ---------- 17.4±3.0 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 3. ---------- 13.9±2.2 ---------- ---------- 8.9±1.4 21.1±3.3 4. ---------- 16.5±2.4 7.9±1.2 ---------- ---------- ---------- 5. 7.6±1.5 18.6±3.1 ---------- 19.3±2.6 8.1±1.3 19.8±3.0 6. ---------- 14.7±2.3 10.6±1.5 ---------- 9.5±1.7 ---------- 7. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 8. 9.7±1.9 15.1±2.8 ---------- ---------- ---------- 18.7±2.8 9. 6.3±1.4 14.8±2.1 10.3±1.4 21.5±2.4 10.3±1.7 ---------- 10. ---------- 19.7±3.2 10.7±1.5 ---------- ---------- 19.3±2.9 11. 4.8±0.6 ---------- ---------- ---------- 11.8±1.9 22.8±3.1 12. ---------- 15.8±2.1 9.7±1.4 14.3±2.1 ---------- ---------- 13. ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 7.9±1.3 ---------- 14. 6.7±1.6 16.9±2.3 9.8±1.3 ---------- 10.7±1.7 22.9±3.2 15. 13.8± 2.1 18.3±2.7 ---------- 18.6±2.5 ---------- ---------- 16. ---------- ---------- ---------- 16.1±2.3 7.8±1.2 ----------

68

17. ---------- 18.5±2.8 5.4±0.7 ---------- ---------- ---------- 18. ---------- 20.8±3.4 ---------- ---------- ---------- 24.5±3.4 19. 8.4±1.9 ---------- 9.1±1.3 22.3±4.0 7.4±1.3 ---------- 20. ---------- 21.4±3.3 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 21. ---------- ---------- 12.3±1.7 21.9±3.9 ---------- 20.5±3.1 22. 9.3±2.1 ---------- 12.1±1.7 ---------- ---------- ---------- 23. ---------- 19.9±2.9 ---------- ---------- 8.4±1.4 ---------- 24. ---------- 18.8±2.7 ---------- 23.1±3.4 ---------- 21.4±3.0 25. 6.9±1.8 14.7±1.9 ---------- ---------- ---------- 19.5±2.7 26. ---------- ---------- 5.9±0.7 16.4±3.0 ---------- ---------- 27. 5.3±0.9 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- 28. ---------- 15.7±2.5 7.1±1.1 ---------- ---------- 18.6±2.6 29. ---------- ---------- 14.9±2.7 ---------- ----------

Mean 7.6 17.6 9.2 18.7 9.2 20.9 S.D 2.5 2.4 2.1 2.9 1.3 1.8

Maximum 13.8 22.3 12.3 23.1 11.8 24.5 Minimum 4.8 13.9 5.4 14.3 7.4 18.6

Range 4.8-13.8 13.9-22.0 5.4-12.3 14.3-23 7.4-11.8 18.6-24.5

Table 6.8: The comparison of radon concentration )( 3mkBq in deep well water with

previous measurements from different countries

Country name Average Range Reference Canada 31.7 0-336 [169] Finland 60 ------- [169] Romania 15.8 0.6-112.6 [170] Sweden 38 ------- [171] USA ---------- 74%<74&5%>370 [172] Pakistan 17.2 7.0-25.4 (Present work for bore hole water)

6.1.1 Dose calculation from radon concentrations in water

As far as the radiation dose to inhabitants from waterborne radon is concerned, it is

understood to be a higher risk than all other impurities in water [173]. The annual

mean effective doses for ingestion and inhalation were evaluated by using the

parameters recognized in 2000,UNSCEAR [25] as follow,

EDCCCamSvE wRnWwIg )( 1 (6.1)

Where wIgE is the effective dose for ingestion,

RnWC and wC are the radon concentration in water )( 3mkBq and weighted estimate of

water consumption (60 l a-1) respectively.

EDC is the Effective Dose Coefficient for ingestion 3.5 1BqnSv .

69

DCFOFRCamSvE awRnWwIh )( 1 (6.2)

Where wIhE is the effective dose for inhalation,

awR is the ratio of radon in air to radon in tap water (10-4),

F is the equilibrium factor between radon and its decay products (0.45), O is the

average indoor occupancy time per person (7000 h a-1)

DCF is the Dose Conversion Factor for radon exposure 131 )(9 mBqhnSv .

The simplified relation from the above two relations is

00273.0)( 1RnCamSvH 131 )(9 mBqamSv (6.3)

RnC is the radon concentration in 3mBq

Table 6.9 is summary of the results for the radon concentrations in all drinking

water sources along with the results of associated doses which the people received.

The result shows that the dose calculated from radon in all drinking sources in the

whole study area is 0.034 mSv (mean for the whole study area) per year.

Fig.6.8 is the demonstration of the results obtained for annual mean doses

from all, three sources (except the spring water of Mansehra) of drinking water.

Table 6.9: Arithmetic mean (A.M), maximum and minimum radon concentration and annual

mean dose estimation from radon in all three sources of drinking water in the

study area.

District name (sample nature)

Radon concentration )( 3mkBq

A.M Max: Min:

Dose estimation ( 1amSv )

A.M Max: Min:

S.D

Abbottabad Spring Surface

Bore Total

7.7 2.8 9.4 6.6

20.6 5.4 24.0 24.0

3.6 1.7 7.0 1.7

0.021 0.008 0.026 0.018

0.056 0.015 0.066 0.065

0.0098 0.005 0.019 0.005

4.0 0.9 3.7

Mansehra Surface

Bore Total

8.3 20.4 14.3

11.8 24.5 24.5

4.9 17.3 4.9

0.022 0.056 0.039

0.032 0.067 0.067

0.013 0.047 0.013

1.5 1.6

Haripur Spring Surface

Bore Total

9.5 6.7 16.3 10.8

15.3 10.2 25.4 25.4

5.8 4.5 9.5 4.5

0.026 0.018 0.044 0.029

0.042 0.028 0.069 0.069

0.016 0.012 0.029 0.012

2.7 1.8 4.8

Battgram Spring

12.8

19.6

9.3

0.035

0.054

0.025

3.78

70

Surface Bore Total

7.6 17.6 12.6

13.8 22.3 22.3

4.8 13.9 4.8

0.021 0.046 0.034

0.038 0.073 0.073

0.013 0.038 0.013

2.47 2.44

Kohistan Spring Surface

Bore Total

13.3 9.2 18.6 13.7

20.4 12.3 23.1 23.1

6.3 5.4 14.3 5.4

0.036 0.025 0.050 0.037

0.056 0.034 0.063 0.063

0.017 0.015 0.039 0.015

4.2 2

2.97

Balakot Spring Surface

Bore Total

19.4 9.2 20.9 16.5

22.9 11.8 24.5 24.5

15.12 7.4 18.6 7.4

0.053 0.025 0.057 0.045

0.062 0.032 0.067 0.067

0.041 0.020 0.051 0.044

2

1.3 1.8

6.2 Soil gas radon concentrations

Table 6.10 contains the measurements of soil gas radon concentrations at different

sites of the study area. The radon levels are in the range from 8.7 to 20.1 3mkBq , 2.3

to 7.3 3mkBq , 4.6 to 12.3 3mkBq , 3.9 to 11.0 3mkBq , and 4.5 to 12.4 3mkBq with

their mean values of 11.9 ± 3.2 3mkBq , 4.3 ± 1.4 3mkBq , 7.4 ± 2.4 3mkBq , 6.8 ±

2.3 3mkBq and 7.5 ± 2.4 3mkBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Haripur, Battgram and

Kohistan respectively.

Fig. 6.9 illustrates the frequency allocation of soil gas radon concentrations in

the whole study area, while Fig. 6.10 demonstrates the frequency distribution of soil

gas radon concentrations at and around Balakot region. The individual frequency

distribution at each district looks like normal distribution as is clear in Fig. 6.9. As

seen from the figure that most of the soil gas radon concentrations in the study area

were within the range of 3-15 3mkBq with few values are high soil gas radon

concentrations. Similar normal distribution is evidenced from Fig. 6.10 for Balakot

region with a central value of 11.66 ± 0.25 3mkBq . Fig. 6.11 illustrates the mean soil

gas radon concentrations in the whole study area and Fig. 6.12 shows the soil gas

radon concentrations variation, next to the Balakot-Bagh (B-B) fault line in Balakot.

Higher radon levels were observed near the fault line with the maximum value of 20.1

± 2.5 3mkBq at 73.34º E longitudes. The underlying cracks in the rocks near the

fault line may be the one probable reason for the higher radon levels besides the other

71

reasons including higher uranium and thorium concentrations, porosity of the soil and

lithology of the site, which are yet to be studied.

Table 6.10: Radon concentration 3mkBq in soil gas in Balakot (near fault line) and other

part of the study area

Sample No Balakot Abbottabad Haripur Battgram Kohistan 1. ---------- 2.3±0.2 5.8±0.7 4.0±0.4 6.0±0.5 2. 15.0±1.5 3.4±0.3 4.9±0.9 3.9±0.3 5.8±0.7 3. 20.1±2.5 5.0±0.5 5.7±0.8 4.4±0.6 6.3±0.3 4. 13.1±1.4 4.0±0.4 5.9±0.6 7.8±0.9 7.4±0.6 5. 12.4±1.3 6.2±0.8 4.8±0.5 4.1±0.5 4.5±0.3 6. 12.3±1.4 4.6±0.7 9.0±0.9 9.4±1.2 6.9±0.4 7. 10.4±1.2 7.3±0.8 10.5±1.2 5.1±0.4 7.3±0.8 8. 9.1±1.1 2.8±0.3 10.6±1.1 7.8±0.8 12.2±1.3 9. 8.7±1.0 5.7±0.6 8.9±0.9 8.2±1.0 8.4±1.1 10. 9.0±0.9 5.0±0.5 7.6±0.8 8.9±0.9 10.0±1.2 11. 9.2±1.1 3.4±0.4 12.3±1.3 7.6±0.8 7.0±0.2 12. ---------- 3.3±0.5 5.6±0.6 11.0±1.5 12.4±1.7 13. 11.4±0.8 3.0±0.5 4.6±0.7 4.5±0.3 4.6±0.3 14. ---------- 3.6±0.4 7.4±0.8 8.0±0.3 6.5±0.4

Mean 11.9 4.3 7.4 6.8 7.5 S.D 3.2 1.4 2.4 2.3 2.4

Maximum 20.1 7.3 12.3 11.0 12.4 Minimum 8.7 2.3 4.6 3.9 4.5

Range 8.7-20.1 2.3-7.3 4.6-12.3 3.9-11.0 4.5-12.4

6.3 Results of the indoor radon concentrations

From the measured track densities of 39CR with known calibration factor of

1312 )(7.2 mkBqhcmtracks [102, 163]. Indoor radon concentrations and seasonal

correction factors were determined in Hazara division of N.W.F.P for each of the four

seasons. Table 6.11-6.15 show a clear picture of the seasonal average and annual

mean in all five districts along with Balakot. The indoor radon concentrations in all

five districts are maximum in winter seasons and minimum in the summer seasons

except the district Haripur where it is minimum in the autumn season.

Table 6.11 is the measurements of indoor radon concentrations in spring

season. These values range from 70 to 150 3mBq , from 49 to 128 3mBq , from 54

to 148 3mBq , from 56 to 154 3mBq , from 50 to 148 3mBq and from 55 to

156 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan

respectively, with their respective mean values of 132 ± 21 3mBq , 108 ± 20 3mBq ,

72

112 ± 38 3mBq , 124 ± 28 3mBq , 108 ± 30 3mBq , 116 ± 32 3mBq . Table 6.12

shows the measurements of indoor radon concentrations in summer season. These

values range from 65 to 144 3mBq , 41 to 126 3mBq , 49 to 144 3mBq , 110 to

182 3mBq , 48 to 135 3mBq and 53 to 152 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan respectively, with their respective mean

values of 120 ± 22 3mBq , 102 ± 23 3mBq , 106 ± 30 3mBq , 140 ± 23 3mBq , 102

± 26 3mBq and 114 ± 27 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur,

Battgram and Kohistan. Table 6.13 reveals the measurements of indoor radon

concentrations in autumn season. These values are ranging from 119 to172 3mBq ,

from 98 to 155 3mBq , 108 to 172 3mBq , 51 to 145 3mBq , 102 to 174 3mBq and

108 to 190 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan

respectively, with their respective mean values of 151 ± 20 3mBq , 128 ± 18 3mBq ,

140 ± 21 3mBq , 114 ± 26 3mBq , 130 ± 20 3mBq and 147 ± 24 3mBq . Table 6.14

contains the measurements of indoor radon concentrations in the winter season.

Indoor radon values range from 163 to 220 3mBq , 130 to 210 3mBq , 156 to 174

3mBq , 155 to 230 3mBq and 134 to 254 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra,

Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan respectively, with their respective mean values of

204 ± 16 3mBq , 162 ± 21 3mBq , 172 ± 15 3mBq , 174 ± 18 3mBq , 170 ±

16 3mBq and 178 ± 24 3mBq . Table 6.15 reveals the results of weighted annual

mean indoor radon concentration on the basis of seasonal measurements, with the

values of 152 ± 20 3mBq , 125 ± 21 3mBq , 132 ± 24 3mBq , 138 ± 24 3mBq , 128

± 23 3mBq and 139 ± 26 3mBq in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur,

Battgram and Kohistan respectively.

Fig. 6.13 exhibits the frequency allocation of indoor radon concentrations in

Balakot region. The shape of frequency distribution is bimodal, one peak centres

about 140 3mBq and the second peak centres about 214 3mBq . The majority of the

values lie in the first peak ranging from 100-180 3mBq . While the frequency

allocation of the whole study area is depicted in Fig. 6.14. The shape of frequency

distribution is almost unimodal except Balakot. Most of the values lie in the range of

90-150 3mBq . Fig. 6.15 demonstrates the annual mean indoor radon concentration in

73

the study area. These values in the whole area, except Balakot, are within the

EPAUS recommended level of 14 lpCi (148 3mBq ). The mean value of Balakot is

slightly higher than the recommended limit, however, it is not high enough to cause

any health hazard to the inhabitant of the area. Fig. 6.16 shows the seasonal variation

of indoor radon concentrations in the study area. The radon levels in each district

including Balakot are higher in the winter season. The higher values in the winter

season are due to humid and closed indoor environments which retard the ventilation

rate in the season and lower values in the summer season because of high ventilation

rate and less humid environment, except at Haripur district where it is lower in the

autumn season. The probable reason of higher radon levels in summer than in autumn

is the unusual high rain fall at the sampling period at Haripur. The other reasons for

high indoor radon concentrations during winter season in the study area are: (a) soil

dampness and snow cover, which slow down radon gas flow into atmosphere; (b)

Pressure difference between the inside of a home (as the inside air is heated) and the

soil adjacent the home. Subsequently, the air pressure in homes to be lower than the

soil adjacent them. This results in radon gas seeping through groundwork openings

into the home directly.

Table 6.17 and 6.18 show the mean, maximum and minimum indoor radon

concentrations at different floors of the houses and in houses made of different

materials respectively. Fig.6.17 & 6.18 reveal the mean indoor radon concentrations

at different floors of the houses and houses made of different materials respectively.

6.3.1 Seasonal correction factor

Seasonal correction was calculated for all districts in the study area by dividing the

arithmetic average of each season by the annual arithmetic average [164]. Fig.6.19

reveals variations in the seasonal correction factor for each district. These values

ranging from 0.79 to1.34, 0.82 to 1.3, 0.80 to 1.3, 0.89 to 1.26, 0.79 to1.32 and 0.82

to 1.28 in Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan

respectively. This factor in the whole study area ranges from 0.79 to 1.34. The

calculated values are higher in winter and lower in summer.

6.3.2 Comparative study of yearly measured indoor radon and seasonal

average indoor radon concentrations

The data of weighted annual indoor radon concentrations obtained from the yearly

measurements in the whole study area has been given in Table 6.16. The average

74

values at Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan are

respectively 132 ± 17 3mBq , 105 ± 17 3mBq , 112 ± 15 3mBq , 117 ± 16 3mBq ,

111 ± 13 3mBq and 120 ± 16 3mBq . The comparison of annual average on the basis

of yearly measurements with the annual average on the basis of seasonal

measurements of indoor radon concentrations has been made in Fig.6.20. The yearly

measurements of indoor radon concentrations in the area are almost less than by 15%

from that of seasonally averaged indoor radon measurements. It is clear from Table

6.15 & 6.16 that annual radon concentrations on yearly basis are less than seasonal

annual average by 13%, 16%, 15%, 15%, 13% and 14% at Balakot, Abbottabad,

Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan respectively. The tendency, has several

reasons: (i) dust and other particles have penetrated into the dosimeter assembly and

settled on the surface of the CR-39 detector due to the year-long measurements,

subsequently, the efficiency of the detector has decreased (ii) heat and moisture in the

existence of oxygen in the air can have an adverse effect on the sensitivity of the

etched –track detector during radon measurement [174], and (iii) the deterioration of

detector materials for long exposure, the errors in the etching and counting

techniques may be responsible for the this deviation.

6.3.3 Variation of indoor radon concentrations in different stories and

construction materials

Table 6.17 shows the variation of indoor radon concentrations with height of floor.

The ground floor shows high indoor radon concentrations than the first floor. These

values ranging from 41 to 236 3mBq and 36 to 116 3mBq for ground and first floors

respectively. The mean values of radon concentrations on ground floors in

Abbottabad, Mansehra and Haripur districts are 125 ± 22 3mBq , 132 ± 23 3mBq ,

and 138 ± 24 3mBq respectively, while the mean indoor radon concentrations on the

first floors of these districts are 116 ± 16 3mBq , 122 ± 18 3mBq 138 ± 19 3mBq .

Fig. 6.17 depicts the mean indoor radon concentrations measured on the first and the

ground floors of the above mentioned districts. Lower indoor radon concentrations

were found on the first floors which were almost 14% less than that on the ground

floors. The reason for the lower radon concentrations on the first floors is their highly

ventilation conditions and low density of air because radon is a dense gas and

75

subsides close to the ground level. Table 6.18 encompassing the results obtained from

different construction used in the houses of the study area. Generally higher radon

concentrations were found in houses made of mud (adobe) as compared to houses

made of bricks and concrete.

From the obtained results, the mean indoor radon concentrations in houses

made of bricks, concrete and mud are 125 ± 18 3mBq , 60 ± 8 3mBq and 170 ±

22 3mBq , 129 ± 21 3mBq , 63 ± 9 3mBq and 201 ± 24 3mBq , 135 ± 17 3mBq ,

66 ± 8 3mBq and 210 ± 27 3mBq , 127 ± 16 3mBq , 61 ± 10 3mBq and 173 ±

23 3mBq and 134 ± 19 3mBq , 64 ± 8 3mBq and 207 ± 28 3mBq respectively in

Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan. The reason for high radon

levels in houses made of mud compared to houses made of concrete and bricks made

houses are its comparatively high porosity and moist nature of mud made houses.

Fig. 6.18 demonstrates the variation of indoor radon concentrations in

different construction materials made houses.

6.3.4 Dose estimation from indoor radon concentrations

For indoor air, the annual mean effective dose was calculated using the Equation

(5.4). Table 6.19 shows the weighted indoor radon concentrations and their annual

mean doses to be received by the dwellings of the area, from indoor radon level. The

annual mean doses from indoor radon are 4.31 ± 0.56 mSv , 3.54 ± 0.59 mSv , 3.74 ±

0.71 mSv , 3.91 ± 0.71 mSv , 3.62 ± 0.82 mSv and 3.94 ± 0.73 mSv in Balakot,

Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan respectively. Fig. 6.21

demonstrates the annual mean doses, received by the people of the area from indoor

radon concentrations.

6.3.5 The excess of lung cancer in the study area

The yearly average weighted indoor radon concentrations at Abbottabad, Mansehra,

Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan are 105 ± 17 3mBq , 112 ± 15 3mBq , 117 ±

16 3mBq , 111 ± 13 3mBq and 120 ± 16 3mBq respectively. Using these values in

the model in Fig.2.1, The excess of lung cancer per million per year (MPY) in all five

districts was calculated in Table 6.20.

76

Table 6.11: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations )( 3mBq in the study area in the Spring season.

House No. Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan 1. 70±11 49±8 54±7 56±16 50±7 55±8 2. 146±36 127±26 60±11 70±10 61±8 68±9 3. 148±38 122±23 64±13 80±11 70±10 150±42 4. 143±37 120±12 72±16 146±22 74±11 145±38 5. 123±22 66±8 84±17 100±17 80±12 70±11 6. 134±30 80±11 92±11 108±19 87±12 79±12 7. 142±32 115±17 100±12 110±20 90±14 85±13 8. 145±34 98±16 104±14 115±17 96±16 91±16 9. 154±41 100±15 110±15 123±19 102±17 99±15 10. 136±28 103±18 114±17 129±20 109±16 106±18 11. 135±30 108±21 122±22 134±24 116±18 114±20 12. 150±50 110±19 127±24 137±26 119±20 122±20 13. 126±24 111±20 133±25 139±26 122±21 130±26 14. 120±18 114±18 136±26 142±34 132±28 134±27 15. 138±28 116±21 139±30 143±36 138±30 138±30 16. 147±33 119±22 140±32 145±35 139±32 140±32 17. 110±16 121±23 142±33 147±36 141±38 144±38 18. 129±23 124±24 144±34 148±40 142±36 149±41 19. 90±12 126±17 147±32 151±42 146±39 152±40 20. 149±47 128±22 148±31 154±41 148±38 156±42

A.M 132 108 112 124 108 116 S.D 21 20 38 28 30 32

Range 70-150 49-128 54-148 56-154 50-148 55-156

Table 6.12: Weighted Indoor Radon concentrations )( 3mBq in the study area in the summer

season.

House No.

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

1. 65±8 41±6 49±7 110±16 48±6 53±7 2. 78±12 59±7 57±9 111±17 60±7 70±9 3. 84±13 69±10 61±11 114±18 68±8 135±28 4. 99±14 78±11 69±10 117±17 73±10 80±14 5. 144±44 124±21 82±12 121±19 79±12 86±13 6. 143±41 123±26 89±11 122±20 81±13 91±16 7. 138±38 88±17 92±12 124±22 85±12 99±18 8. 139±37 99±16 101±13 128±26 89±15 104±19 9. 131±35 96±18 106±12 132±27 98±16 109±20 10. 132±28 100±19 109±14 133±28 104±17 112±21 11. 142±39 102±18 116±15 134±30 110±18 117±20 12. 129±24 106±14 119±14 138±32 114±20 120±22 13. 126±23 110±16 122±17 140±34 119±18 124±23 14. 127±22 113±19 125±18 150±38 121±20 129±25 15. 130±25 114±20 132±22 158±42 125±22 133±30 16. 119±20 118±21 136±28 167±48 126±24 138±32 17. 115±17 120±24 139±30 171±54 129±27 142±36 18. 109±17 121±20 140±32 174±55 132±30 144±38

77

19. 131±26 124±18 142±32 177±55 134±31 148±39 20. 111±16 126±21 144±33 182±60 135±34 150±42

A.M 120 102 106 140 102 114 S.D 22 23 30 23 26 27

Range 65-144 41-126 49-144 110-182 48-135 53-152

Table 6.13: Weighted indoor Radon concentrations )( 3mBq in the study area in the autumn

season.

House No.

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

1. 119±19 98±10 108±12 51±7 102±17 108±19 2. 167±51 100±11 110±13 68±9 104±18 114±20 3. 128±27 104±12 112±14 75±11 106±16 118±19 4. 131±28 107±17 117±16 88±15 111±18 121±20 5. 133±29 111±14 120±18 96±16 113±17 125±22 6. 166±50 115±13 121±20 102±18 115±19 129±24 7. 136±32 119±22 124±21 108±19 117±20 131±25 8. 140±34 121±23 129±24 112±18 120±21 135±30 9. 161±52 123±24 133±28 115±19 123±22 138±33 10. 145±40 126±27 136±29 116±20 126±22 141±36 11. 147±41 130±32 142±32 120±21 128±24 146±34 12. 137±35 134±30 149±34 126±22 131±28 150±42 13. 151±42 137±30 154±39 130±26 133±30 153±41 14. 156±43 141±34 155±42 133±28 137±31 158±43 15. 162±49 144±28 159±45 136±27 141±36 161±46 16. 168±52 145±31 161±50 137±30 146±40 166±50 17. 170±56 147±34 165±52 139±32 151±44 176±51 18. 172±56 149±30 167±52 141±34 156±45 184±52 19. 150±42 152±32 170±54 144±33 165±45 188±50 20. 171±51 155±35 172±55 145±34 174±50 190±52

A.M 151 128 140 114 130 147 S.D 20 18 21 26 20 24

Range 119-172 98-155 108-172 51-145 102-174 108-190

Table 6.14: Weighted indoor Radon concentrations )( 3mBq in the study area in the winter season.

House No.

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

1. 163±50 130±21 152±50 156±40 155±42 134±27 2. 171±56 132±23 154±49 157±41 156±44 138±28 3. 184±58 136±21 158±51 158±40 159±43 141±34 4. 187±57 141±26 160±52 159±42 161±45 147±33 5. 191±56 144±27 161±53 160±44 163±46 152±41 6. 196±60 148±34 162±52 162±47 164±45 158±43 7. 206±60 151±41 164±53 164±50 166±47 161±44 8. 210±62 154±42 166±54 166±51 167±49 165±45 9. 214±61 157±43 169±54 170±55 170±51 169±48 10. 217±62 160±20 170±55 171±54 172±52 172±50 11. 220±60 163±44 171±56 172±57 173±50 174±52

78

12. 217±59 164±42 173±58 173±56 176±54 178±55 13. 216±61 167±40 176±59 175±55 180±56 182±55 14. 219±60 170±39 179±58 178±57 183±57 187±56 15. 218±62 175±38 180±57 181±60 165±56 191±57 16. 219±63 177±41 181±59 182±61 158±60 199±56 17. 199±57 180±40 183±60 184±59 159±62 206±59 18. 209±60 187±38 186±58 188±62 162±60 216±60 19. 206±62 200±34 188±57 195±62 230±59 228±62 20. 211±63 210±32 220±62 236±64 157±62 254±64

A.M 204 162 172 174 170 178 S.D 16 21 15 18 16 24

Range 163-220 130-210 152-220 156-174 155-230 134-254

Table 6.15: Statistics for weighted annually averaged indoor radon concentrations

in )( 3mBq in the study area.

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan A.M 152 125 132 138 128 139 S.D 20 21 24 24 23 26

Range 65-220 41-210 49-220 56-236 50-230 55-254

Table 6.16: Weighted yearly indoor radon concentrations in n )( 3mBq in the study

area.

House No. Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan 1. 112±18 84±12 87±13 90±13 83±12 93±14 2. 125±22 86±14 102±16 118±20 105±16 125±24 3. 130±24 87±16 112±20 94±14 108±18 138±32 4. 119±23 89±13 98±14 96±15 110±20 115±20 5. 110±19 92±12 101±16 99±16 116±22 98±14 6. 127±24 96±14 111±17 137±34 99±15 107±18 7. 106±26 99±15 106±18 120±23 101±14 109±18 8. 133±28 100±16 108±16 122±22 103±13 112±20 9. 134±30 102±17 94±14 109±18 104±19 114±22 10. 139±32 103±16 98±15 116±20 106±16 117±20 11. 144±34 105±16 117±20 113±18 109±18 100±14 12. 147±42 108±18 121±24 88±12 112±18 142±36 13. 132±30 110±20 120±22 119±22 114±18 124±26 14. 159±44 116±22 122±23 121±20 119±22 126±22 15. 160±48 121±20 119±20 124±26 123±20 130±28 16. 131±30 80±13 113±18 129±25 120±22 134±30 17. 163±50 123±24 104±16 130±28 129±26 136±32 18. 130±34 127±25 120±23 134±32 107±18 140±36 19. 133±32 132±30 147±44 139±36 115±20 149±40 20. 102±15 142±38 131±30 148±42 145±42 99±14

A.M 132 105 112 117 111 120 S.D 17 17 15 16 13 16

Range 110-163 84-142 87-147 88-148 83-145 93-149

79

Table 6.17: Arithmetic mean, maximum and minimum weighted indoor radon concentration

)( 3mBq for different floors for three districts of the study area weighted indoor radon

District name Mean Maximum Minimum Abbottabad Ground floor

First floor

125±22 116±16

210±32 184±34

41±6 36±5

Mansehra Ground floor

First floor

132±23 122±19

220±62 187±40

49±7 43±6

Haripur Ground floor

First floor

138±24 127±18

236±64 202±54

56±7 47±6

Table 6.18: Mean, maximum and minimum indoor radon concentration )( 3mBq in

different types of material made houses

District name Bricks Concrete Adobe Abbottabad

A.M Maximum Minimum

125±18 178±16 55±10

60±8 68±11 41±6

170±22 210±32 80±12

Mansehra A.M

Maximum Minimum

129±21 183±12 59±9

63±9 72±11 49±7

201±24 220±62 86±15

Haripur A.M

Maximum Minimum

135±17 188±13 61±11

66±9 77±12 51±7

210±27 236±64 96±19

Battgram A.M

Maximum Minimum

127±16 184±10 58±8

61±10 74±12 48±7

173±23 230±59 85±13

Kohistan A.M

Maximum Minimum

134±19 187±11 60±10

64±8 78±13 53±9

207±28 254±64 94±17

Table 6.19: Mean annual dose )(mSv from the weighted indoor radon concentration in the

study area

District name Radon concentration )( 3mBq Mean annual dose )(mSv

Abbottabad 125 3.54±0.59 Mansehra 132 3.74±0.71 Haripur 138 3.91±0.71 Battgram 128 3.62±0.82

80

Kohistan 139 3.94±0.73 Balakot 152 4.31±0.56

Table 6.20: Excess of lung cancer per million per year (MPY) from the indoor radon

level according to various agencies, in the study area.

Various agencies Excess of lung cancer per million per year (MPY) in the study area

Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

EPA(lower limit) 81 86 90 86 93

NCRP 1984 90 96 100 95 103

UNSCEAR(lower limit) 103 110 115 109 118

BEIR IV 160 171 178 169 183

EPA(upper limit) 186 198 207 197 213

UNSCEAR(upper limit) 210 224 234 222 240

Fig. 6.1: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the spring water in Balakot.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 240

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

xc=19.21933±0.00181

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration (kBq.m-3)

81

Fig. 6.2: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the spring water (except

Mansehra) in the study area.

Fig. 6.3: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the surface water in the study

area.

02

46

810

1214

1618

202224 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Balakot

Abbottabad

Haripur

Battgram

Kohistan

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration(kBq.m -3)

0

5

10

15

2001234567891011121314

15

16

17

18

Balakot

Abbottabad

Mansehra

Haripur

Battgram

KohistanRadon concentration(kBq.m -3

)

Fre

qu

ency

82

Fig. 6.4: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in the bore water in the study area.

Fig. 6.5: Frequency allocation of radon concentration in all sources of water in the study

area.

0

5

10

15

20

25012345678910

11

12

13

14

15

16

Balakot

Abbottabad

Mansehra

Haripur

Battgram

Kohistan

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration(kBq.m -3)

02

46

8101214161820222426 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

Balakot

Abbottabad

Mansehra

Haripur

Battgram

Kohistan

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration(kBq.m -3)

83

Fig.6.6: Mean radon concentration )( 3mkBq in all sources of drinking water (except the

spring water from Mansehra) in the study area.

Fig. 6.7: Variation of radon concentration in spring water, along Balakot-Bagh (B-B) fault

line in the Balakot-section.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan Balakot0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

kBq

.m-3)

Spring water Surface water Bore water Total

73.26 73.28 73.30 73.32 73.34 73.36 73.38

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n(k

Bq

.m-3)

Longitude

0-10 km with73.26º as ref:(0 km) 0 km 10 km

84

Fig. 6.8: Mean annual dose estimated from all sources of drinking water (except the spring

water from Mansehra) in the study area.

Fig. 6.9: Frequency allocation of soil gas radon in the study area.

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

Balakot AbbottabadMansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0.00

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

Do

se (

mS

v)

Spring water Surface water Bore water Total

02

46

810

1214

1618

2022 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Balakot

Abbottabad

Haripur

Battgram

Kohistan

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration (kBq.m -3)

85

Fig. 6.10: Frequency allocation of soil gas radon in Balakot.

Fig. 6.11: Mean soil gas radon concentration )( 3mkBq in the study area.

0

1

2

3

4

5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 220

1

2

3

4

5

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration (kBq.m-3)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Balakot Abbottabad Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

kBq

.m-3)

86

Fig. 6.12: Variation of soil gas radon concentration, along Balakot-Bagh (B-B) fault line, in

the Balakot-section.

Fig. 6.13: Frequency allocation of indoor radon concentration in Balakot.

73.28 73.30 73.32 73.34 73.36 73.38

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n(k

Bq

.m-3)

Longitude

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 2400

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration (Bq.m-3)

0- 7.8 km with 73.28º ref: (0 km)0 km 7.8 km

87

Fig. 6.14: Frequency allocation of annual indoor radon concentration in the study area.

Fig. 6.15: Annual mean indoor radon concentrations )( 3mBq in the study area.

020

4060

80100

120140

160180

200220

240 0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Balakot

Abbottabad

Haripur

Battgram

Kohistan

Mansehra

Fre

qu

ency

Radon concentration (Bq.m -3)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

Bq

.m-3)

88

Fig. 6.16: Mean indoor radon concentration )( 3mBq in different seasons of the year.

Fig. 6.17: Mean indoor radon concentration )( 3mBq at ground and first floors in three

districts of the study area.

0

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

120

135

150

165

180

195

210

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0

15

30

45

60

75

90

105

120

135

150

165

180

195

210

225

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

Bq

.m-3)

Spring Summer Autumn Winter

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

Bq

.m-3)

G.floor F.floor

89

Fig. 6.18: Mean indoor radon concentration )( 3mBq in different types of material made

houses in the study area.

Fig. 6.19: Seasonal correction factors for the study area.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

Bq

.m-3)

Adobe Bricks Concrete

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

Sea

son

al c

orr

ecti

on

fac

tor

Spring Summer Autumn Winter

90

Fig. 6.20: Comparison of yearly average measured indoor radon levels and seasonal average

indoor radon levels in the study area.

Fig. 6.21: Annual mean dose from indoor radon concentration in the study area.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

150

160

170

180

Rad

on

co

nce

ntr

atio

n (

Bq

.m-3)

Seasonal averged Yearly averaged

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Balakot Abbottabad Mansehra Haripur Battgram Kohistan

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

5.0

Do

se (

mS

v)

91

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE

RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Conclusions

From our observations, the measurements carried out for radon concentrations in all

water sources of the Hazara Division of N.W.F.P ( Khyber Pakhtun Khwa) Pakistan

are in the range of 1.7 to 25.4 3mkBq . The arithmetic means in radon concentrations

vary from 2.8 3mkBq to 20.98 3mkBq . The lower mean values correspond to surface

water source and the higher values to deep bore-hole water. From the statistical

analysis, about 40% of total samples have radon concentrations within the range

between (1.7 3mkBq and 9.0 3mkBq ), 14% of the samples have values lower than

11.0 3mkBq , 48% of the samples have values higher than 11.0 3mkBq and 52% of

the total samples show radon levels below 11.0 3mkBq )(MCL , recommended by

EPAUS and 48% above this level.

This study revealed the fact that higher radon concentration in the borehole

water at Jhangi Khoja (24.0 ± 1.6 3mkBq ) and in the spring water at Kakul (20.6 ±

2.6 3mkBq ) in Abbottabad as compared to that of other sites of the same area, are

directly connected to the geological characteristics of the region. Phosphates, being a

source of uranium, can emanate higher level of radon concentrations and are the

principal cause of high radon concentration in the water sources from this region.

The Ground Water Radon Concentrations (GWRC) in Hazara Division of

N.W.F.P (Khyber Pakhtun Khwa), were calculated for the first time, even for the first

time in Pakistan, or no published study that specifically investigated the GWRC in

Pakistan. Therefore the results of this study were compared with other studies carried

out in various parts of the world. In many cases the results were as good as while in

some other cases the results shows some deviation. The reasons for this deviation

were probably geology, environmental conditions and the systematic and random

errors in the experiments. However the survey of the area was carried out for the

92

establishment of a base line data which could further be exploited for the prediction of

earth-quake and other geophysical studies in future.

The bore hole water radon concentrations of this study were compared with

previous measurements from different countries in Table 6.8. This shows that the

radon levels are not either comparable or less than these countries.

All bore water samples were found to have higher mean radon concentration

than 11.0 3mkBq ( EPAUS limit) in the study area except Abbottabad where it was

lower than this limit. The mean radon concentrations in the spring water of Balakot,

Battgram and Mansehra were found higher than EPAUS recommended limit and

lower in Abbottabad and Haripur.

The mean radon concentrations in the surface water in the whole study area are within

the EPAUS limit. The average radon concentrations levels in spring and bore hole

waters of the whole study area are higher than EPAUS limit.

The average radon concentration in all types of drinking sources is

12.4 3mkBq in whole study area. This value is higher than the maximum

contamination level ( MCL ), recommended by EPAUS , however within the limit of

some European countries such as Romania Norway, Finland and Check Republic

[175], thus posing no threat to the health of local people. Even then it is suggested that

these drinking water sources must not be used before some remedial steps be taken for

the reduction of radon levels in it. The remedial steps include aeration of water and

filtration through charcoal filters etc.

From the soil gas radon measurements, it was observed that the mean radon

concentration in soil gas samples composed from the Hazara Division (study area)

was 7.6 ± 2.3 3mkBq . The maximum and minimum values of radon concentrations in

soil gas were 20.1 ± 2.5 3mkBq in Balakot and 2.3 ± 0.2 3mkBq in Abbottabad

respectively.

The higher radon concentrations in the spring water and in the soil at Balakot

in comparison to other parts of the study area reveal the fact that Balakot lies on the

fault line where the rocks under the soil have cracks which are more permeable to the

flow of radon gas in soil and in water. Subsequently, radon gas finds easy path to

flow from one part to the other part or it comes even more easily to the surface. The

other important reason may be the uranium deposits yet to be studied. The maximum

93

values of radon concentrations were found both in soil and in spring water at 73.34º E

longitude on Balakot-Bagh active fault line.

The annual average values of radon concentrations in indoor air samples

composed from Balakot, Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan

districts were found as 152 ± 20 3mBq , 125 ± 21 3mBq , 132 ± 24 3mBq , 138 ±

24 3mBq , 128 ± 23 3mBq and 139 ± 26 3mBq respectively, from which the annual

mean doses were calculated as 4.30 ± 0.56 mSv , 3.54 ± 0.59 mSv , 3.74 ± 0.71 mSv ,

3.91 ± 0.71 mSv , 3.62 ± 0.82 mSv and 3.94 ± 0.73 mSv respectively.

The radon concentrations in indoor air samples composed from the Hazara

Division were found higher in winter than in spring, summer or in autumn. The lower

values of radon concentrations and doses were found in summer season in all districts

except Haripur where the lower values were found in autumn season. The reason for

the lower values may be the frequent flow of air at the elevated places as most of the

study area contains mountains at high elevation and the other reason may be the

height of atmospheric mixing layer during summer season.

The annual mean indoor radon concentration carried out on seasonal basis at

Balakot was found higher than 148 3mkBq ( EPAUS limit). The reasons for the high

indoor radon is the low ventilation, the type and nature of materials used in the

construction of houses, the geophysical structure of the area as it is lying on a

geological fault line. Moreover the area is rich with metamorphic and sedimentary

rocks, containing uranium-bearing minerals, a source of radon emanation [176].

Due to the same geology of the study area except Balakot, the variation in the

indoor radon values is because of the ventilation system, construction materials and

structures of houses in the study area. To diminish the indoor radon levels in the study

area, proper ventilation system and proper structure of houses may be devised in the

study area. There is no such upper limit defined for the indoor radon concentrations in

Pakistan so far. However, following the ICRP-65 recommendation, the obtained

indoor radon levels in the study area are within the acceptable limits except Balakot.

The arithmetic mean indoor radon in the whole study area is higher than average

radon concentration of the globe which is 40 3mBq .

As the indoor radon level depends on the season of the year consequently

seasonal correction factor must be used while calculating the annual mean radon

concentration in the case of radon measurement for a period less than a year. Seasonal

94

correction factor has been calculated which is in agreement with the other studies

conducted all over the world. The calculated annual mean effective dose was within

the permissible limits. Seasonally measured average values are higher as compared to

the values obtained from the year-long exposed CR-39 detectors. Long term exposure

of CR-39 detector reduces its efficiency to register tracks due to the formation of layer

of non radioactive dust over the surface of the detectors. The other reasons for the low

track density in the yearly exposed CR-39 detectors could be the heat and the

humidity in the air. Radon exhalation rate of soil and various building materials is

also responsible for the buildup of indoor radon concentration and their measurements

are of significant importance.

The accumulative annual doses received by the people of Balakot,

Abbottabad, Mansehra, Haripur, Battgram and Kohistan, from indoor radon levels and

from the water are 4.34 ± 0.56 mSv 3.56 ± 0.59 mSv , 3.78 ± 0.71 mSv , 3.93 ±

0.71 mSv , 3.65 ± 0.82 mSv , 3.98 ± 0.73 mSv in respectively. Doses received by the

inhabitant of the study area are within the permissible limit (3-10 mSv ) set by

International Council of Radiological Protection 65ICRP . The results obtained

from this study reveal the fact that the mean annual effective doses from water and

indoor air samples collected from Hazara region is 3.87 mSv which is within the

recommended action level of 65ICRP . Therefore, the people of this locality are

relatively safe from the health risks linked to radon and its decay products. However

some locations of the area need special attention to take the above mentioned

measures for the protection of health related risks from radon and its decay products.

The indoor radon concentrations were found higher on the ground floor than

on the first floor by almost 13%. The reasons are the subsidence of radon gas close to

ground surface and higher ventilation on the first floors. The indoor radon

concentrations were found higher in the adobe (mud made houses) than bricks- and

concrete-made houses, because of high porosity in the adobe or mud made houses.

7.2 Future recommendations

1. The present study does not cover the whole country, therefore it is recommended

that a similar systematic studies concerning measurement of indoor radon, soil

radon levels and radon concentration in the water sources be carried out.

95

2. Although the geology of the study area was taken into consideration for the present

study, but yet it needs a comprehensive study to know the formation and structure

of the underlying rocks.

3. For the validation of experimental observations, a suitable theoretical model must

be formulated.

4. The epidemiological studies of lung cancer should be carried out on country level

in order to calculate the proper risk coefficient in our environment.

5. The measurement of radon as tool for searching of uranium and other minerals as

well as for the geological mapping, field measurement must be carried out in order

to verify the laboratory measurements.

6. For radon levels in water, lithology and temporal variability must be taken into

account for the accurate measurement. Also the total dissolved solids in the water

be carefully found for better results.

7. The next similar sort of survey needs more instrumental arrangement.

8. The continuous monitoring is necessary for the prediction of geophysical event like

volcano eruption or tectonic eruption.

9. A well coordinated scientific approach is necessary from geology department,

meteorology department and environmental department to get better accuracy in

the measurement.

10. The lung cancer survey amongst the smokers and non smokers in the area is the

foremost requirement, for health caring and its correlation with radon

concentration in the area.

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