MEAT RE-IMAGINEDThe global emergence of alternative proteins - what does it mean for Australia?

Meat Re-Imagined

FOREWORDOur food system is undergoing its greatest transformation of the last century. We are facing the prospect of a global population 10 billion strong in the age of potentially devastating climatic shifts and severe public health challenges. Traditional methods of production are insufficient to meet the challenges and demands confronting us. New technologies offer the prospect of producing nutritious, sustainable foods to feed a hungry world.

The rise of alternative proteins, from humble and ancient

beginnings to the modern technological advances of plant-

based meat alternatives and cellular agriculture, has enormous

potential as a tool for addressing today’s food system challenges

– especially given the extent to which these innovations are being

embraced by consumers of all dietary habits.

To date, leading researchers and companies in the U.S., Europe

and Asia have forged ahead with new production processes and

products, while Australia has largely remained an observer. This

paper intends to kick-start a distinctly Australian discussion on

alternative proteins that considers our unique consumer base,

skills, production systems and economy.

The emergent alternative protein industry is complementary to

Australia’s strong agricultural tradition – simultaneously increasing

sustainability and system efficiency, and addressing public health

challenges. Investments by the world’s largest meat companies

into alternative proteins, and their re-positioning as ‘protein’

providers, signals how conventional agriculture and alternative

proteins can coexist, inviting new cooperative opportunities such

as supplying primary inputs and producing new crop varieties.

Australia’s globally trusted brand is synonymous with safe, high-

quality food – a testament to the integrity of our production systems

and manufacturing capabilities. With a growing international

consumer base seeking safe, sustainable, healthy food, Australia is

ideally placed to leverage our wealth of research and manufacturing

capabilities as well as the production and marketing expertise of the

conventional protein sector to rapidly scale-up.

A diversified protein sector offers Australia new industrial

opportunities and job creation across a variety of fields, the

implications and quantum of which this paper identifies as an area

in need of further research. Government has a role to play by

providing support and countering the siren-calls of those intent

on protecting the status-quo with positive, progressive policy.

Alternative proteins are a reality; Australia now faces the choice

of sitting on the side-lines or becoming a sectoral leader.

To achieve success, the scientific, business, government

and conventional food and manufacturing sectors must work

collaboratively to overcome challenges and fulfil the potential

of a new and vibrant industry.

I am grateful to the authors and researchers who devoted so

much time and effort to compile this paper, particularly Sam

Lawrence, Food Frontier’s Managing Director, agricultural

specialist and the paper’s principal author. While not exhaustive,

the paper specifically focuses on the three main pathways of

plant-based, cell-based and hybrid products as realistic, healthier,

sustainable and scalable options to feed our growing population.

I would like to acknowledge and thank the Lord Mayor’s

Charitable Foundation whose generous support made this

project possible.

Thomas King

CEO, Food Frontier

Young Australian of the Year VIC 2015

Funded by

2

Food Frontier is Australia and New Zealand’s leading think tank and industry accelerator for plant-based meat alternatives and cell-based meat. Funded by philanthropy, Food Frontier is proudly independent.

We believe food innovation is critical to feeding the growing global population

in coming decades. By driving science-based solutions to the need and

demand for sustainable, healthier proteins, we are working to create a more

diversified, efficient and future-proof food supply that is good for people,

great for business and better for the planet.

Globally renowned for world-class food research, production, and exports,

Australia and New Zealand are exceptionally well-placed to become the Asia

Pacific’s leaders of the rapidly emerging alternative protein sector.

Through research, advocacy, consulting and events, Food Frontier advises

and connects stakeholders across the supply chain, from agriculture and

science to government and business. We support existing and emerging

leaders to capitalise on the opportunities to create and supply plant-

based and cell-based meat in the world’s most populous region, where

diversification is most urgently needed.

Paper Review Panel

Food Frontier would like to thank our

exceptional review panellists for their insights.

Our Approach

Angeline AchariyaCEO, Monash Food Innovation Centre

Dr David Welch Director of Science & Technology, The Good Food Institute

Dr Liz Specht Senior Scientist, The Good Food Institute

Terence Jeyaretnam Partner EY, Climate Change & Sustainability Services

Sarah Nolet Partner & CEO, AgThentic

Dr Peter Whittle CEO and co-founder, AgKonect

About Food Frontier

Activating Development of, and investment in, new

applications for plant proteins and cellular agriculture

by working with scientists, entrepreneurs and investors.

Accelerating Supply of new products to market by working

with food businesses, industry groups and regulators.

Advocating Adoption of new choices within the market by

working with food outlets, consumers and the media.

Suggested citation for this paper: Lawrence S, King T, Fish L, Baird Walsh J, Byrd

E. Meat Re-Imagined: The global emergence

of alternative proteins - What does it mean for

Australia? Melbourne: Food Frontier; 2019.

Meat Re-Imagined

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTIONProspects for Australia

PLANT-BASED MEAT ALTERNATIVES

FOREWORD

Conclusion

Cell-based meat Endnotes

Hybrids

05 3511

01

3923 41

33

Meat Re-Imagined

Our ability to meet the increasing protein demands of the world’s growing population is reaching a critical inflection point. Leading authorities have warned that our current food production systems will fail to sustainably feed the world without urgent changes.1,2

Today’s methods of protein production have far-reaching implications, from threats to food safety and security, to environmental degradation and dwindling natural resources – threats from which Australia is not immune.

Rapidly emerging technologies in plant-based meat alternatives, cell-based meats and hybrid proteins are offering innovative solutions. If properly harnessed by industry and supported by government, these foods promise new ways to meet consumer demand for familiar products, while increasing the sustainability of our food systems.

INTRODUCTION

6Introduction

Today’s food system feeds a global population of 7.6 billion,3 and is rapidly approaching its productive limits. The food system of 2050 will need to feed a projected population of 9.8 billion,4 with estimates that food demand will rise by more than 50 percent, and demand for animal-based foods by nearly 70 percent.5

Australians consumed approximately 110 kilograms of meat per person in 2015 – more

than three times the global average (excluding seafood).6 Australians eat more than four

times the global per capita average of beef and veal,7 rivaling countries like Brazil and the

U.S.8 Annual chicken consumption has also skyrocketed in Australia, growing tenfold from

4.6 kilograms per person in 1965 to 47 kilograms in 2016.9

Globally, meat production increased four to five fold since 1961 to meet the demands of

a growing population10 and increasingly affluent consumers in developing and middle-

income nations such as China, India and Brazil who are consuming greater amounts of

meat.11 There is simply not enough productive land left to meet the increasing global

population’s protein needs without a significant shift in production efficiency.12,13 Today,

raising livestock requires about 80 percent of the world’s agricultural land14 and produces

just 18 percent of the world’s calories.15 A third of global croplands are currently used

to grow feed for farm animals, while more than a quarter of the planet’s habitable land

is used for livestock grazing.16 The pressure to innovate is falling on the shoulders of

industry to find more sustainable methods of protein production, and governments to

encourage changes in consumption patterns.

0

10

20

30

40

50 kg per capita

1964-67 1974-76 1984-86 1994-96 1997-99 2015 2030

3x THE GLOBAL AVERAGE

Australians’ meat consumption IS

Figure 1. Global meat consumption trend.

Current Protein Supply

Meat Re-Imagined

Excess meat consumption and current production have significant effects on human health, livelihoods and the economy. Meat thus poses a special challenge to the future development of the global food system.” 17

– World Economic Forum

80%of the world’s agricultural

land AND PRODUCES

18%of the world's calories

livestock uses

1/4of the planet’s

habitable land is used for livestock grazing

1/3of global croplands

are used to grow feed for farm animals

8Introduction

Nearly a third of the water used in

agriculture globally is used to produce

animal-based products,18 while manure

runoff from intensive farming operations

and pesticide runoff from animal feed-

crops are major causes of freshwater

contamination.19 Increased levels of

nutrients from manure runoff have led to

algal blooms, and contribute to oceanic

‘dead zones’ where oxygen levels are too

low for some marine life to survive.20,21

The global scale of animal agriculture is

reflected in a recent report examining the

biomass distribution on Earth published in

the Proceedings of the National Academy

of Sciences in 2018.22 The report found

that farmed poultry now makes up 70

percent of all bird life on the planet, with

just 30 percent being wild. The story for

mammals is even more stark, with 60

percent of all mammals on Earth being

livestock, 36 percent humans and just 4

percent wild mammals.23

Animal agriculture is a leading cause

of deforestation, land degradation,

biodiversity loss, and habitat destruction

worldwide.24 In the Australian context, from

2013–2015, livestock grazing accounted

for 91 percent of deforestation in

Queensland, which diminished the habitat

of native species including the koala.25

Across the border, the New South Wales

Department of Primary Industries (NSW

DPI) highlighted the critical importance

and challenge of preserving high-quality

water sources in Australia – a problem

exacerbated by many practices common

in conventional animal agriculture.26

Despite the recommendations by NSW

DPI, no formal policies have been created

to guide improvements in resource use

and preservation.

International commentators from scientists

to business leaders are beginning to

fundamentally question the efficiency of

conventional animal agriculture.27,28 In the

context of U.S. farming, it’s estimated that

a chicken must be fed eight calories of

feed to generate one calorie of chicken

meat. In the case of beef, 34 calories of

feed are required to produce one calorie

of meat.29 While the Australian agricultural

system is significantly different to that

of the U.S., these estimates serve to

highlight the fact that every kilogram

of meat produced from an animal

represents a significant loss of calories

from the food system.

It is widely recognised that conventional

animal agriculture has an outsized impact

on atmospheric greenhouse gases.

A Food and Agriculture Organization

report from 2013 estimated that livestock

accounts for 14.5 percent of all human-

induced greenhouse gas emissions.31

Beef in particular has a major impact,

with the World Resources Institute stating

that if cattle were able to form their own

nation, they would rank third behind China

and the United States on the list of the

world’s largest greenhouse gas emitters.32

According to leading international policy

institute Chatham House, it is unlikely that

world governments will be able to meet

the goals laid out in the Paris Climate

Accord without addressing emissions

from animal agriculture.33

Environmental Challenges

For every 10 kilograms of grain...we get 1 kilogram of beef in return. The calorie kick-back is just too low to feed a growing world population.” 30

– BILL GATES

8 : 1chicken calorie conversion

34 : 1beef calorieconversion

Meat Re-Imagined

Public Health Challenges

Current meat consumption levels and methods of production pose public health challenges, particularly in the context of intensive animal agriculture.

On a global level, widespread use of

antibiotics in intensive animal agriculture

production is directly linked with issues

of rising antibiotic resistance around the

world.34,35 The World Health Organization

estimates that in some countries “80% of

total consumption of medically important

antibiotics is in the animal sector.”36

Further, the potential of breeding new

zoonotic diseases within high-density

farm environments – such as swine and

avian influenza – presents a significant

public health risk.37

Additionally, faecal bacteria contamination

during meat processing is among the

leading causes of foodborne illnesses

in consumers.38 In the local Australian

context, a study by Food Standards

Australia and New Zealand found

that more than four in five portions of

raw chicken were contaminated with

campylobacter bacteria, and that nearly

two in five were contaminated with

salmonella.39

A number of peer-reviewed studies from

sources including the National Institutes

of Health, the World Health Organization,

and Harvard School of Public Health,

link high levels of conventional meat

consumption to diseases including

cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes,

and colorectal cancer, partly due to risk

factors including LDL cholesterol and

saturated fat.40,41,42 These diseases are

among the leading causes of death in

Australia,43 and could be reduced through

greater adoption of plant-based foods.44

10Introduction

Despite the challenges presented by conventional meat production, meat remains a large part of diets and economies worldwide.

In 2015, Australia was the world’s largest

exporter of beef and veal, with the red

meat industry alone accounting for

approximately 440,000 direct and indirect

jobs across the country.45 Governments

and industry will need to understand and

implement new models of production

that mitigate or eliminate the health,

environmental, and economic challenges

posed by the current system. These

may include efficiency and sustainability

improvements to existing systems,

however, research has shown this alone

will not be sufficient, warranting solutions

that don’t rely on animal agriculture.46

Data shows that an increasing number of

consumers are demanding alternatives to

conventional meat. As most consumers’

food choices are driven by taste, price

and convenience, a growing number of

companies are producing affordable and

accessible meat alternatives that offer

the sensory experience that consumers

are accustomed to in meat. Groups of

scientists and entrepreneurs around the

world are demonstrating that food science,

nature and human ingenuity can produce

popular foods – from burgers to dumplings

– without reliance on animal agriculture.

Aggregate growth in the consumption of

conventional meat is expected to slow,

according to McKinsey & Company, to

1-1.5 percent per year overall growth.47

Conversely, consumer and investor

interest in alternative proteins is rising

with plant-based product launches more

than doubling in the past five years.

Consumers are increasingly embracing

a ‘flexitarian’ diet, which places an

emphasis on consuming plants without

eliminating animal protein entirely.48,49

Younger generations in particular are

leading the trend toward reducing

conventional meat consumption, wielding

their significant buying power and citing

health and environmental concerns as

primary motivators.50

Euromonitor ranked Australia as the most

favorable market for plant-based products,

citing a large population of millennials, and

high rates of plant-based eating.51 Market

research has predicted a combined annual

growth rate of 7.7 percent globally and 9.4

percent in Asia between 2018 and 2025

for ‘meat substitutes.’52

This paper seeks to provide insights on

the most promising growth areas across

a range of alternative protein sources,

including the context necessary for

Australian innovators and policy makers

to determine the most effective paths

toward a sustainable food future.

Plant-based meat alternatives and cell-

based meat represent viable alternatives

to conventional meat. Other forms of

alternative protein such as algae and

insects, are being pursued as protein

supplements, however functional

limitations and cultural norms restrict

their utility as realistic meat alternatives.

Consequently, this paper focuses

primarily on plant-based meat alternatives

and cell-based meat as the two principal

meat alternative categories.

Opportunities in Today’s Protein Market

Meat Re-Imagined

PLANT-BASED MEAT ALTERNATIVES

Innovators in today’s market for plant-based meat alternatives are redefining what it means to eat meat.

New options that replicate the familiar textures and flavours of

conventional meat are encouraging more consumers to move

plant-based meat alternatives to the centre of the plate.

Plant-based meat alternatives come in a variety of forms, from

whole-food meat mimics such as ‘pulled’ jackfruit and fermentation-

based products such as those made by Quorn, to technologically

advanced plant-based meats including the Beyond Burger and

Impossible Burger.

Though the plant-based trend may be considered relatively

modern, plant-based meat alternatives such as tofu and seitan

have been a part of dietary habits for centuries. There is evidence

that tofu was specifically promoted as ‘mock lamb chops’ as

early as 965CE.1 The 20th century saw the development of

plant-based meat alternatives including Protose, a seitan-like

meat alternative.2 Following the Second World War, significant

advances in production and packaging technology contributed

to the development of products based on plant protein isolates,

concentrates and textured proteins.

Today, technology is enabling the development of a new generation

of plant-based meats that appeal to mainstream consumers. These

products are marketed toward omnivores and aim to mimic the

sensory experience of eating conventional meat. The consumer

response to this emerging category has been significant, with

demand for some products now outpacing supply.3 Restaurant

chains around the world are putting next generation plant-based

meats on the menu,4 grocery chains are stocking them in the

meat aisle alongside conventional meat,5 and conventional meat

companies are launching and acquiring plant-based brands at a

frenetic pace.6

The consumer shift towards plant-based meat alternatives and

plant-based foods more generally is happening at a moment when

industry incumbents and governments are seeking to mitigate

some of the negative externalities of conventional meat production.

background

Impossible Burger; base ingredients

12Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

Growth

In 2018, the value of the global plant-based meat

alternatives market was estimated at US$4.33B.10 Market

research firms are projecting record growth in the plant

protein sector in 2019 and beyond,11 with Lux Research

estimating a doubling in demand for alternative proteins

by 2024.12 Quorn, a veteran alternative protein company,

has announced it is on track to be a billion-dollar business

by 2027.13 Although plant-based meats still comprise less

than one percent of the global meat market, the sector

has seen remarkable levels of year-on-year growth,

registering a 24 percent increase in sales from June 2017-

2018 alone.14 Comparably, Nielsen reports overall plant-

based food and beverages sales growth of 14.7 percent in

the U.S. from 2016-2017.15

Some niche products have shown tremendous growth,

including jackfruit-containing prepared foods, which grew

377 percent from 2016-2017.16 Assuming plant-based

meats continue to advance in terms of taste, flavour and

health benefits, CB Insights postulates that “we could

see direct competitors to meat incumbent brands across

virtually all frozen and prepared food categories.”17

6%Plant-basedmeats 2017*

24%Plant-based

meats 2018**

2%Animal meats

2018**

*52 weeks dollar sales ending August 2017. **52 weeks dollar sales ending June 2018. PBFA-commissioned data from Nielsen

Plant-based chicken produced by Sunfed Meats

Figure 2. Growth of plant-based meats and animal meats in U.S retail market.

Commercial Market

The growth of the plant-based meat alternatives sector is reflective of a number of broader social and consumer trends occurring globally. Increasing awareness about the health and sustainability implications of our diets, and a growing desire for convenience, are significant factors in the rising demand for plant-based meat alternatives.7,8 The entry of new plant-based meat products and brands into the market9 is expected to significantly diversify protein options available to consumers, much like plant-based milk products have offered choices beyond conventional dairy.

Meat Re-Imagined

Marketing

Many of the companies behind popular

plant-based meats are utilising forward-

thinking marketing to appeal to a far

broader consumer base than vegetarians

and vegans. By balancing messaging and

imagery to highlight taste, experience,

health and sustainability, and by putting an

emphasis on innovation, new plant-based

meats have largely overcome previous

associations with dietary restriction and

flavour or textural deficiencies.

Two companies – Beyond Meat and

Impossible Foods – exemplify this

approach to marketing. Beyond Meat

features popular athletes in its advertising,

emphasising the performance and health

benefits of its products.18 The start-up

couples this approach with appeals

to sustainability and naturalness and

highlights its “free-from” status with

regard to soy, gluten, and cholesterol.19

Taking a distinctly more Silicon-Valley

approach, Impossible Foods has

successfully positioned its plant-based

meats as high-tech advancements.20

By embracing novelty and an iPhone-

like product release pattern, Impossible

Foods has earned itself a notable amount

of publicity and social media attention,

thus generating significant public

interest – particularly from millennials.21

In January 2019, the company presented

it’s Impossible Burger 2.0 at the

Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas,

We’re not going to solve this problem by pleading with consumers to eat beans and tofu instead of meat and fish … we're making meat for uncompromising meat lovers, but with a fraction of the environmental impact.”– Pat Brown, Impossible Foods CEO

where it received a highly enthusiastic

reception and was awarded the ‘Top

Tech of 2019’ by tech publisher Digital

Trends.22 Consumer research conducted

by Impossible Foods has indicated

that approximately 70 percent of their

customers eat conventional meat.23

Beyond Meat branding featuring professional basketball player, Kyrie Irving

14Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

Product Availability

Across the world, plant-based meats are

rapidly expanding into the mainstream.

According to Shama Lee, founder and

CEO of New Zealand’s Sunfed Meats,

“we’ve got a good problem, which is

that we can’t meet demand.” Sunfed

Meats launched its plant-based chicken

alternative in Progressive Enterprises and

Foodstuffs Markets in New Zealand in

2017, selling out within days of its debut.24

In the Australian fast food sector, Hungry

Jack’s (whose menu already features a

vegetarian burger) began trialling a plant-

based meat burger called ‘Kinda Meat

Burger’ in the Australian Capital Territory

and Goulburn25 (regional New South

Wales) in early 2019, at a comparable

price to conventional beef burgers. White

Castle, the oldest fast-food burger chain in

the U.S., sells a slider made by Impossible

Foods for US$1.99,26 while retailers such

as Tesco in the United Kingdom now stock

Beyond Meat burgers and have launched

fully plant-based products developed by

in-house innovation centers.27

Placement inside meat cases within

supermarkets has proven to be a strong

accelerator for sales of plant-based

meats. Figures from one of the largest

conventional retailers in the US reveal that

out of all its grocery stores in southern

California, the Beyond Burger was the

number-one-selling burger patty in the

meat case over a five-week period.28

The Beyond Burger is now available at

more than 20,000 grocery stores and in

more than 11,000 restaurants,29 including

throughout Australia at retailers such as

Coles and IGA.

86%of U.S. consumers who regularly

consume plant-based alternatives

do not consider themselves

vegetarian or vegan.

Impossible Foods production line in Oakland, California

Meat Re-Imagined

Figure 3. Retail price comparison of plant-based meat and equivalent, specialty conventional meat products in Australia – Woolworths Supermarket (online at woolworths.com.au) and Hungry Jack’s fast food outlet (ACT).

Meat Type Plant-based Meat Product Plant-based Meat per kilogram (AUD)

Conventional Meat Equivalent

Conventional Meat per kilogram (AUD)

Mince Funky Fields Minced 400g $8 $20 Grasslands Premium Mince

500g $8

$16

Burger Patties Beyond Burger Patties 227g $12.99 $57 Woolworths Gourmet

Angus Salt & Pepper

Burger 250g $6.50

$26

Sausages Vegie Delights Vegie Sausage 300g $6 $20 Beak & Sons Gourmet Beef

Sausages 500g $7.50

$15

Nuggets Fry’s Meat Free Nuggets 240g $6 $25 Ingham’s Free-Range

Chicken Nuggets

$20.75

Fast Food Burger Hungry Jack’s Kinda Meat Vegan

Cheese Burger $7.30

N/A Hungry Jack’s Whopper

w/ Cheese $6.90

N/A

Consumer Trends

The percentage of vegetarians in Australia is on the rise,

increasing from 9.7 percent in 2012 to 11.2 percent in 2016, and

jumping by 30 percent in NSW.30 While vegetarians and vegans

will naturally be early adopters of plant-based meats, these

consumers are not the primary target for many plant-based

meat companies. Consumers actively seeking to reduce their

consumption of conventional meat are more likely to purchase

plant-based meats.31,32,33 Of U.S. consumers who regularly

consume plant-based meat alternatives, 86 percent do not

consider themselves vegetarian or vegan.34

Beyond Meat, Impossible Foods and other start-ups are directly

targeting the most valuable market for plant-based meats:

omnivorous millennials. This approach appears to be working,

with Beyond Meat’s sales increasing 70 percent in 2018.35 More

than half of U.S. non-millennials eat meat alternatives, rising to

nearly eight-in-ten millennials. Almost one-third of millennials

report that they are trying to a eat a more plant-based diet.36

Costs

Plant-based meats are, in some instances, already achieving

price parity with conventionally produced equivalents; however,

many are yet to become competitive with conventional meat in

terms of scale and cost.

16Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

If we are not aware of it and participating in our own disruption, we basically deserve what we get.” – Tom Mastrobuoni, Chief Financial Officer, Tyson Ventures

The pace and magnitude of consumer adoption of plant-based meats is evidence of latent demand. However, continued growth in the sector is largely contingent on funding to scale production and distribution.

Investors have shown significant and increasing interest in the

market for plant-based meats. In 2016, Tyson Foods, one of

the largest meat processing companies in the world, launched

a US$150 million venture fund to support “breakthrough

technologies, business models and products to sustainably feed

the growing world population.”37 The fund’s first action was to

purchase a stake in Beyond Meat.38 General Mills’ venture capital

arm soon followed suit with its own investment in Beyond Meat.39

Former McDonald’s CEO Don Thompson’s venture capital fund,

Cleveland Avenue, also counts Beyond Meat among its portfolio

brands.40 Tyson Foods has even announced its intention to

launch its own line of protein alternatives.41

Other food industry actors have chosen the path of acquisition

to enter the market for plant-based meat alternatives. Following

Pinnacle Foods’ acquisition of Gardein for US$154 million in

2014 – to add the brand to the Birds Eye Frozen Division –

Pinnacle’s CEO Bob Gamgort stated that “plant-based protein

is at the tipping point of becoming mainstream, making Gardein

an exciting new growth platform for the Birds Eye business.”42

In 2017, Canada’s largest meat producer, Maple Leaf Foods,

acquired Field Roast Grain Meat Co. for US$120 million.43 Other

notable acquisitions include Monde Nissin’s purchase of Quorn

for US$832.37 million in 2015,44 and Nestle’s purchase of Sweet

Earth Foods for an undisclosed amount in 2017.45

In late 2018, plant-based meat companies Impossible Foods

and Beyond Meat were the joint recipients of the UN’s highest

environmental honour, the Champion of the Earth Award.46 The

novel technology and sustainability benefits of plant-based

meats have attracted funding from high-profile tech investors

and environmentalists including Leonardo DiCaprio and Twitter

co-founders Biz Stone and Evan Williams.47,48 Impossible Foods is

currently the top-funded start-up in the alternative protein space,

raising nearly US$400 million from high-profile investors like

Gates and Hong Kong business magnate Li Ka-Shing.49 Google

Ventures, the investment arm of Google’s parent company,

Alphabet, has also invested in Impossible Foods. Speaking at

the 2016 Milken Institute Global Conference, Alphabet Executive

Chairman Eric Schmidt named plant-based meat as the number

one game-changing technology, surpassing 3D printing,

autonomous cars, and other notable technologies.50

In New Zealand, Sunfed Meats closed a NZD$10 million Series A

fundraising round in November 2018, led by Australia’s Blackbird

Ventures,51 to fund the company’s next stage of growth and

international expansion.

Investment

Meat Re-Imagined

Plant-Based Meats

Plant-based meats consist wholly of

plant-based ingredients, and aim to

replicate the experience of cooking

and eating conventional meat – from

preparation methods to appearance,

texture and flavour. To achieve this,

food technologists develop unique

combinations of plant proteins, fats,

gums, spices and seasonings. Some

of these ingredients are processed

using extruders or unique processing

technology that controls the moisture,

heating, cooling and pressure to create

functional, taste and textural properties.

Varieties of plant-based meat alternatives

Beyond Meat began releasing pre-

packaged ready-to-cook plant-based

meats in 2016.52 The products contain

no soy, genetically modified organisms

or gluten.53

Examples:

Similar to Beyond Meat, Sunfed Meats

uses Canadian yellow pea protein

as its primary base, though it also

incorporates ingredients sourced from

New Zealand, including pumpkin and

maize starch. Sunfed’s pre-packaged,

frozen chicken alternative contains 62

percent more protein than a lean, skinless

chicken breast and employs proprietary

processing technology to mimic the

texture of conventional chicken.54,55

Impossible Foods debuted the Impossible

Burger in 2016 with an update launched

in 2019.56 The Impossible Burger uses

a plant-based ‘heme’, found in the root

nodules of soybean plants, which the

company claims is responsible for the

‘bloody’ effect and unique meat aromas.57

Funky Fields’ “Minced” was launched

across Australia in 2018 through

Woolworths supermarkets, selling out

in hundreds of stores within the first

week. Made in Denmark from soy, wheat,

almonds and mushrooms, the product is

stocked alongside conventional meat in

Woolworths stores.58,59

18Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

Nature’s Meat Mimics

Naturally occurring plant products including jackfruit and banana

blossom can be prepared as meat alternatives due to their meat-like

appearance, texture or ability to absorb flavours. These products

appeal to consumers seeking minimally processed options that are

similar to the experience of eating conventional meat.

Examples:

Banana blossom is comprised of tear-shaped

flowers found at the end of a banana cluster. When

battered and fried, the colour and texture bears

a striking resemblance to fish. Due to increasing

popularity for plant-based fish alternatives, Sutton

and Sons from East London has developed a

process to marinate the banana blossom in spices

before mixing it with seaweed and frying it to

create plant-based fish and chips.60

Together with Ocean Hugger Foods, leading

American chef, Certified Master Chef James

Corwell, created Ahimi, an alternative to raw tuna.

Ahimi is made by combining roma tomatoes with

ingredients such as sesame oil and sugar and

subjecting it to a sous-vide cooking process to

produce a flesh-like product that is firm and juicy,

with a savoury bite.61 Ocean Hugger Foods is also

developing eggplant eel called Unami and carrot-

based salmon sashimi named Sakimi.62

Jackfruit has gained popularity as a substitute for

pulled pork. When cooked it has a shredded and

chewy texture.63 Jackfruit is now available in a wide

variety of restaurant dishes and in packaged form

by food suppliers such as Upton’s Natural and The

Jackfruit Company,64,65 which are available at IGA

stores in Australia.

Fermentation-Based Meat Alternatives

Proteins produced through fermentation can be derived from

certain varieties of fungi. The typical production process for these

meat alternatives involves the use of fermenters similar to those

found in a brewery. Fungi are introduced to a nutrient solution,

predominantly comprised of water and glucose, and given a

continuous feed of nutrients – with pH balance, temperature,

nutrient concentration and oxygen continuously controlled to

promote optimum growth. The product is heated to remove

excess ribonucleic acids, harvested, seasoned and mixed with

a binding ingredient. This mix is then steam cooked, chilled and

shaped into the final product prior to freezing to facilitate the

consolidation of fibres to create a final meat-like texture.66

Examples:

UK company Quorn initially introduced

their fungi-based meat alternatives in

1985, and now offers a range of pre-

packaged meats and meals ranging from

nuggets to lasagne.67 The company is on

track to become a billion dollar business

by 2027.68

Koji is a fungus that has been used for

thousands of years in foods such as miso

soup, soy sauce and in the production of

sake. The start-up company Prime Roots,

formerly known as Terramino Foods, is

utilising it as a key ingredient to create

burgers that offer a complete protein

source, taste like salmon and offer a

lower fat content.69

Meat Re-Imagined

Plant-based meat production requires significantly fewer natural resources than conventional meat and emits far less greenhouse gases.

Environmental Impact

Figure 4. Environmental impact comparisons with conventional beef. Figures based on U.S production systems.

Land use

Water use

GHG Emissions(CO2 eq/KG)

99%less water

93%less land

90%fewer GHGemissions

75%less water

95%less land

87%fewer GHGemissions

90%less water

97%less land

96%fewer GHGemissions

Utilising land to produce crops for human consumption instead

of animal feed would reduce the overall environmental footprint

of food production, preserve land and water resources, and

represent an important step towards the goal of feeding a

growing population within planetary boundaries.

70 71 72

20Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

Plant-based meats are generally moderate to high in protein content. The nine amino acids that are essential to the human body are now recognised to be readily available in certain plant-based foods, with common ingredients in plant-based meat – such as soy and quinoa – being rich in all nine.73

Unlike conventional meat, plant-based meat

alternatives contain no cholesterol, and

can be produced with no trans fats. Levels

of monounsaturated, polyunsaturated and

saturated fats vary greatly across plant

sources, with plant-based meats that contain

coconut or palm oils being generally higher

in saturated fat.74 Improvements can be made

to plant-based meat alternatives to optimise

the nutritional profile, taste and texture.

Some companies producing plant-based

meat alternatives fortify their products

with essential micronutrients. One such

example is Australian-made Vegie Delights

sausages, which provide 100 percent of the

recommended daily intake of B12, 30 percent

of iron and 35 percent of zinc per serving.75

Comparable nutrient levels are found in

the Impossible Burger.76 Further, dietary

fibre and phytonutrients are found only in

plants, meaning plant-based meat products

containing these nutrients can offer additional

benefit over conventional meat products.77

Some concerns about the processed nature

of plant-based meats have been raised,78,79

including levels of sodium and saturated fats.

However, comparisons with pre-seasoned

conventional products are favourable.

Burgers (per 100g)

Nuggets (per 100g)

*Based on nutrition panel averages of Coles Beef Burgers, Woolworths

Market Value Beef Burgers, and Beyond Burger (all pre-seasoned products).

*Based on nutrition panel averages of Coles Chicken Nuggets, Woolworths

Essentials Chicken Nuggets and Fry’s Meat Free (chicken-style) nuggets.

Figure 5. Nutritional comparison between plant-based meat alternatives and equivalent conventional meat product.80

Health & Nutrition

Conventional beef burgers*

Beyond Burger*

Energy (calories) 273 241

Protein (g) 12 18

Fat (g) 23.2 18

-of which saturated (g)

11.3 4

Carbohydrate (g) 4.2 4

Dietary Fibre (g) 0 3

Sodium (mg) 515.5 339

Conventional chicken nuggets*

Fry’s Meat Free (chicken-style) nuggets*

Energy (calories) 237.5 321

Protein (g) 10.6 10

Fat (g) 13.9 22

-of which saturated (g)

2.7 3

Carbohydrate (g) 17.6 14.7

Dietary Fibre (g) 0 5.8

Sodium (mg) 545.5 669

Meat Re-Imagined

Processing Technology

Despite significant product innovation

in the category of plant-based meat

alternatives, processing innovation

remains limited and would benefit from

significant efficiency and quality-control

improvements. Many plant-based

meat alternatives are produced via

extruders – machines that apply heat

and mechanical shear stress to coax

plant proteins into desired textures such

as aligned fibers. Though extruders

have proved valuable in the production

of plant-based meat alternatives, they

were initially designed for – and are still

used to produce – various non-food

products, as well as dried foodstuffs such

as breakfast cereals and pasta. Very few

design improvements have been made

to optimise extruders for the purpose of

plant-based meat production, which has

unique requirements. Other lower-tech

methods of production, like mixing and

press-forming, simply require optimisation

and automation for greater throughput.

Couette Cell (also known as shear-cell)

technology, researched as part of a public-

private partnership in the Netherlands,

is among the most novel approaches

to the production of plant-based meat

alternatives.81 Using a shearing approach,

as opposed to the application of heat and

pressure, the Couette Cell is more energy

efficient and results in a plant-based meat

alternative with a steak-like texture.82

Protein Discovery and Characterisation

The vast majority of plant proteins have

not yet been examined for their potential

use in plant-based meat alternatives,84

and it is impossible to quantify the

potential applications of plants that are

not commonly used in today’s food

supply. Alternative protein company JUST

(formerly know as Hampton Creek), has

stated that it is using its robotics platform

to screen thousands of plant species

for protein characterisation, and has

promised to share this information in

the form of a public database at a later

date.85 However, the timeline and relative

success of this project remains unclear.

Given the sizeable potential benefits

of new protein discovery, additional

research efforts are needed.

Challenges, Opportunities & Risks

There are thousands of plant proteins in the world, and many of them have yet to be explored for use in the production of meat alternatives. Current investigations of the world’s vast array of plant proteins could fundamentally reshape our food supply for the better.” 83

– Bill Gates

The rise of plant-based meat alternatives

presents opportunities for conventional

agriculture through increased demand

for more specialised crops, for example,

Canadian yellow pea protein,86 which is

used by both Beyond Meat and Sunfed.

Good Catch’s fish-free tuna incorporates

six types of plant proteins to achieve

a tuna-like texture and high nutrient

content.87 These examples illustrate

a critical benefit of plant-based meat

alternatives: innovation in this sector

supports the creation of new value

throughout the supply chain and could

encourage crop diversity, soil health

preservation, and promote new business

opportunities for farmers.

22Plant-Based Meat Alternatives

Plant-Based Meat Alternatives as Ingredients

Significant opportunity exists in marketing plant-based meat

alternatives as ingredients, as opposed to creating branded,

standalone products. Such partnerships are increasing in

popularity in the plant-based sector, where soy and nut-

based cheese companies are selling products to brands that

specialise in pre-packaged pizzas and pasta dishes.

Given the rise in popularity of convenience options, companies

producing plant-based meat alternatives could find significant

additional revenue streams by supplying buyers in the frozen-

food and institutional foodservice markets.88 One company

taking this approach is Hungry Planet, whose range of plant-

based burgers, chicken and sausage is used in restaurants

such as Mesa Burger, and is available to chefs in bulk

commercial quantities.

Regulatory Status

Many major players in the conventional meat industry are

seeking to capitalise on the trend toward plant-based protein

consumption. Tyson Foods, for example, has re-positioned

itself as a protein company, rather than a meat company – a

subtle shift that marks a big change in approach.89

While some businesses see opportunity, other industry

incumbents view the emergence of plant-based meats as

a competitive threat, and are actively seeking regulation in

favour of the status quo. Some countries have seen efforts to

ban the use of the term ‘meat’ and related sub-categories in

the labeling and marketing of plant-based meat alternatives.90

While it’s unclear what effect this will have on consumers’

willingness and ability to purchase these products, this early

push-back could foreshadow stronger resistance led by some

conventional meat industry groups.

Meat Re-Imagined

CELL-BASED MEAT

background

Advances in cell-culturing technology have made it possible to grow meat directly from cells, obviating the need to breed, feed and kill animals. This emerging field is known as cellular agriculture. Cell-based meat, also referred to as ‘clean meat’ due to its environmental and food safety benefits, has emerged as a potential solution to meet the world’s growing protein demands.

Cell-based meatball produced by Memphis Meats in 2016

Cell-based meat involves taking a small sample of animal cells

and housing them in a bioreactor – also known as a cultivator

– where the sample is fed a mixture of nutrients and signaling

proteins, causing cells to grow and divide. The process mimics

that of growing flesh on an animal, but removes the need for a

live animal to produce the desired end-product.

In 2005, NASA conducted initial investigations into the feasibility

of cell-based meat as a way to feed astronauts on long-haul

spaceflights, providing funding to culture turkey muscle cells in-

vitro.1 Researchers immediately saw the technology’s potential

to alleviate food supply and safety issues on Earth.2

While this technology has only recently become a reality and is

still not commercialised, its rapid development has caught the

eyes of governments, business and environmentalists around

the world.

24Cell-Based Meat

In 2013, Professor Mark Post of Maastricht University captured the public’s interest at a London press conference, where he unveiled the world’s first beef burger created without killing cattle.3

Commercial Market & Prototypes

Taking his project out of academia, Post launched Mosa Meats, courted millions in

funding and reduced production costs considerably from an estimated A$400,000

prototype to an anticipated A$15 once at industrial scale, with plans to reduce costs

further to the price of conventional supermarket burgers in the next decade.4

As the prospect of cell-based meat moves from hypothetical to commercially viable,

Mosa Meats has been joined by more than 20 cell-based meat companies globally,

including Memphis Meats in the U.S., SuperMeat in Israel, Higher Steaks in the

UK, Shiok Meats in Singapore and Meatable in the Netherlands. Meanwhile, other

companies are using cell-culturing technology to produce different animal products,

from egg whites (Clara Foods), to dairy (Perfect Day) to gelatin (Geltor).

Several companies have developed prototypes of cell-based meat since Post’s

burger. Memphis Meats has produced prototypes of meatballs and poultry products,5

Finless Foods has prototyped cell-based tuna croquettes,6 and New Age Meats

launched cell-based pork sausage prototypes to journalists and potential investors

in September 2018.7 JUST has also given journalists samples of its cell-based chicken

nugget prototype.8

Examples:

Meat Re-Imagined

Future predictions:

With technological advancements and production efficiency gains, the cost of producing cell-based meat has continued to fall,9 with some predictions of a high-end product being available on the market as early as 2020.10 Some cell-based meat companies aim to be cost competitive with conventional meat in supermarkets within five to 10 years.

Date Product Company (Location)

Cost (AUD) per kilogram unless otherwise stated

202017 Minced Meat

Future Meat Technologies (Israel)

$7-14

Prediction – near future18

Minced Meat

JUST (USA) Within 30% of price of conventional meat

Prediction – when scaled to industrial size19

Beef Patty Mosa Meats (Netherlands)

$14.24/burger

Prediction – unspecified20

Pork Sausage

New Age Meats (USA)

$7/sausage

Prediction – next decade21

Beef Patty Mosa Meats (Netherlands)

$1.60/patty

costs

Figure 6. Declining production costs for cell-based meat.

Date Product Company (Location)

Cost (AUD) per kilogram unless otherwise stated

201311 Beef Patty Mosa Meats (Netherlands)

$3.2M

March, 201712 Southern Fried Chicken

Memphis Meats (USA)

$27,000

March, 201713 Duck à l’orange

Memphis Meats (USA)

$27,000

Mid-201814 Minced Meat

Memphis Meats (USA)

$6,000

May 201815 Minced Meat

Future Meat Technologies (Israel)

$1,122

October 201816

Pork Sausage

New Age Meats (USA)

$303/sausage

Memphis Meats, San Francisco

26Cell-Based Meat

Like their plant-based counterparts, cell-based meat companies have rapidly attracted attention from major investors including conventional meat corporations, high-profile investors such as Richard Branson, and tech moguls including Google co-founder Sergey Brin – who funded the very first cell-based burger.22

Modern Meadow

Perfect Day

Geltor

Memphis Meats

Mosa Meats

Finless Foods

Meatable

Clara Foods

Future Meat Technology

New Age Meats

$0 $50M$25M

$53.5M

$40M

$23M

$20M

$8.8M

$6.7M

$3.5M

$3.5M

$2.2M

$0.25M

Investment

If we can grow the meat without the animal, why wouldn’t we?”– Tom Hayes, former CEO, Tyson Foods

Figure 7. Capital raised by dedicated cellular agriculture companies (USD).

Source: Crunchbase.com

Memphis Meats, one of the best-known

start-ups in the sector, has received

US$20 million in total funding from Cargill

and Tyson Foods, DFJ, Bill Gates, Kimbal

Musk, and others.23 JUST, which began as

a plant-protein company and which has

raised more than US$220 million from an

investor pool including Khosla Ventures,

Eduardo Saverin (Facebook co-founder),

Marc Benioff (Salesforce founder), and

Hong Kong business magnate Li-Ka-shing,

announced its expansion into cell-based

meat in 2017.24

Conventional meat companies,

observing the confluence of technology

and consumer sentiment, have been

incentivised to participate in the

transformation of the protein industry,

rather than risk being disrupted by

outside competition. PHW-Gruppe, one

of Europe’s largest poultry producers,

invested in Israeli cell-based meat start-up

SuperMeat and made it clear that they

intended to partner with SuperMeat on

research, development and strategic

product positioning.25 Multinational life

science industry leaders such as Merck

KGaA, through its investment in Mosa

Meats, are also demonstrating interest.26

Given the nascent stage of the industry,

investment in cell-based meat is a high-

risk, high-reward proposition.

Governments are also buying in.

Singapore – with its confined geography,

heavy reliance on food imports and

focus on food security – has pledged

nearly US$14 billion for research and

development.27 In February 2019, the

Maharashtra government in Western India

announced it was establishing a centre

for excellence in cellular agriculture, set to

be the “world’s first dedicated centre on

cellular agriculture” in order to promote

research, development and production of

cell-based meat.28

Meat Re-Imagined

Producing cell-based meat requires four critical technologies: cell lines, culture medium (also called nutrient medium or feed), scaffolding and bioreactors (also called cultivators). These components are at various degrees of development, and none are yet fully optimised for industrial-scale production of cell-based meat.

Phase 2:Tissue PerfusionA change in culture conditions pushes the cells to di�erentiate into muscle, fat, and connective tissue.

Phase 1:Cell ProliferationThe cells are added to a bioreactor along with cell culture media, which causes the cells to proliferate.

Cell Line DerivationA small sample of cells is obtained from an animal.

Cell Starter Culture Cells at MaturationPrimarily muscle, fat, and connective tissue.

Fat Cell

Muscle Cell

FibroblastCell

Sca�olding

Final Product

Medium recycling

Figure 8. Cell-based meat production process.

Source: The Good Food Institute.

Cell Lines

Cell lines provide the species-specific starter material for

cell-based meat. While cells can be isolated from samples

from animals in an essentially painless procedure, the

proliferative potential of most adult-derived cells is small; they

can typically only divide about 20 to 50 times, depending

on the cell type.29,30 While these adult cells may be suitable

for some products and processes, many companies are

developing immortalised cell lines that can proliferate

indefinitely. Immortalisation can be achieved through genetic

modification; however, some pluripotent and multipotent stem

cells – cells that can grow and differentiate into all of the

cell types required for meat – already exhibit this capacity.31

Developing, maintaining, and storing these cell lines may

become a vertically integrated aspect of cell-based meat

production, or it could be outsourced to third-party partners.

Culture Medium

The cell culture medium contains the nutrients that the cells

metabolise to support their growth (including amino acids,

sugars and vitamins), as well as components that maintain a

stable osmolarity and pH. It also contains a suite of signaling

proteins called growth factors that provide instructions to

guide the cells. For example, to encourage proliferation or

to trigger differentiation down pathways to mature into the

desired final cell types (muscle, fat, connective tissue, etc.).

The cost of most cell culture media is currently very high

as animal cell culture has traditionally been used for high-

cost applications like biomedical research, cell therapies

and biopharmaceutical therapeutics. Thus, it has not been

subjected to the cost constraints of the food industry, nor has

it been specifically optimised to support the growth of the cell

types and species that are relevant for cell-based meat.

Production Overview

28Cell-Based Meat

Growth factors are currently the major cost drivers of cell-based

meat, and present the greatest opportunity for cost reduction.

Historically, growth factors have been most easily obtained

through fetal bovine serum (FBS), which is a byproduct of meat

processing. FBS has batch consistency problems, is the main

contributor to the costliness of growth media, and is in short

supply. Ethical issues also arise through the extraction method for

those working to create cell-based meat production, where the

aim is to remove animals from the process entirely.32 Cell-based

meat companies have stated their commitment to replacing this

input with an animal-origin-free alternative.33

Future Meat Technologies, based in Israel, uses a serum-free

process that cleans and recycles their media, which is important

as it constitutes their largest expense.34 Mosa Meats, who say

media comprises 80 percent of production cost,35 have developed

a working serum-free medium, but indicate that it still requires

optimisation.36 Israeli start-up Aleph Farms has also developed

an animal-friendly alternative to FBS.37 Meatable, a relatively new

Dutch start-up, has developed a bovine pluripotent stem cell line

that does not require FBS and will proliferate indefinitely.38

Animal-origin-free media are available in the biomedical industry,

but they are currently cost-prohibitive in the context of food

production. Despite this fact, cross-industry collaboration is

already ameliorating concerns that affordable, meat-optimised

growth media will pose obstacles,39 with projections suggesting

that growth media could be made significantly less expensive

through scaled production and research into cost-effective

growth factors.40 One of the few analyses of media that focuses

specifically on cell-based meat production concluded that,

despite the engineering and biological challenges involved in

reducing the cost of media and removing animal components,

none of these challenges will require wholly novel inventions or

‘moonshot’ technological breakthroughs.41

As the primary input of cell-based meat, successfully reducing the

cost of growth media will be essential for economic viability.

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is a physical support structure that allows cells to

adhere to it as they differentiate into the necessary cell types

and spatial arrangement to create the familiar look and texture of

popular cuts of meat.

There are two primary approaches to creating cell-based meat

scaffolds. The first is to use an edible, food-grade, taste-neutral

material that can be consumed along with the final product.

Research is presently underway to refine existing examples such

as alginate, an algal derived polysaccharide currently used as a

gum in the food industry, and develop new materials. The second

is to use biodegradable materials that the cells will break down

as they grow and create their own self-made scaffold called the

extracellular matrix.42

While scaffolding is important for replicating cuts of meat that

require high textural variation such as a marbled steak, complex

scaffolding is not necessarily required for all cell-based meat

products. Many popular conventional meat products get their

texture from downstream processing, such as the formation

of chicken patties, minced beef or sausages. As long as the

necessary muscle, fat and connective tissue are present in

sufficient quantities, these products can be created without

significant scaffolding innovation.

Bioreactors

Bioreactors, which are commonly referred to as ‘cultivators’

within the industry, are the proverbial barns for cell-based meat

production. Bioreactors are the closed systems wherein the cells

are maintained at optimal conditions to support high-efficiency

proliferation and differentiation. While a variety of bioreactors

have been designed to mimic the natural growth environment

for various cell types, including a scalable modular bioreactor

prototype funded by New Harvest,43 none have yet been

optimised for mass cell-based meat production.

At scale, novel problems may arise, such as oxygenation and

recycling of growth media. Additionally, engineers must develop

a method for continuous – as opposed to batch – processing to

ensure maximum time and cost efficiency.

Scaling up production from working models of tissue-growth in

the biomedical industry to low-cost commercial food production

in bioreactors remains a hurdle to large-scale cell-based meat

production, however advances are being made. Notable

advances include the development of a method to cultivate cells

on beads in suspension within bioreactors called microcarriers.44

Meatable claims to have made progress developing technology

to overcome scalability issues – including establishing cells

that do not require surface attachment in the initial proliferative

stage – and is working on the development of an animal-free

edible or biodegradable scaffolding material.45 Meanwhile, Israel-

based Aleph Farms has developed a three-dimensional process

incorporating the four elements of meat (muscle, fat, connective

tissue and blood vessels).46

Meat Re-Imagined

At scale, cell-based meat is projected to require significantly less land and water than feeding and raising cattle. Initial lifecycle analyses have shown that cell-based meat could require as little as 1 percent of the land that meat production requires today.47

Study 1: Tuomisto & Mattos 201150

Study 2: Tuomisto & Roy 201251

Study 3: Tuomisto, Ellis & Haastrup 201452

Figure 9. Environmental impact comparisons with conventional beef. Figures based on European production systems.

Land use

Water use

GHG Emissions(CO2 eq/KG)

82-96%less water

99%less land

78-96%Less emissions

94%less water

99.7%less land

98.8%Less emissions

48%less water

94%less land

95%Less emissions

The results of a recent study from the

University of Oxford,48 modelling potential

climatic impacts of cell-based meat versus

conventional beef cattle systems, were

released in February 2019. This study

highlighted the difficulties in making such

predictions in the absence of accurate

life cycle assessments for scaled up

cell-based meat production, as well as

the importance of utilising decarbonised

energy sources to power facilities and

transportation. However, even without an

almost inevitable transition to renewable

energy, and assuming no new efficiencies

with scaling up of cell-based meat, the

benefits across all models in the study

were strongly in favour of cell-based meat

for the first 100 years.49

While creating the same, or potentially

improved, sources of protein with markedly

fewer resources, cell-based meat frees up

some non-rangeland arable land to grow

crops for human consumption, as opposed

to growing crops for animal feed. This has

the potential to compound the positive

impacts on food system productivity and

food security.

Environmental Impact

East Gippsland, Victoria, Australia

Meat Re-Imagined

Cell-based meat, essentially the same as conventional meat at the cellular level, provides an opportunity to produce a protein with identical levels of amino acids and micronutrients as conventional meat.

There is potential to tailor the fat profile and quantity of cell-

based meats53 or to enrich it with essential micronutrients

such as vitamin B1254 – provided these are supplied in the

growth medium. Professor Mark Post of Mosa Meats claims the

company can produce cell-based meat containing omega-3 fatty

acids and other healthy fats.55 While the nutritional profile of cell-

based meat could be enhanced, it is identical to conventional

meat on a cellular level, meaning that it will likely present similar

health implications to those posed by conventional meat.

Through the environmental and hygiene control of production

facilities, cell-based meat will be free of many issues that

plague conventional animal agriculture, including bacterial

contamination and widespread antibiotic use.56,57 Cell-based

meat does not require the antibiotics used in some forms of

livestock farming, similarly obviating the need for abattoirs, and

avoiding the potential for contamination from faecal matter,

E.coli, Salmonella enterica, Campylobacter spp. and other

common contaminants in conventional meat.58

Animals have biological limits, and manipulating these limits is a source of constant interest and risk within the conventional meat industry.

Despite selective breeding and genetic modification to produce

fast-growing animals, and the use of antibiotics to keep animals

alive in highly confined conditions, there are limitations to the

volume of meat an animal can produce and the number of

animals that can be fed and raised on a given tract of land.

As global demand for meat increases, conventional animal

agriculture is hitting the limits of its productive feasibility.

Cell-based meat is a tech-driven response to the risks of

conventional animal agriculture that, if scaled successfully, could

address a number of the negative consequences of conventional

meat production.

Processing Technology

Significant hurdles remain to scaling production and achieving

price parity with conventional meat. Many of the technologies

crucial to cell-based meat production are not yet optimised for

commercial scale and require engineering advances to enable

competition with conventional meat and its current production

methods. It should be acknowledged that while notable

advances have been made in recent years, the cell-based meat

industry has yet to benefit from the significant government-

funded research and development seen in earlier emerging

sectors, such as biopharmaceuticals, green chemistry and

biotechnology. The nascent stage of cell-based meat technology

leaves significant opportunity for further advancement and

capitalisation as the sector matures.

Regulatory Status

The question of cell-based meat regulation has drawn significant

interest in the United States, where discussions concerning

primary oversight and nomenclature are ongoing. It is currently

envisaged that responsibility for regulation will be jointly shared

between the Food and Drug Administration and the United States

Department of Agriculture, though the specifics of how this

arrangement will work in practise are still unclear.59 The question

of oversight is linked to a deeper regulatory complication, as

meat regulation today is predicated on animal slaughter.60 As

such, pre-existing pathways may prove insufficient to regulate

cell-based meat before it enters the consumer market.

The U.S. government has given strong signals that they wish

to streamline the regulation of cell-based meat in order to

Health & Nutrition

Challenges, Opportunities & Risks

32Cell-Based Meat

become market leaders. The U.S. Secretary of Agriculture told

the Wall Street Journal in November 2018; “we don’t want this

new technology to feel like they’ve got to go offshore or outside

the United States to get a fair regulatory protocol.”61 The meat

industry, on the other hand, is split. Some major producers –

including Tyson Foods and Cargill – have invested in cell-based

meat companies, while other industry groups such as the National

Cattlemen’s Beef Association (NCBA) are lobbying to bar cell-

based meat companies from labeling their products as meat.62

The split is occurring primarily between the poultry and pork

industries – which are highly vertically integrated and tend to

embrace technology-driven efficiency advances – and the cattle

industry – which is less consolidated and more defensive of its

independent operators.

Closer to home, the Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore

(AVA) has engaged with the cell-based meat industry since its

early days, reflecting a high level of interest in fast-tracking

regulatory pathways.63

Consumer Perceptions

Even with adequate funding for scale-up and a favourable regulatory

environment, consumer education may be required in advance of

market entry for cell-based meat to be widely accepted. While cell-

based meat has the potential to deliver significant benefits relating

to sustainability and food safety, and has the potential for improved

nutrition and taste, it’s unclear whether consumers will embrace the

products. Perceptions of unnaturalness and fear of unfamiliar foods

could compromise adoption.64

Surveys of consumers show mixed interest, and vary greatly

depending on the descriptors used and information provided. A

Pew Research study of approximately 1000 U.S. adults found that

20 percent of respondents would “eat meat that was grown in a

lab” – a considerable number given the lack of context.65 A 2013

poll in the Netherlands explained that cell-based meat would have

the same flavour, texture and nutritional value as conventionally

produced meat, and 70 percent of the poll’s 1000 respondents

said that they would try it.66

A joint poll by Faunalytics and U.S.-based non-profit organisation

The Good Food Institute (GFI) tested different positive messaging

for cell-based meat, as well as negative messaging related

to conventional meat. When given information about the

use of antibiotics in conventional animal agriculture and the

unnatural rate of growth for modern farm animals, nearly half of

respondents reported that they would try cell-based meat and

be willing to pay a premium for it.67 In addition, a 2013 Belgian

poll of 180 adults found that only 9 percent rejected the idea

of trying cell-based meat, with evidence of significant gains in

acceptance following the provision of educational materials on

the environmental benefits of cell-based meat over conventional

meat production.68 In 2019, GFI will partner with research firm

Mattson to conduct research on nomenclature and messaging for

optimal consumer perception.69

Egg, dairy, gelatine

Alongside cell-based meat, some companies are developing

other animal-derived proteins including acellular alternatives

to conventional dairy, eggs, and gelatine.

Acellular production focuses on creating animal proteins

through a non-animal product host, rather than by growing

animal cells. The process is akin to that of fermenting beer.

Similar to yeast in brewing tanks which feed on sugars to

produce alcohol, microbes (including yeast) can be used to

produce proteins. These proteins can, in turn, be used to

create products much closer to a conventional equivalent

than to a wholly plant-based product.70

While acellular production appears novel, it is already used to

produce food products such as rennet, a common ingredient

in cheesemaking, as well as medical products like insulin.71

Additionally, it can be used to optimise animal proteins in

a way that cannot be done through conventional methods,

such as increasing the binding and emulsification abilities of

egg proteins72 or removing lactose from dairy products.73

Several companies are utilising acellular protein production

in prototype and proof-of-concept stages, including Clara

Foods’ non-animal egg-whites and egg proteins for other

functional uses.74 Perfect Day has created cell-based dairy

products,75 and Geltor has created non-animal collagen that

can be used in food, medicine and cosmetics.76 Perhaps most

notably, plant-based meat company Impossible Foods is using

an acellular process to produce the iron-containing molecule

heme, found within the plant-based leghemoglobin protein,

giving its burgers a ‘bloody’ appearance and flavour.77

In 2018, Singaporean state-owned investment firm Temasek

led a US$24.7 million series A funding round in cell-based

dairy company, Perfect Day,78 followed by an additional

US$34.8 million series B funding in February 2019,79

demonstrating confidence in the ability of the company to

scale and commercialise.

Meat Re-Imagined

U.S.-based Better Meat Co is a business-

to-business supplier of plant protein

blends to institutional food service

providers and meat processors.7 The

company’s blends are designed to be

incorporated into products like meatballs,

sausages, fish sticks, chicken nuggets,

burgers or other ground meats, and are

the result of significant R&D efforts to

match flavour and texture profiles of these

specific meat products.8

Australian company Perfectly Balanced

sells blended products including meatballs

with kale and sweet potato, sausages with

carrots and herbs and burgers with semi-

dried tomato and basil, at Woolworths.5

While these blends do not represent a

significant technological advancement

in terms of protein characterisation or

optimisation, they appeal to a growing

number of health-conscious and

sustainability-minded consumers.6

HYBRIDS

Hybrid meats that incorporate mushrooms and other plant-based ingredients are already familiar to consumers, and are relatively simple to produce at both home and at commercial scale.2

Advances in plant protein characterisation and processing

technology are making it possible to increase the ratio of

blending ingredients to conventional meat in popular foods

without compromising taste and texture.3 As a result, an

increasing number of companies are offering these products in

both retail and restaurant environments. As consumer demand

and industrial production increase, the cost of plant-based

hybrids is anticipated to decrease relative to conventional meat.4

Examples:

Hybrid meat products occupy a middle ground between conventional meat and their alternative counterparts, enabling a reduction of conventional meat consumption without a significant shift in consumer behaviour. While the conventional meat industry already makes use of fillers and extenders,1 technological advances in plant-based meat, cell-based meat, and insect protein production offer new ingredients to add flavour, texture, and protein to familiar dishes.

Jackfruit and cell-based turkey nugget created by Marie Gibbons

Plant-Based Blends

34Hybrids

U.S.–based researcher Marie Gibbons

produced a cell-based turkey nugget

blended with jackfruit at North Carolina

State University. The jackfruit not only

added texture to the final product, it

was also used as scaffolding for cell

proliferation during development.9

Insect-based blends

Cell-based blends

Insect-based ingredients are primarily used in products like muffins, pasta and nutrition bars, although a small number of companies are beginning to incorporate them with conventional meat or plants, to present the insect component in a more familiar format.

While there are few examples of insect-meat blends, researchers

are currently investigating approaches to develop such products.11

With Western consumers generally reluctant to eat insects due to

food and cultural norms,12 manufacturers are increasingly focusing

on producing protein-rich insect flours and powders instead of

offering whole insects. Investment in insects as meat alternatives

has been limited due to functionality limitations, scale-up

challenges and low consumer acceptance.13,14

Examples:

Given the significant cost of producing cell-based meat today, it is possible that the earliest commercially available products will be blended with plant proteins.

Such products would not only significantly reduce costs compared

to fully cell-based products, but may additionally serve as an

introductory format to gauge consumer acceptance and increase

consumer education.

Examples:

Spanish start-up Cubiq Foods is

developing animal fats through cell-

culturing techniques. It is anticipated

that these products will eventually be

incorporated into plant-based meat

alternatives to provide specific flavour and

functional benefits of animal fats that are

difficult to replicate with plant sources.10

Swiss start-up Essento incorporates a

variety of grains, pulses and vegetables

into its mealworm-based ‘meatballs’ and

burgers, sold at the country’s second-

largest supermarket chain, Coop.15

Edible Bug Shop, based in Sydney,

focuses on crickets, mealworms and ants

for human consumption.16 The company is

exploring methods of incorporating insects

into conventional meat products.

Meat Re-Imagined

PROSPECTS FOR AUSTRALIA

The emerging alternative proteins sector presents a significant opportunity to diversify global food production. Markets in Europe, Israel, the U.S. and Asia are vying for supremacy, however, Australia has a window of opportunity to become a first-mover, harness its expertise and infrastructure, and become highly competitive as the industry scales up.

Millions of Australians are seeking out

more plant-based foods.1,2 Australia

is one of the fastest growing markets

in the world for plant-based products,

with a projected compound annual growth rate of 9.6

percent.3 To meet this demand, an increasing number

of plant-based products – from plant-based meat

alternatives to plant-based milks – are becoming

widely available to consumers in supermarkets,4

restaurants and cafes.5

A considerable number of the plant-based meat

alternatives currently available in the Australian

market are imported. A significant opportunity

exists to satisfy this demand with locally produced

products, made with Australian-grown ingredients.

More Australian investment in product innovation

will incentivise businesses to cater to this growing

demand, and offer consumers a greater variety of

protein options that satisfy their hunger for healthier,

more sustainable foods in familiar forms.

Items that were once relegated to the far-corners of

grocery stores, and reserved for those with allergies

or dietary restrictions, are rapidly increasing in

popularity and market share. The rising consumer

demand for plant-based milks in the U.S. provides

an instructive case study. Demand in the U.S. has

propelled plant-based milks to 13 percent of sales

in the fluid milk and dairy alternatives market,6

with plant-based milks catering to an increasingly

broad cross section of consumers interested in

differentiated products, utility and nutritional qualities.7

Consumers

36Prospects For Australia

BUSINESs

Australia offers a wealth of advantages to

international alternative protein businesses

and local start-ups seeking to establish an

Asia Pacific base of operations. Australia’s

secure, stable regulatory environment, good

governance, strong intellectual property laws, access to

finance and support for small businesses8 provides an ideal

platform for new enterprise.

Australia is a globally integrated economy in its 27th year of

uninterrupted economic growth, with deep links into dynamic

Asian economies through established supply chains,

including the largest economies in the world such as Japan

and China, Australia’s largest two-way trading partner.9

Australia’s food manufacturing sector includes well over

5,00010 registered food and processing manufacturing

facilities, mostly concentrated in the eastern states of

Victoria, Queensland and New South Wales.11 A recent

Australian Government report found that Australian

manufacturers and processors have particular experience

producing specialty processed foods that meet flavour

(e.g. European and Asian tastes), convenience (e.g. ready-

to-serve), nutritional benefits (e.g. salt/fat/sugar reduced)

and functionality (e.g. probiotics) requirements.12 These

same requirements have been an area of focus for R&D of

plant-based and cell-based meats, meaning Australia is well

placed to develop and manufacture such products.

The potential national economic benefits of embracing

protein innovation are far-reaching, including job creation

through manufacturing and distribution to research and

marketing. Critically, these benefits are not limited to

new market entrants, but present collaborative growth

opportunities with established industries, particularly in the

grain, pulse, manufacturing and life sciences sectors.

Alternative protein businesses can leverage Australia’s

strong development, manufacturing and export base,

including partnering with existing conventional meat

exporters through new cooperative ventures to become

a leader in the regional alternative protein market. This

enables international alternative protein businesses to

establish Australian manufacturing facilities to access

Asian markets, as well as provide an avenue for Australian

start-ups to access existing supply chains. In addition, as

an advanced and sophisticated consumer market with

high food standards, a high degree of ethnic diversity and

a demonstrated consumer willingness to embrace novel

products, Australia offers an ideal location for international

Someone in the industry is showing initiative … so I take my hat off to them. I don’t care that it’s not traditional mince at all, and I don’t think they do either as a meat company.”– Rod Slater, Chief Executive, Beef+Lamb NZ

alternative protein companies seeking to test new products

in overseas markets.

With regional economies such as China increasingly

focusing on alternative proteins,13,14 the opportunity for

international cooperation, co-development of technology

and the creation of new trade partnerships arises.

Internationally, fresh competition is driving an uptick of in-

house innovation in alternative protein products. Blue-chip

international brand Kraft Heinz launched Springboard, an

incubator and accelerator program to identify disruptive

food start-ups, including start-ups focused on developing

plant-based proteins.15 To keep pace with their international

counterparts, Australian food and biotech companies

should invest in alternative protein development and the

infrastructure that facilitates their availability and supply.

In neighbouring New Zealand, The Craft Meat Co., owned

by conventional meat company Fisher Meat, launched

a plant-based mince which was praised by the CEO of

Beef+Lamb NZ as a show of initiative.16,17

Meat Re-Imagined

Science & Technology

Australia is a world leader in research

and development (R&D), with an annual

expenditure of A$31 billion, or 1.9 percent

percent of GDP.32 It ranks fifth globally

for biotechnology innovation,33 despite

having only 0.3 percent of the world’s population.34

Business expenditure on R&D reached A$16.7 billion

in 2015-16, with Australian businesses investing over

A$200 million a year in agribusiness R&D, and over

A$700 million in food manufacturing R&D.35,36 The

government provides A$800 million in funding to its own

innovation research centre, the Commonwealth Scientific

and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), which

contributes R&D for practical industry implementation,

such as new processing technology.37 The 2018 Budget

also committed A$1.9 billion to invest in research

infrastructure to support continued STEM innovation.38

Additionally, Australia boasts 43 accredited universities,

with seven in the top 100 globally.39,40 These institutions

are known for their exceptional work in tech and

R&D, partnering with government and the private

sector to develop new innovations.41 For example, the

development of a natural food preservative from native

Kakadu Plum extracts that extends product shelf life by

up to 18 months.42

Australia has at least 17 research institutions that produce

work directly relevant to the research and development

of cell-based meats, including in the fields of stem cell

research and regenerative medicine, tissue engineering,

bioprocess engineering, and food science and product

development.43 Australia also boasts one of the largest

regenerative medicine research facilities in the world,

the Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute at Monash

University in Melbourne.44

Australia is home to at least 32 research centres that

produce work directly relevant to R&D for plant-based

meat alternatives, including in plant genetics and

molecular biology, crop science and production, and

food science and product development.45 Australia

also houses 15 Rural Research and Development

Corporations (RDCs) – government supported bodies

that fund research for rural industries. These partnerships

provided A$750 million for agricultural R&D in 2017-18.46

Australia’s wealth of relevant research capabilities offers

a conducive environment for businesses to pursue

original R&D in alternative proteins.

Agriculture

With global food demand expected

to soar in the coming decades,18

alternative proteins represent a

complementary upstream value add

to Australia’s current A$58 billion

agriculture sector.19 Plant-based meats produced in

Australia with Australian-grown inputs provide a new

market for Australian farmers, generating additional

value in an agricultural supply chain already

supporting 1.6 million Australian jobs.20

Agricultural businesses occupy 51 percent of

Australia’s landmass, with agriculture utilising 393

million hectares of land, of which 87 percent is used

for grazing.21 Crop production is a A$33.6 billion

industry, accounting for 54.5 percent of Australia’s

total value of agricultural output,22 with crops

including grains, nuts, fruits, vegetables and legumes

offering a reliable supply of primary inputs.23

Current plant-based meat products are largely

comprised of protein from pulses and grains,

presenting a new supply opportunity for farmers.

Australia grows over 2 million tonnes of pulses,

averaging just under 10 percent of the country’s crop

area.24 Chickpeas total 31.7 percent, followed by

lupins, field peas and others including faba beans,

lentils, mung beans and navy beans.25 Australia also

produces 50 million tonnes of coarse grain, rice

and wheat crops annually, with wheat accounting

for 64 percent, followed by barley, oats, sorghum

and others.26 Vegetables totalled 3.5 million tonnes,

worth A$4.29 billion for the year ending June 2017.27

All commercially grown crops are non-genetically

modified, and certified organic varieties are

available.28,29,30 Strict pest and disease controls, and a

wide climatic range ensures that a reliable source of

fresh, quality products are accessible year-round.

Growing greater volumes of nitrogen-fixing crops

such a pulses has the dual benefit of supporting

the long-term health and productive capacity of

Australia’s soil and water resources,31 as well as

the profitability and stability of its rural economy.

Alternative proteins can form part of the new

narrative of Australian food production, providing

opportunities for farmers through demand for new

crop varieties and primary inputs, and opportunities

for rural communities across the supply chain.

38Prospects For Australia

Policy & Regulation

Government funding

With the decline of major economic

sectors such as mining47 and

automotive manufacturing,48 the

Australian Government has focused on rebalancing

the economy, investing in technology and innovation-

led sectors, and galvanising long-standing pillars of

the Australian economy such as agriculture.49

The Australian Government could encourage

local innovation in alternative protein R&D and

production by allocating greater tax and funding

incentives to these fields. This would entice local

and international innovators to leverage Australia’s

expertise and infrastructure to pursue their business

efforts in-country.

Nomenclature

It is crucial that Australia’s labelling regulations

support consumers to understand new alternative

protein products, and to navigate supermarket

shelves with ease.

Producers of plant-based meat alternatives generally

use common, familiar terms, such as ‘sausages’,

together with qualifiers such as ‘plant-based’, so

consumers can easily understand the utility of new

products while making their plant-based composition

clear. Some industry incumbents, are advocating

to ban or restrict terminology traditionally used

to describe conventional meat and conventional

dairy products,50,51 citing concerns about consumer

confusion between conventional animal products

and their plant-based counterparts. Regulators must

consider whether restricting well-understood terms in

Australia could have unintended consequences, such

as manufacturers being forced to concoct unknown,

contrived terminology that consumers might struggle

to interpret.

Restrictive labelling may have the additional

unintended consequence of deterring international

plant-based meat manufacturers from establishing

production and export operations in Australia.

Restricting the product terminology these brands

already successfully use across the world would

only serve to diminish Australia’s natural competitive

advantages over other markets.

Cell-based meat regulation

Australia’s labelling debate reflects a broader need for

proactive regulatory policy as it relates to cell-based meat.

With leading international meat companies such as Cargill

and Tyson Foods investing in cell-based meat technology,

the question is when – not if – cell-based meat will be

commercialised and available for purchase alongside

conventional meat. When that time comes, Australia will

require a robust and appropriate regulatory framework that

is evidence-based and provides clarity for consumers.

EXPORTS

Australia has a well-deserved

reputation for quality and safety,

supplying some of the world’s best

food and beverages. Local and

international food producers have the opportunity to

leverage this reputation to export alternative proteins.

Food safety and security is a high priority in major

Australian export markets such as China, which

recently grew to Australia’s second largest trading

partner in the food and grocery sector. Chinese

consumers are increasingly demanding “fresher foods

of higher quality with a stronger safety record”52 –

foods that Australia continues to supply.

As the country’s number one food and grocery

export,53 the Australian conventional meat industry

could leverage its production expertise and

distribution channels to fast-track the growth of

Australian-made alternative proteins into export

markets, similar to Tyson Foods’ investment in

alternative proteins.54

Countries across the Asia Pacific continue to

demonstrate a strong appetite for plant-based products,

with new vegetarian and vegan product launches in

South East Asia between 2012 and 2016 increasing

by 140 percent and 440 percent respectively.55 The

combination of positive consumer sentiment towards

Australian products, lack of existing alternative protein

exports, growing demand for healthier, sustainable

options in Asian markets and increased investment in

new protein options, presents an immediate export

opportunity for Australian-made alternative proteins

as an extension of the meat category.

Meat Re-Imagined

CONCLUSION

Intensive animal agriculture was enabled by technological innovation, and now technological innovation is responding to market demands by rapidly providing alternatives to conventional, resource-intensive models of production.

For the first time, the conventional protein market is facing disruption. Global protein

demand is rising due to both population growth and increases in per capita consumption.

This demand is placing enormous stress on our food production system – a system that

is approaching its feasible limits – by creating significant environmental, public health and

food security challenges. A compounding list of interrelated economic, environmental,

social and demographic factors, as well as nutrition-driven preference shifts, are pushing

the industry to innovate.1

Given the challenges posed by conventional animal agriculture, slow incremental

change is insufficient to meet global protein demand within sustainable planetary limits.

Recognising the need for rapid change, the emerging alternative protein industry is taking

a fundamentally different approach to meeting humanity’s growing demand for protein. By

recreating meat from the molecule up, these innovators are focussed on building a protein

market that prizes both sustainability and efficiency.

Promising, emerging proteins still face a number of major challenges as they attempt to

scale. To reach their full potential, industry and government will need to support these

nascent technologies. Governments have a crucial role to play in pursuing progressive,

enabling regulation that supports evidence-based positions, free from influence by vested

economic interests. Public and private institutions will need to be incentivised to build

ecosystems that encourage investment while fostering innovation and competition.

The challenge of meeting the protein needs of a mid-century population of 10 billion people in an inclusive, sustainable, healthy and nutritious manner is enormous, but achievable. What is clear is that this will not happen on our current, business-as-usual trajectory. Significant transformation of the protein system is essential to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals and to meet the Paris Agreement climate change targets.” 2– World Economic Forum

40Conclusion

Cell-based meat must still overcome significant engineering hurdles to scale

production, become cost competitive with conventional meat, and achieve

widespread consumer acceptance. Increasing investment and cross-industry

collaboration are speeding the pace of innovation as cell-based meat companies

commercialise, however, governments and institutions also have an important

role to play in overcoming these hurdles. Australia’s research and development

capacities in the crucial areas of stem cell research and regenerative medicine,

tissue engineering, bioprocess engineering, food science and product development

could contribute significantly to advances in cell-based meat technology and

solidify Australia’s position as a global player.

Plant-based meat alternatives are becoming increasingly mainstream and widely

available, but remain just a fraction of the overall protein market. Consumer demand

is outpacing supply, necessitating increased investment levels to enable product

innovation and to facilitate increased production capacity. Opportunities exist for the

exploration and categorisation of new proteins as ingredients, and improvements in

processing technology to achieve scale.

Although rapid industry growth and its effect on all sectors of the supply chain –

from farmers to manufacturers, distributors, and retailers – has yet to be quantified,

it is clear that vast opportunities remain to satisfy latent consumer demand for

alternative proteins. As the market matures, it will be important to maintain a clear

perspective on which of the emerging technologies has the greatest potential.

Further research and increased investment in plant-based, cell-based and hybrid

products is required to fully explore the opportunities these alternatives offer, and

to identify the sector’s socio-economic impacts on the Australian economy.

Australia can capitalise on its strengths in agriculture and science through the

exploration of novel crops, new revenue streams and collaborative business

models. Primary inputs from Australian farmers can supply Australian manufacturers

developing products in the emerging alternative proteins industry, thus growing

the national food value-chain and providing further opportunities for export.

Government supported, industry-led initiatives to explore ways for Australian

producers to capitalise on this opportunity would be both advisable and timely.

The alternative protein sector has arrived, bringing with it the potential for humans

to create a healthier, more sustainable food future. The opportunity to provide

economic, health and sustainability benefits is compelling; global demand for

alternative proteins has been demonstrated, and its steep growth trajectory is is

expected to continue. Government and business in Australia have a window of

opportunity to become a first mover in the Asia Pacific by playing a leading role

in advancing the growth of the alternative protein sector. To position itself as a

regional leader, Australia must act quickly.

Authors

Sam Lawrence (Lead Author)

Managing Director, Food Frontier

Thomas King

CEO, Food Frontier

Dr Lucy Fish

Research Fellow, Food Frontier

Jessica Baird Walsh

Emily Byrd

Research Support

Johann Lipman

Keyur Doolabh

Austin Jacob

Liam Morgan

Brian Mendis

Graphic Design

Tim Allan

Made Visual

Mark Harley

Athlete

Images

iStock

Shutterstock

Memphis Meats (incl. cover image)

Impossible Foods (incl. cover image)

Marie Gibbons (incl. cover image)

Special thanks to:

The Lord Mayor’s Charitable

Foundation

The Good Food Institute

Chris Bryant

Meat Re-Imagined

Introduction

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endnotes

42Endnotes

PLANT-BASED MEAT ALTERNATIVES

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44Endnotes

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75. Vegie Delights. Products: Vegie Sausages [Internet]. NSW: Life Health Foods Pty Ltd; 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 18]. Available from: http://www.vegiedelights.com.au/products/vegie-sausages/

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81. Michail N. Plant meat matters: Unilever, Givaudan and Ingredion invest in vegetarian steak [Internet]. UK: FoodNavigator; 2017 Mar 13 [cited 2019 Feb 20]. Available from: https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2017/03/13/Plant-Meat-Matters-Unilever-Givaudan-and-Ingredion-invest-in-vegetarian-steak

82. Michail N. Plant-based meat that matches steak for texture: ‘The technology is unique in the world’ [Internet]. UK: FoodNavigator; 2015 Nov 29 [cited 2019 Feb 20]. Available from: https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2015/10/28/Plant-based-meat-that-matches-steak-for-texture-The-technology-is-unique-in-the-world

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85. Poinski M. Hampton Creek obtains patent for unique plant protein scanning process [Internet]. Washington DC: Food Dive; 2017 Sep 13 [cited 2019 Feb 20]. Available from: https://www.fooddive.com/news/hampton-creek-obtains-patent-for-unique-plant-protein-scanning-process/504804/

86. Hagan T. The ‘future of food’ The Globe and Mail (Canada) [Internet]. 2017 Dec 31 (updated 2018 Jan 1) [cited 2019 Feb 20]. Available from: https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/james-cameron-among-investors-hoping-the-humble-pea-will-become-the-food-of-thefuture/article37467585/

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89. Hayes T. Why we are investing in alternative proteins [Internet]. Arkansas: Tyson Foods; 2018 Jan 29 [cited 2019 Feb 20]. Available from: https://www.tysonfoods.com/the-feed-blog/why-we-are-investing-alternative-proteins

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1. Webb, S. The year in science: Technology [Internet]. Wisconsin: Discover Magazine; 2006 Jan 8 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: http://discovermagazine.com/2006/jan/technology

2. Benjaminson MA, Gilchriest JA. In vitro edible muscle protein production system (MPPS): stage 1, fish. Acta Astronaut [Internet]. 2002 Dec [cited 2019 Feb 19];12:879-89. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12416526

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5. Shapiro P. Clean meat. New York: Gallery Books; 2018. p. 127.

6. Carman T. Can we save the prize bluefin tuna, and its habitat, by growing it in a lab? Washington Post [Internet]. 2018 Nov 13 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/can-scientists-build-a-blueprint-for-bluefin-tuna/2018/11/12/b39adc00-db91-11e8-85df-7a6b4d25cfbb_story.html?noredirect=on

7. Brodwin E. The startup behind the first lab-grown pork links let us see how their sausage gets made [Internet]. Sydney: Business Insider Australia; 2018 Nov 8 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from; https://www.businessinsider.com.au/taste-test-lab-grown-meat-sausage-cost-2018-11?r=US&IR=T

8. Peters A. The meat growing in this San Francisco lab will soon be available at restaurants [Internet]. New York: Fast Company; 2018 Dec 11 [cited 2019 Feb 19] Available from: https://www.fastcompany.com/90278853/the-meat-growing-in-this-san-francisco-lab-will-soon-be-available-at-restaurants

9. McCarthy M. Food from a lab or a plant: Is the future of meat fake and slaughter-free? [Internet]. Sydney: ABC News; 2018 May [cited 2018 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-05-06/vegan-alternative-plant-based-meat-grown-in-lab/9726436

10. Michail N. Mosa Meat CEO on clean meat, competition and disrupting a $1 trillion market [Internet]. UK: FoodNavigator; 2018 Jan 16 [cited 2019 Feb 21]. Available from: https://www.foodnavigator.com/Article/2018/01/16/Mosa-Meat-CEO-on-clean-meat-competition-and-disrupting-a-1-trillion-market

11. Shapiro P. Clean meat. New York: Gallery Books; 2018. p. 127.

12. Shapiro P. Clean meat. New York: Gallery Books; 2018. p. 127.

13. Shapiro P. Clean meat. New York: Gallery Books; 2018. p. 127.

14. McCarthy M. Food from a lab or a plant: Is the future of meat fake and slaughter-free? [Internet]. Sydney: ABC News; 2018 May [cited 2018 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-05-06/vegan-alternative-plant-based-meat-grown-in-lab/9726436

15. Peters A. Lab-grown meat is getting cheap enough for anyone to buy. [Internet]. New York: Fast Company; 2018 May 2 [cited 2018 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.fastcompany.com/40565582/lab-grown-meat-is-getting-cheap-enough-for-anyone-to-buy

16. Brodwin E. The startup behind the first lab-grown pork links let us see how their sausage gets made. [Internet]. Sydney: Business Insider Australia; 2018 Nov 8 [cited 2019 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.businessinsider.com.au/taste-test-lab-grown-meat-sausage-cost-2018-11?r=US&IR=T

17. Peters A. Lab-grown meat is getting cheap enough for anyone to buy. [Internet]. New York: Fast Company; 2018 May 2 [cited 2018 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.fastcompany.com/40565582/lab-grown-meat-is-getting-cheap-enough-for-anyone-to-buy

18. Peters A. Lab-grown meat is getting cheap enough for anyone to buy. [Internet]. New York: Fast Company; 2018 May 2 [cited 2018 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.fastcompany.com/40565582/lab-grown-meat-is-getting-cheap-enough-for-anyone-to-buy

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20. Brodwin E. The startup behind the first lab-grown pork links let us see how their sausage gets made. [Internet]. Sydney: Business Insider Australia; 2018 Nov 8 [cited 2019 Feb 14]. Available from: https://www.businessinsider.com.au/taste-test-lab-grown-meat-sausage-cost-2018-11?r=US&IR=T

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23. Memphis Meats [Internet]. San Francisco: Crunchbase; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/memphis-meats#section-twitter

46Endnotes

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26. Siegner, C. Merck’s venture capital arm invests $8.8M in Mosa Meats [Internet]. Washington, D.C.: Food Dive; 2018 July 17 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.fooddive.com/news/mercks-venture-capital-arm-invests-88m-in-mosa-meat/527885/

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38. Watson E. Dutch cell-based meat startup Meatable emerges from stealth mode: ‘We think we have a big advantage over the other players’ [Internet]. US: FoodNavigator-USA; 2018 Sept 28 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2018/09/28/Meatable-emerges-from-stealth-mode-in-cultured-meat-clean-meat-arena

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Meat Re-Imagined

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HYBRIDS

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77. Brown P. Heme & health: The essentials [Internet]. Medium; 2018 Mar 2 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://medium.com/impossible-foods/heme-health-the-essentials-95201e5afffa

78. Rowland MP. this futuristic startup could disrupt the dairy industry. Forbes (NY) [Internet]. 2018 Feb 27 [cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelpellmanrowland/2018/02/27/perfectday-disrupts-dairy/#7b7a3fcb5f61

79. Perfect Day Foods [Internet]. San Francisco: Crunchbase; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 19]. Available from: https://www.crunchbase.com/organization/muufri

48Endnotes

Prospects for Australia

1. Roy Morgan (AU). The slow but steady rise of vegetarianism in Australia [Internet]. Melbourne: Roy Morgan; 2016 Aug 15 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: http://www.roymorgan.com/findings/vegetarianisms-slow-but-steady-rise-in-australia-201608151105

2. Mintel Group (UK). The move away from meat infiltrates Asia Pacific: 39% of Indonesians consumed more non-animal sources of protein in 2017 [Internet]. London: Mintel Group; 2018 Apr 18 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: http://www.mintel.com/press-centre/food-and-drink/the-move-away-from-meat-infiltrates-asia-pacific

3. Euromonitor International (UK). Plant-based protein: Assessing demand for sustainable alternatives [Internet]. London: Euromonitor International; 2017 Mar [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.euromonitor.com/plant-based-protein-assessing-demand-for-sustainable-alternatives/report

4. Goodwin S. Let’s not mince words, it’s everything but real beef [Internet]. Sydney: Farm Online National; 2018 June 30 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.farmonline.com.au/story/5497586/lets-not-mince-words-its-everything-but-real-beef/

5. Lam LT. The plant-based revolution is here: Meat-free dining goes mainstream [Internet]. Sydney: Good Food; 2018 Apr 17 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.goodfood.com.au/eat-out/news/the-plant-based-revolution-is-here-meat-free-dining-goes-mainstream-20180411-h0ymgb

6. Plant-based market overview [Internet]. Washington DC: The Good Food Institute; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.gfi.org/marketresearch

7. Sethi S, Tyagi SK, Anurag RK. Plant-based milk alternatives an emerging segment of functional beverages: a review. J Food Sci Technol [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2019 Feb 22];53(9):3408-3423. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5069255/ doi: 10.1007/s13197-016-2328-3

8. Gilfillan G. Small business sector contribution to the Australian economy [Internet]. Canberra: Parliament of Australia; 2018 Oct 15 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1819/SmallBusinessSector

9. Tang E. Australia’s two-way trade with the world was up 11% to $763 billion in 2017 [Internet]. Australian Government, Australian Trade and Investment Commission; 2018 July 23 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://www.austrade.gov.au/news/economic-analysis/australias-two-way-trade-with-the-world-was-up-11-to-763-billion-in-2017

10. Australian Trade Commission (Austrade). Processed Food [Internet] Sydney: Australian Government: Austrade; 2013 Oct [cited 2019 Feb 25]. p. 8. Available from: https://www.austrade.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/2814/Processed-Food-ICR.pdf.aspx

11. Australian Trade Commission (Austrade). Processed Food [Internet] Sydney: Australian Government: Austrade; 2013 Oct [cited 2019 Feb 25]. p. 6. Available from: https://www.austrade.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/2814/Processed-Food-ICR.pdf.aspx

12. Australian Trade Commission (Austrade). Processed Food [Internet] Sydney: Australian Government: Austrade; 2013 Oct [cited 2019 Feb 25]. p. 8. Available from: https://www.austrade.gov.au/ArticleDocuments/2814/Processed-Food-ICR.pdf.aspx

13. Garnett T, Wilkes A. Appetite for change: Social, economic and environmental transformations in China’s food system [Internet]. Oxford: Food Climate Research Network; 2014 Feb [cited 2019 Feb 26]. Available from: https://www.fcrn.org.uk/sites/default/files/fcrn_china_mapping_study_final_pdf_2014.pdf

14. Bitsx Bites. The growing appetite for meat alternatives in China [Internet]. San Francisco: AgFunderNews; 2018 Jan 29 [cited 2019 Feb 26]. Available from: https://agfundernews.com/meat-alternatives-china.html

15. Springboard: Shaping the Future of Food [Internet]. San Francisco: Springboard; 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.springboardbrands.com/

16. Meat companies investing in plant-based options praised [Internet]. Auckland: Newstalk ZB; 2018 Oct 30 [cited 2019 Feb 27]. Available from: https://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/news/national/meat-companies-investing-in-plant-based-options-praised/

17. Taunton E. Kiwi firm launches ‘no meat mince’ [Internet]. Wellington: Stuff; 2018 Oct 30 [cited 2019 Feb 27]. Available from: https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/farming/108218892/kiwi-firm-launches-no-meat-mince

18. Valin H, Sands RD, Van Der Mensbrugghe D, Nelson GC, Ahammad H, Blanc E, et al. The future of food demand: Understanding differences in global economic models. Agric Econ [Internet]. 2013 [cited 2019 Feb 25];45(1):51-67. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/agec.12089

19. Howden M, Zammit K. Agriculture overview: December quarter 2018 [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, ABARES; 2018 Dec 11 [cited 2019 Feb 25] Available from: http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/research-topics/agricultural-commodities/dec-2018/agriculture-overview

20. Econtech (AU). Australia’s farm dependent economy - Analysis of the role of agriculture in the Australian economy. Sydney: Australian Farm Institute; 2005 Mar.

21. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Land management and farming in Australia, 2016–2017 [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2018 June 26 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. ABS Cat. No.: 4627.0. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/PrimaryMainFeatures/4627.0

22. ABARES (AU). Agricultural commodity statistics 2018: Australian economy: Farm sector [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, ABARES. ABARES 2019 Feb 19 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.agriculture.gov.au/abares/research-topics/agricultural-commodities/agricultural-commodities-trade-data#2018

23. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Agricultural commodities, Australia, 2016-17 [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2018 May 21 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. ABS Cat. No.: 7121.0. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/7121.0

24. Australian pulse industry [Internet]. Sydney: Pulse Australia; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.pulseaus.com.au/about/australian-pulse-industry

25. ABARES (AU). Agricultural commodities: September quarter 2017 [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Government: Department of Agriculture and Water Resources, ABARES; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Table 13, p. 106. Available from: http://data.daff.gov.au/data/warehouse/agcomd9abcc004/agcomd9abcc20170919_7AmMy/AgCommodities201709_v1.0.1.pdf

11. Kim H, Setyabrata D, Lee Y, Jones OG, Kim YHB. Effect of house cricket (Acheta domesticus) flour addition on physicochemical and textural properties of meat emulsion under various formulations. J Food Sci [Internet]. 2017 Nov 2 [cited 2019 Feb 19];82(12):2787–2793. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29095501 doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.13960

12. Megido RC, Gierts C, Blecker C, Brostaux Y, Haubruge É, Alabi T, et al. Consumer acceptance of insect-based alternative meat products in Western countries. Food Qual Pref [Internet]. 2016 Sep [cited 2019 Feb 25]52:237-43. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095032931630091X doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.05.004

13. House J. Consumer acceptance of insect-based foods in the Netherlands: Academic and commercial implications. Appetite [Internet]. 2016 Dec 1 [cited 2019 Feb 27];107:47-58. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27444958 doi:10.1016/j.appet.2016.07.023.

14. Megido RC, Gierts C, Blecker C, Brostaux Y, Haubruge É, Alabi T, Francis F. Consumer acceptance of insect-based alternative meat products in Western countries. Food Qual Prefer [Internet]. 2016 Sep 1 [cited 2019 Feb 27];52:237-43. Available from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S095032931630091X doi: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.05.004

15. Tousignant L. Bug ‘burgers’ are hitting supermarket shelves. New York Post [Internet]. 2017 Aug 16 [cited 2019 Feb 21]. Available from: https://nypost.com/2017/08/16/bug-burgers-are-hitting-supermarket-shelves/

16. Edible Bug Shop: Nutritious & Full of Protein [Internet]. Sydney: Edible Bug Shop; 2019 [cited 2019 Feb 27]. Available from: https://ediblebugshop.com.au/

Meat Re-Imagined

26. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Agricultural commodities, Australia, 2016-17: Broadacre crops [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2018 May 21 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. ABS Cat. No.: 7121.0. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/7121.0

27. Hort Innovation (AU). Australian horticulture statistics handbook 2016/2017 [Internet]. Sydney: Horticulture Innovation Australia; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 24]. p. 232. Available from: https://www.horticulture.com.au/growers/help-your-business-grow/research-reports-publications-fact-sheets-and-more/australian-horticulture-statistics-handbook-2016-17/.

28. ABCA (AU). The official Australian reference guide to agricultural biotechnology and GM crops (2nd Ed). Agricultural Biotechnology Council of Australia Limited; 2015 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.abca.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/The-Official-Australian-Reference-Guide-to-Agricultural-Biotechnology-and-GM-Crops_2nd-edition.pdf

29. Australian Organic: Market report. Australian Organic; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://austorganic.com/ao-market-report/

30. ABCA (AU). The official Australian reference guide to agricultural biotechnology and GM crops (2nd Ed). Agricultural Biotechnology Council of Australia Limited; 2015 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.abca.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/The-Official-Australian-Reference-Guide-to-Agricultural-Biotechnology-and-GM-Crops_2nd-edition.pdf

31. Izlar R. Keeping a pulse on the soil [Internet]. Washington DC: Soil Science Society of America; 2016 May 4 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://www.soils.org/discover-soils/story/keeping-pulse-soil

32. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Gross expenditure on R&D (GERD) [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2017 Sep 15 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/8104.0Main%20Features22015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=8104.0&issue=2015-16&num=&view=

33. The 2016 Scientific American Worldview overall scores [Internet]. New York: Scientific American: Worldview; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: www.saworldview.com/scorecard/the-2016-scientific american-worldview-overall-scores/

34. Australia population [Internet]. New York: Trading Economics; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://tradingeconomics.com/australia/population

35. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Business resources devoted to research and experimental development (R&D) [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. ABS Cat. No.: 8104.0. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/8104.0

36. Chaustowski R, Dolman S. Australia’s food and agribusiness sector - Data profile [Internet]. Canberra: Department of Industry and Science; 2016 April [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://archive.industry.gov.au/industry/IndustrySectors/FoodManufacturingIndustry/Pages/default.aspx

37. Australian Government: Department of Industry, Innovation and Science. Science, research and innovation budget tables snapshot 2017-2018 [Internet]. Canberra: DIIS; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. p. 7. Available from: https://archive.industry.gov.au/innovation/reportsandstudies/Pages/SRIBudget.aspx

38. Australian Government: Department of Industry, Innovation and Science. (DIIS). Budget 2018–2019 [Internet]. Canberra: DIIS; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. p. 7. Available from: https://www.industry.gov.au/sites/default/files/2018-19-department-of-industry-innovation-and-science-pbs.pdf

39. Australia’s Education System [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Government: Australian Trade and Investment Commission; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.studyinaustralia.gov.au/english/australian-education/universities-and-higher-education

40. QS World University Rankings 2018 [Internet]. London: QS Top Universities; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2018

41. Best universities in Australia 2019 [Internet]. London: Times Higher Education; 2018 Oct 1 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: www.timeshighereducation.com/student/best-universities/best-universities-australia

42. Karen Sheldon Catering - serving up innovation [Internet]. Canberra: Australian Government: Department of Industry, Innovation and Science; 2016 Sep 9 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.business.gov.au/assistance/entrepreneurs-programme/innovation-connections/customer-stories/customer-story-karen-sheldon-catering

43. Source: developed from unique research by Food Frontier in 2018.

44. History of ARMI [Internet]. Melbourne: Australian Regenerative Medicine Institute; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: www.armi.org.au/about/history-armi

45. Source: developed from unique research by Food Frontier.

46. Impact Assessment & Performance [Internet]. Canberra: Rural R&D Corporations; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: http://www.ruralrdc.com.au/impact-assessment-and-performance/

47. Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). Business resources devoted to research and experimental development (R&D) [Internet]. Canberra: ABS; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. ABS Cat. No.: 8104.0. Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/8104.0

48. Lee M. Automotive industry package: Budget review 2014-2015 [Internet]. Canberra: Parliament of Australia; [n.d., cited 2019 Feb 25]. Available from: https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/BudgetReview201415/Automotive

49. National Farmers’ Federation (AU). Food, fibre & forestry facts: A summary of Australia’s agricultural sector [Internet]. Canberra: National Farmers Federation; 2017 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. p. 6. Available from: https://www.nff.org.au/read/5825/updated-food-fibre-forestry-facts.html

50. National Farmers’ Federation (AU). 2030 Roadmap: Australian agriculture’s plan for a $100 Billion industry [Internet]. Canberra: National Farmers’ Federation; 2018 Oct 17 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. 9 p. Available from: https://www.nff.org.au/read/6187/nff-releases-2030-roadmap-guide-industry.html

51. Arthur P. McKenzie moves on ‘fake’ foods [Internet]. Sydney: The Land; 2018 Oct 16 [cited 2019 Feb 22]. Available from: https://www.theland.com.au/story/5706138/mckenzie-moves-on-fake-foods/

52. State of the industry 2018: Resilience through challenge [Internet]. Australia: Australian Food and Grocery Council, Ernst & Young; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 23]. Available from: https://www.afgc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/AFGC-State-of-the-Industry-2018_media.pdf

53. State of the industry 2018: Resilience through challenge [Internet]. Australia: Australian Food and Grocery Council, Ernst & Young; 2018 [cited 2019 Feb 23]. Available from: https://www.afgc.org.au/wp-content/uploads/AFGC-State-of-the-Industry-2018_media.pdf

54. Settembre J. America’s biggest meat producer wants to take a bite out of the vegetarian market [Internet]. San Francisco: MarketWatch; 2019 Feb 18 [cited 2019 Feb 27]. Available from: https://www.marketwatch.com/story/americas-biggest-meat-producer-will-soon-offer-vegan-protein-2019-02-14

55. Farm Animal Investment Risk & Return (FAIRR) (UK). Plant-based profits: Investment risks & opportunities in sustainable food systems [Internet]. London: FAIRR; 2018 Feb [cited 2019 Feb 25]. p. 11. Available from: http://www.fairr.org/resource/plant-based-profits-investment-risks-opportunities-sustainable-food-systems/

Conclusiion

1. Ahmed J, Lorch J, Ong L, Wolfgram J. How the global supply landscape for meat protein will evolve [Internet]. US: McKinsey and Company; 2018 October [cited Feb 21]. Available from: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/agriculture/our-insights/how-the-global-supply-landscape-for-meat-protein-will-evolve

2. Meat: The future series - Alternative proteins [Internet]. Geneva: World Economic Forum; 2019 Jan [cited Feb 21]. Available from: http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_White_Paper_Alternative_Proteins.pdf

50Endnotes

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