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Stony Brook MEC 520 SecondLecture
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04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 1
LECTURE 2MEC 520
AUGUST 31, 2015
Infrared Radiation
and
Thermography
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 2
All bodies give out infrared (IR) radiationThe infrared energy is dependent on the absolute
surface temperatureThe infrared energy is dependent on the surface
emissivity
PRINCIPLES OF THERMOGRAPHY
T(K)
Infrared Radiation (EM Waves)
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 3
WHAT IS THERMOGRAPHY?
Thermography is the science of acquisition and analysis of thermal information from objects using non-contact thermal imaging devices.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 4
Non-contact infrared imagers provide fast, safe, accurate measurements for objects that are: Moving or very hot Difficult to reach Impossible to shut-off Dangerous to contact Where contact would
damage, contaminate or
change temperature
WHY IS THERMOGRAPHY IMPORTANT?
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 5
Heat Amount of heat energy in an object is the total kinetic
energy of the molecules that compose it Joule, watt-hr, etc.
Temperature A measure of the average speed of the molecules and
atoms that make up the object Kelvin (°K), Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F),
Defines the state of an object, relative to other object Its value depends on energy level of a body Indicates the direction of heat flow
BASICS
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Conservation of energy Sum of all energy in a closed system is constant (1st
Law of thermodynamics)
Direction of heat flow Heat flows from a hotter object to a colder one by
transferring energy from one body to another If there is a temperature difference, there will be heat
flow (2nd law of thermodynamics) Temperature defines the existence of heat
PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER
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RADIATIVE HEAT TRASNFER
Radiative heat transfer is the transfer of heat from one body to another by the emission and absorption of radiation
What is thermal radiation?
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Thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation
It will easily pass through most gases, but will pass with difficulty or will be blocked by most liquids and solids
Objects emit thermal radiation as a consequence of their absolute temperature
All objects above 0°K emit thermal radiation. The higher the temperature, the more thermal
radiation will be emitted.
THERMAL RADIATION
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 9
The colors humans can see
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
c = f * lf = c / l
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 10
All matter (gases, planets, etc.) emit some amount of electromagnetic radiation across a range of energies (or wavelengths).
Infrared ranges from .7µm to 14 µmBroken into near, mid, and far infrared
Near IR: – 0.75–1.4 µm (e.g. fiber optics, night vision) Mid-wavelength infrared IR: 3-8 µm (e.g. Missile
homing) Long-wavelength IR: – 8-15 µm (e.g. thermal imaging) Far IR: 15–1000 µm
IR CLASSIFICATION
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 11
Emission is the radiation that is given off by the body
Absorption is radiation that is taken in by the body
Reflection is reflected radiation from another source
Transmission is radiation that has passed through the body
TOTAL RADIATION
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Incident radiation is all the radiation that strikes an object from its surroundings.
INCIDENT RADIATION
Absorption
Source
ReflectionTransmissionTarget
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Exitant radiation is all the radiation that leaves an object regardless of the source.
EXITANT RADIATION
Absorption
Source
Reflection
TransmissionTarget
Source
Transmission
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Of all the total exitant radiation from a target, a certain portion will be Emitted from the target itself Reflected from a source in front of the object Transmitted from a source behind the object
Total radiation energy is a combination of Emitted, e Reflected, r Transmitted, t
e + r + t = 1
EXITANT RADIATION
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An infrared camera detects the electromagnetic radiation at a certain wavelength, E( )l
But we want to measure the temperature?
RADIATED ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
T(K)
E(l)
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 16
BACKGROUND
How much radiation will be emitted from a source as a function of temperature
and wavelength ?
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 17
HISTORY
In the late 1890’s, Wien and Rayleigh had attempted to formulate an equation expressing the intensity of electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength and the temperature of the source.
In 1900, Planck derived the correct relationship from fundamental principles.
Max Planck1858 - 1947
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 18
A black body is an object that absorbs all incident radiation, i.e. has no reflection
BLACKBODY
A small hole cut into a cavity is the most popular and realistic example.
None of the incident radiation escapes
What happens to this radiation?
• Black-bodies do not "reflect" any incident radiation• They may re-radiate, but the emission is its only characteristic• The emission from a black-body depends only on its temperature• The emitted "thermal" radiation characterizes the equilibrium
temperature of the black-body
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Black bodies are used to calibrate thermal imaging equipment as it cancels the emitted and reflected radiations.
In reality transmitted radiation can be negated as most objects are considered “opaque”
Therefore the only problem is splitting the emitted radiation from that of the reflected radiation.
A black-body reaches thermal equilibrium when the incident radiation power is balanced by the power re-radiated, i.e. if you expose a black-body to radiation, its temperature rises until the incident and radiated powers balance.
BLACKBODY
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RAYLEIGH-JEANS LAW
The intensity emitted from the blackbody is proportional to the temperature divided by the fourth power of the wavelength.
c is the speed of light, kB is the Boltzmann constant and T is the temperature in kelvin
I( , l T) = 2pckBT l-4 It agrees with experimental
measurements for long wavelengths.
It predicts an energy output that diverges towards infinity as wavelengths grow smaller, known as the ultraviolet catastrophe
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 21
PLANCK'S LAW
Intensity of Radiation vs. Wavelength
Also [exp(hc/lkBT)] goes to infinity faster than (l5), i.e. I(l) 0 as l 0.
From a fit between Planck's law and experimental data, one obtains Planck's constant to be:
h = 6.626 × 10-34 J.s
Note also: for very large :l 4exp / 1B BB
hchc k T u k T
k T
1
12)(
/5
2
kThce
hcI
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 22
SUN’S INTENSITY CURVE
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BLACKBODY SPECTRUM
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WIEN’S LAW
Wien’s law states that the dominant wavelength at which a blackbody emits electromagnetic radiation is inversely proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the object
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WIEN’S LAW
Wien’s law allows us to calculate the temperature of an object if we know the wavelength of its maximum emission.
Example: lmax for the Sun = 502 nm
Therefore, T = 5770K = 5500C.
lmaxT = 2.8979 106 nmK.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 26
STEFAN BOLTZNANN LAW
The Stefan-Boltzmann law states that a blackbody radiates electromagnetic waves with a total energy flux E directly proportional to the fourth power of the Kelvin temperature T of the object
EBB = T4
s is called the Stefan-Boltzman constant (5.6705 × 10-8 Wm-
2K-4) and T is the temperature in kelvins
The law can be derived from Plank’s Law by considering a small flat black body surface radiating out into a half-sphere.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 27
EMISSIVITY DEFINED
Emissivity is the ratio of radiation emitted by a real body compared to the
radiation emitted by a black body at the same temperature and same
wavelength
e = ERB/EBB
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REAL BODY
A real body
ERB = esT4
ERB = Radiated energy from a real body
T = Temp (K) = e emissivitys = 5.6705 × 10-8 Wm-2K-4
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 29
EMISSIVITY
Emissivity that describes the efficiency with which an object radiates or emits heat and has value from 0-1.0
Thermal and electrical insulators are excellent emitters and its measurement is not a problem
Woods, rubber , plastic, paper, concrete, building materials, etc.
Metals are poor emitters unless heavily oxidized and its measurement is delicate
Copper, steel, brass, zinc, aluminum, lead, etc.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 30
Thermal devices Utilize temperature dependent material property such as the electrical conductivity
or thermal expansion.
they have a broad flat spectral response compared to photon devices.
lower thermal sensitivity and a relatively slow response time (~milliseconds)
operated at room temperature thus overcoming the logistic burden of providing cooling
Photonic devices utilize semiconductors whose electrical properties may be altered by photon-
induced transitions that can be monitored as an electrical output signal.
It is necessary that the incident radiation has energy equal to or greater than the energy gap between the bound and mobile states, thus the detector has a long wavelength cut-off determined by the energy gap.
necessary to cool them to improve performance by minimizing the thermal excitation of carriers which is a noise contribution to the output signal.
Examples include photoconductors (monitor the changes in resistivity) and photovoltaic devices (monitor voltage is generated across p-n junction.)
TYPES OF INFRARED DETECTORS
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THE FLUKE CAMERA
Learning to use the Fluke Ti20TM
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 32
X-rays
Ultra-violet
Near Infrared
Short WaveInfrared
MiddleInfrared
Long WaveInfrared
Microwave
Wav
elen
gth
in M
icro
ns
(µm
)
10-4
10-2
0.280.40
0.70
2.00
6.00
8.00
104
15.00
Thermal
The Ti20 is a digital imager that takes long wave infrared thermal pictures in the 7.5 to 14 micron range.
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum.
Infrared radiation, like light and radio waves, is a form of electromagnetic energy.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 33
INFRARED RADIATION
Ti20, and all infrared cameras and thermometers detect infrared radiation.
As an object becomes warmer, they radiate more energy which the camera detects, creating a thermogram.
The Ti20, convert this information into a radiometric temperature measurement which provides 12,288 independent temperature values in each thermal image.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 34
HOW DO WE GET THE PICTURE?
96 Elements
128 Elem
ents
When an image is captured using the Ti20, all of the background data is also saved along with the picture allowing in-depth analysis using InsideIR software.
Each of the 12,288 elements, or pixels, contain an accurate temperature value. The Imager, through the use of a complex set of algorithms, assign specific colors that correspond exactly with the temperature value found at the specific X Y coordinate.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 35
Focus control
Optical channel
Laser aperture
Trigger
USB Port
AC adapter terminal
Display
Soft keys
Battery compartment
Tripod mount (under Imager)
OVERVIEW OF CONTROLS
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 36
LET’S GET STARTED
Press the F2 key to turn the Imager on and off.
Turn the Imager on by pressing and holding the F2 key for approximately 2 seconds until the date and time appear in the upper right-hand corner of the display.
Turn the Imager off by pressing and holding the F2 key for approximately 2 seconds.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 37
QUALITIES OF A GOOD IMAGE
Focus
Brightness
Contrast
Perspective
Composition
Angle of view
A good image should exhibit all of these attributes
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 38
QUALITIES OF A GOOD IR IMAGE
Focus
Thermal level
Thermal span
Thermal range
Perspective
Composition
Palette
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 39
GENERAL MEASUREMENT RULES
Get a good image FIRST. If the image is out of focus, the measurement is WRONG.
By default, most cameras adapt the scale automatically.
Desired target must cover the spot. Do not aim with an angle superior to 45/ 50°. Be
careful that at perpendicular angles, you may be a major source of reflection
Choose a zone of high emissivity to do the measurement
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 40
FOCUS
A well focused image provides clarity and depth not witnessed from an out of focus image.
Focus is the most important step when capturing a quality thermal image and cannot be changed after saving the image.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 41
Adjust focus in either directionFull clockwise = 61cm (24 in)Full counter clockwise = Infinity
Focus where there is thermal contrast (temperature differential)
FOCUS
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 42
662°F
14°F
Span sets the width of window
Level sets the position of the window
Low setting of window
High setting of window
Move window to set thermal level
SPAN
(350°C)
(-10°C)
LEVEL AND SPAN (RANGE)
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F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
Press F1 for LEVEL or F3 for SPAN Adjust levels by pressing either
F1 or F3 and then F2 when done.
F1 F2 F3
SETTING LEVEL AND SPAN
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 44
AUTOMATIC OR MANUAL OPERATION
If you take pictures with a digital camera, you can easily use the Ti20. The Ti20 image
level and span can be set automatically by the Imager or manually adjusted, similar to
adjustments you can make on a digital camera.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 45
AUTOMATIC MODE
In the automatic mode, the Imager determines the level and span based on the temperature of the target.However, in a more sophisticated thermal scene (upper right) the Imager expands the level to include all temperatures that are present.
Hot Ambient Cold
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 46
MANUAL MODE
Cold Water Cup
Ambient Water Cup
By simply setting the LEVEL slightly higher, a readjusted image appears.
To refine a portion of the image, adjust the level or span settings manually.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 47
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F1 F2 F3
The Imager can store up to 50 images. In just a couple of easy steps you can store images for later analysis and adjustment.
Point the imager at the target you want to record, squeeze the trigger once to capture the image.
Inspect the image, if satisfactory, press F1 to store the image. If an image is already stored in the memory location a prompt will ask you to confirm.
Squeeze the trigger or press F1 (yes) to return to live viewing.
STORING IMAGES
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 52
F1 F2 F3
With the imager turned on, press F2 (MENU) until MEMORY is over the F1 key.
Press F1 twice to review images stored in the Imager.
Press F1 (up arrow) or F3 (down arrow) to cycle through the images.
RETRIEVING IMAGES
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 53
F1 F2 F3
Use the Compare function to ensure that you have captured an image from the correct position and distance from the target.
With the captured image on the display, press F3 (COMPARE).
Press F1 to retrieve the next stored image or F3 to review the previous stored image. NOTE: Stored images appear on the right side of the display.
Press F2 (DONE) to save the captured image. This will overwrite the current image location.
COMPARING IMAGES
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 54
F1 F2 F3
OTHER IMAGER SETTINGS
Step 1:Press F1 to select Emissivity or F3 to select Reflected Temperature Compensation (RTC).
Step 2:Press F1 to increase the setting or F3 to decrease the setting.
An in depth description of emissivity and RTC follows. F1 F2 F3
Step 1 Step 2
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 55
CHANGING PALETTES
RainbowGreat for Reports
IronbowGreat for Routes and easy to focus with
Gray and Reverse GrayEasiest to Focus With
Different palette selections may result in more clarity or definition
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 56
Accuracy depends on many factors, including: Calibration of the camera Emissivity correction Reflected temperature
compensation Distance to object ratio
FACTORS FOR MEASUREMENT ACCURACY
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 57
F1 F2 F3
When the Imager is first turned on, the image freezes briefly and an hourglass icon appears on the display.
The Imager then momentarily shuts down the optical channel to eliminate offset errors and performs a recalibration sequence.
You can manually activate the internal recalibration sequence at any time by pressing the F3 (FLAG) key from the Home display.
FLAG *(INTERNAL CALIBRATION)
* Also known as the non-uniformity correction or NUC
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 58
RADIOMETRIC TEMPERATURES
Reflected
Only emitted radiation relates to the temperature of the object.
Emitted
Not all radiometric temperature measurements are “real”.The Ti20 measures the total radiation coming from a surface, that includes radiation:
Emitted by the objectReflected by the object
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 59
THE REASON? EMISSIVITY…
437°F
410°F82°F
424°F
Coated Surface
Shiny Aluminum
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 60
HOW TO SET EMISSIVITY
Use emissivity tables as guidelines only
F1 F2 F3
Press F1 or F3 to raise or lower the emissivity setting.
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Low-emissivity objects are quite reflective of their thermal surroundings
Many materials are highly reflective to infrared radiation
REFLECTIVITY
REFLECTIVITY
MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics
04/18/2023 65
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 66
REFLECTED TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
Targets that have low emissivities will reflect energy from nearby objects. This additional reflected energy is added to target’s own emitted energy and may result in inaccurate readings.
Reflected Energy
Emitted Energy
Use the RTC function to compensate for reflected temperature from emitted energy
In some situations objects near the target (machines, furnaces, or other heat sources) have a temperature much higher than that of the target.
And in other cases the reflected temperature may be lower than the target such as when a clear sky is reflected.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 67
F1 F2 F3
Press F3 to select the RTC setting and F3 again to adjust the setting, press F2 when done.
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
F1 F2 F3 F1 F2 F3
SETTING RTC
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 68
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CORRECTING MEASUREMENTS
*>48.4°C
*<31.8°C
32.0
34.0
36.0
38.0
40.0
42.0
44.0
46.0
48.0
Accurate measurements require that you adjust the emissivity and reflected temperature compensation values.
Measurements of shiny metal surfaces are not recommended because they will be unreliable.
Whenever possible, make measurements of high-emissivity surfaces, i.e. non-shiny metal, such as paint or electrician’s tape, or on a rough surface. (Avoid touching hot or energized surfaces).
Emissivity tables are useful mainly as guidelines.
Using the correct Reflected Temperature Compensation (RTC) is critical to making accurate radiometric measurements.
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 71
QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE
Qualitative (Most of the images that are taken)
Qualitative inspections utilize thermal differences to locate anomalies.
1. Thermal differences are sufficient to indicate most abnormalities in electrical and mechanical equipment
2. Schedule corrective maintenance activities based on findings
QuantitativePrecise temperature or temperature distribution
measurement
3. Slight variations caused by changes in emissivity, atmospheric conditions and other factors could distort the readings
4. Distortions in the values measured can be caused by spot size of the target object and the environment in the background
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 72
REAL WORLD EXAMPLE
I can see a hot spotBut I can’t measure it!
When I move closer, I can measure it!
Qualitative Quantitative
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 73
RESOLVING DETAIL
Resolution defines the ability of the Ti20 to resolve and measure detail at a given distanceIt is possible to detect objects that are too far away or too small to accurately measure.
Just because you can see it doesn’t mean you can accurately measure its temperature
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 74
WHAT CAN YOU SEE AND MEASURE?
The Ti20 can detect objects at a “distance
to spot size ratio” (D to S) of
approximately 75:1. For example:
At 75” a 1” spot can be detectedAt 75m a 1m spot can be detectedAt 2m a 2.67cm spot can be detected
To measure, we need to be closer or have
the object be larger
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 75
MINIMUM DISTANCE FOR FOCUSING
At the minimum focus distance of 60cm (24”), you can measure a target as small as 7mm (0.27”)
When possible, move as close as you safely can to fill the image with the object of interest
To get a wider field of view step back from the object you are measuring
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WE SEE SURFACE TEMPERATURES ONLY
For the most part, we see surfaces
However, the heat we are interested in knowing about usually originates from the inside
What is the relationship between an internal heating source and the outside surface we are viewing?
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 77
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN TO YOU?
Many problems will actually be hotter than they appear on the surface
Net flow of energy is from warmer to cooler areas
Flow can be: Transient (changing) Steady-state (stable)
Some problems may not be detectable under certain conditions
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ELECTRICAL INSPECTIONS
Typical patterns are:
High resistance connections or contact surfaces
Imbalances and overloads
Many components are normally warm, including:
Normally loaded circuitsContactor coilsTransformersOverload heatersCapacitorsResistors
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 79
Key inspection pointsBearingsCouplingsElectrical connectionsOverall temperature
Poor cooling Internal problems
MOTORS
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 80-1 8 .8 °C
4 8 .2 °C
0
2 0
4 0
L I0 1
TANK LEVELS
Locate fluid, solid, and “floater” levels
Tank sludge clearly identified
04/18/2023 MEC 520 – Energy Technology Thermodynamics 81
11 9 .7 °C
3 0 2 .2 °C
1 5 0
2 0 0
2 5 0
3 0 0
REFRACTORY INSULATION
Look for Hot areas associated
with refractory thinning or failure
Cold areas associated with internal product build-up
STEAM TRAPSWorking traps will have hot and cold sides
Failed-open traps will be hot on both sides
Normal
FaultyMEC 520 – Energy Technology
Thermodynamics04/18/2023 82
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An important part of your total solution
INSIDEIR SOFTWARE
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IMAGE STORAGE AND ROUTE ORGANIZATION
Organize and store all of your images in a Windows™ style format
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IMAGE STORAGE AND ROUTE ORGANIZATION
Change route by simply dragging an image to a new position with your mouse
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IMAGE ANALYSIS AND SHARING
Adjust image properties through software after the image is stored
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IMAGE ANALYSIS AND SHARING
Input location name from your keyboard
Change emissivity and RTC in post processing
Turn on a temperature grid
Insert accurate point measurements or Min/Max/Average area measurements
Insert comments
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IMAGE ANALYSIS AND SHARING
When the grid is displayed, average temperature values are displayed in each box
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IMAGE ANALYSIS AND SHARING
Display accurate point or Min/Max/Average area measurements
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TEMPERATURE TABLES, PROFILES AND HISTOGRAMS
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Logo can be changed from file
Inputs for:Company NameProblem NumberLocation Name and EquipmentProblem DescriptionWeather ConditionsRoute DataMaintenance Action InformationRepair Priority AssignmentReinspection SignoffPre /Post Thermal Image or Pre Thermal /Post Digital Image
THERMOGRAPHIC REPORTING
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THERMOGRAPHIC REPORTING
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