Medes

For the design student programme, see Master of Eu-ropean Design. For Medians, see Median (disambigua-tion).The Medes[N 1] (/miːdz/, Old Persian Māda-, Ancient

The Apadana Palace, northern stairway (detail) – ancient 5th-century BCE bas-relief shows a Mede soldier in traditional Medecostume (behind Persian archer)

Greek: Μῆδοι, Hebrew: (ָמַדי were an ancient Iranianpeople[N 2] who lived in an area known as Media (North-western Iran and south-east Turkey) and who spoke theMedian language. Their arrival to the region is associatedwith the first wave of migrating Iranic Aryan tribes intoAncient Iran from the late 2nd millennium BCE (circa1000 BC) (the Bronze Age collapse) through the begin-ning of the 1st millennium BCE (circa 900 BC).This period of migration coincided with a power vacuumin theNear East, with theMiddleAssyrian Empire (1365-1020 BC) which had dominated north western Iran andeastern Anatolia and the Caucasus going into a compar-ative decline, allowing new peoples to pass through and

settle. In addition, Elam, the dominant power in AncientIran was suffering a period of severe weakness, as wasBabylonia to the west.From the 10th to late 7th centuries BCE, the westernparts of Media fell under the domination of the vastNeo-Assyrian Empire based in northern Mesopotamia,but which stretched from Cyprus to Ancient Iran, andfrom the Caucasus to Egypt and Arabia. Assyriankings such as Tiglath-Pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib,Esarhaddon, Ashurbanipal and Ashur-etil-ilani imposedVassal Treaties upon the Median rulers, and also pro-tected them from predatory raids by marauding Scythianand Cimmerian hordes.[6]

During the reign of Sinsharishkun (622-612 BC) the As-syrian empire, which had been in a state of constant civilwar since 626 BC, began to unravel. Subject peoples,such as the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Egyptians,Scythians, Cimmerians, Lydians and Arameans quietlyceased to pay tribute to Assyria.An alliance with the Medes and rebelling Babylonians,Scythians, Chaldeans, and Cimmerians, helped theMedes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE, which resultedin the eventual collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire by605 BC. The Medes were subsequently able to establishtheir Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal cen-tre) beyond their original homeland and had eventually aterritory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to theHalys River in Anatolia. After the fall of the AssyrianEmpire, between 616 BCE and 605 BCE, a unified Me-dian state was formed, which, together with Babylonia,Lydia, and Egypt, became one of the four major powersof the ancient Near East. The Median kingdom was con-quered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great, who establishedthe Iranian dynasty—the Persian Achaemenid Empire.A few archaeological sites (discovered in the "Median tri-angle" in western Iran) and textual sources (from contem-porary Assyrians and also Greeks in later centuries) pro-vide a brief documentation of the history and culture ofthe Median state. The Medes had almost the same equip-ment as the Persians and indeed the dress common to bothis not so much Persian as Median. Apart from a few per-sonal names, the language of the Medes is almost entirelyunknown. However a number of words from the Medianlanguage are still in use, and there are languages being ge-ographically and comparatively traced to the northwest-ern Iranian language of Median. The Medes had an An-cient Iranian Religion (a form of pre-Zoroastrian Maz-daism or Mithra worshipping) with a priesthood named

1

2 2 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF MEDIA

as "Magi". Later and during the reigns of the last Mediankings, the reforms of Zarathustra spread in western Iran.Besides Ecbatana (modern Hamedan), the other cities ex-isting in Media were Laodicea (modern Nahavand)[7] andthe mound that was the largest city of the Medes, Rhages(also called Rey), on the outskirts of Shahr Rey, southof Tehran. The fourth city of Media was Apamea, nearEcbatana, whose precise location is unknown. In later pe-riods, Medes and especially Mede soldiers are identifiedand portrayed prominently in ancient Persian archaeolog-ical sites such as Persepolis, where they are shown to havea major role and presence in the military of the PersianEmpire's Achaemenid dynasty.According to the Histories of Herodotus, there were sixMedian tribes:[8]

Thus Deioces collected the Medes into anation, and ruled over them alone. Now theseare the tribes of which they consist: the Busae,the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, theBudii, and the Magi.

The six Median tribes resided in Media proper, the tri-angle between Ecbatana, Rhagae and Aspadana,[3] in to-day’s central Iran,[9][10] the area between Tehran, Isfahanand Hamadan. Of the Median tribes, the Magi residedin Rhaga,[11] modern Tehran.[12] It was a sort of sa-cred caste, which ministered to the spiritual needs of theMedes.[13] The Paretaceni tribe resided in and aroundAspadana, modern Isfahan,[3][14][15] the Arizanti lived inand around Kashan[3] and the Busae tribe lived in andaround the future Median capital of Ecbatana, modernHamadan.[3] The Struchates and the Budii lived in vil-lages in the Median triangle.[16]

1 Etymology

The original source for different words used to call theMedian people, their language and homeland is a directlytransmitted Old Iranian geographical name which is at-tested as the Old Persian “Māda-" (sing. masc.).[17] Themeaning of this word is not precisely established.[17][18]The linguist W. Skalmowski proposes a relation withthe proto-Indoeuropean word “med(h)-" meaning “cen-tral, suited in the middle” by referring to Old Indic“madhya-" and Old Iranian “maidiia-" both carrying thesamemeaning[17] and having descendants including Latinmedium, Greek méso, and German mittel.The Median people are mentioned by that name in manyancient texts. According to theHistories of Herodotus;[19]

The Medes were called anciently by allpeople Aryans; but whenMedea, the Colchian,came to them from Athens, they changed theirname. Such is the account which they them-selves give.

2 Historical geography of Media

The original population area of the Median people waswestern Iran and named after them as “Media”. Atthe end of the 2nd millennium BCE the Median tribesemerged in the region (one of several Iranian tribes to doso) which they later called Media. These tribes expandedtheir control over larger areas subsequently, and, over aperiod of several hundred years, the boundaries of Me-dia moved.[20]

2.1 Ancient textual sources

An early description of the territory of Media by theAssyrians dates from the end of the 9th century BCE un-til the beginning of the 7th century BCE. The southernborder of Media, in that period, is named as the Elamiteregion of Simaški in present day Lorestan. From the westand northwest it was bounded by the Zagros mountainsand from the east by Dasht-e Kavir. The region of Mediawas ruled by the Assyrians and for them the region “ex-tended along the Great Khorasan Road from just east ofHarhar to Alwand, and probably beyond. It was limitedon the north by the non Iranian state of Mannea, on thesouth by Ellipi.”[21] The location of Harhar is suggestedto be “the central or eastern” Mahidasht in Kermanshahprovince.[22]

On the east and southeast of Media, as described by theAssyrians, another land with the name of “Patušarra” ap-pears. This land was located near a mountain range whichthe Assyrians call “Bikni” and describe as “Lapis LazuliMountain”. There are various opinion on the locationof this mountain. Damavand of Tehran and Alvand ofHamadan are two proposed identifications of that loca-tion. This location is the most remote eastern area thatthe Assyrians knew or reached during their expansion un-til the beginning of the 7th century BCE.[23]

In the sources from Achaemenid Iran and specificallyfrom the Behistun Inscription (2.76, 77–78) the capitalof Media is named as “Hamgmatāna-" in Old Persian(and as Elamite “Agmadana-", Babylonian “Agamtanu-",etc.). The classical authors transmitted this as Ecbatana.This site is the modern Hamadan province.[24]

2.2 Archaeological evidence

Median archaeological sources are rare. The discoveriesof Median sites happened only after the 1960s.[25] Forsometime after 1960 the search for Median archeologicalsources has been for most parts focused in an area knownas the “Median triangle,” defined roughly as the regionbounded by Hamadān, Malāyer (in Hamdan province)and Kangāvar (in Kermanshah province).[25] Three majorsites from central western Iran in the Iron Age III period(i.e. 850–500 BCE) are[26]

3

Excavation from ancient Ecbatane, Hamadan, Iran

• Tepe Nush-i Jan (a primarily religious site of Me-dian period),

The site is located 14 km west of Malāyer inHamadan province.[25] The excavations startedin 1967 with D. Stronach as the director.[27]The remains of four main buildings in the sitehave “the central temple, the western temple,the fort, and the columned hall” which ac-cording to Stronach were likely to have beenbuilt in the order named and predate the lat-ter occupation of the first half of the 6th cen-tury BCE.[28] According to Stronach, the cen-tral temple, with its stark design, “provides anotable, if mute, expression of religious be-lief and practice”.[28] A number of ceramicsfrom theMedian levels at Tepe Nush-i Jan havebeen found which are associated with the time(the second half of the 7th century BCE) ofthe Median consolidation of their power in theHamadān areas. These findings show four dif-ferent wares known as “Common ware” (buff,cream, or light red in color and with gold orsilver mica temper) including jars in varioussize the largest of which is a form of ribbedpithoi. Smaller and more elaborate vesselswere in “grey ware”, (these display smoothedand burnished surface). The “Cooking ware”and “Crumbly ware” are also recognized eachin single handmade products.[28]

• Godin Tepe (its period II: a fortified palace of a Me-dian king or tribal chief),

The site is located 13 km east of Kangāvar cityon the left bank of the river Gamas Āb”. Theexcavations, started in 1965, were led by T. C.Young, Jr. which, according to D. Stronach,evidently shows an important Bronze Age con-struction that was reoccupied sometime beforethe beginning of the Iron III period. The exca-vations of Young indicate the remains of a partof a single residence of a local ruler which later

became quite substantial.[25] This is similar tothose mentioned often in Assyrian sources.[26]

• Baba Jan (probably the seat of a lesser tribal ruler ofMedia).

The site is located in northeastern Luristan witha distance of roughly 10 km from Nūrābād inLurestan province. The excavations were con-ducted by C. Goff in 1966–69. The level II ofthis site probably dates to 7th century BCE.[29]

These sources have both similarities (in cultural charac-teristics) and differences (due to functional differencesand diversity among the Median tribes).[26] The archi-tecture of this archaeological findings that can proba-bly be dated to the Median period show a link betweenthe tradition of columned audience halls seen often inAchaemenid Iran (for example in Persepolis) and alsoin the Safavid Iran (for example in "the hall of fortycolumns" from the 17th century CE) and the Medianarchitecture.[26]

The materials found at Tepe Nush-i Jan, Godin Tepe, andother sites located in Media together with the Assyrianreliefs show the existence of urban settlements in Mediain the first half of the 1st millennium BCE which hadfunctioned as centres for production of handicraft andalso of an agricultural and cattle-breeding economy ofa secondary type.[30] For other historical documentation,the archaeological evidence, though rare, together withcuneiform records by Assyrian make it possible, regard-less of Herodotus accounts, to establish some of the earlyhistory of Medians.[31]

3 Rise to power

3.1 Pre-dynastic history

Rhyton in the shape of a rams head, gold-west of Iran-median,late 7th early 6th century BC

4 4 CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Iranian tribes were present in western and northwesternIran at least from 12th or 11th century BCE. The sig-nificance of Iranian elements in these regions were es-tablished from beginning of the second half of the 8thcentury BCE.[32] By this time the Iranian tribes were themajority in what later become the territory of Mediankingdom and also the west ofMedia proper.[32] A study oftextual sources from the region show that in Neo-Assyrianperiod, the regions of Media and further west and north-west had a population with Iranian speaking people asmajority.[33]

In western and northwestern Iran and in areas west tothese and prior to the Median rule there were previ-ously political activities of powerful societies of Elam,Mannaea, Assyria and Urartu (Armenia).[32] There arevarious and up-dated opinions on the positions and ac-tivities of Iranian tribes in these societies and prior tothe “major Iranian state formations” in the late 7th cen-tury BCE.[32] One opinion (of Herzfeld, et al.) is that theruling class were “Iranian migrants” but the society was“autochthonous” while another opinion (of Grantovsky,et al.) holds that both the ruling class and basic elementsof the population were Iranian.[34]

During the period of the Neo Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) the Medes, Persians and other Iranian peo-ples of northern and western Iran were subject to theNeo Assyrian Empire. This changed during the reign ofCyaxares, who in alliance with Nabopolassar of Babylonand Chaldea and the Scythians and Cimmerians, attackedand destroyed the strife riven empire between 616 and605 BC.[35]

3.2 Median dynasty

The list ofMedian rulers and their dates compiled accord-ing toA: Herodotus who calls them “kings” and associatesthem with the same family, and B: Babylonian Chroniclewhich in “Gadd’s Chronicle on the Fall of Nineveh” givesits own list, is:Deioces (reign 700–647 BCE)Phraortes (reign 647–625 BCE)Scythian (reign 624–597 BCE)Cyaxares (reign 624–585 BCE) andAstyages (reign 585–549 BCE),a total of 150 years.[36] Not all of these dates and person-alities given by Herodotus match the other near easternsources[36]

In Herodotus (book 1, chapters 95–130), Deioces is in-troduced as the founder of a centralizedMedian state. Hehad been known to Median people as “a just and incor-ruptible man” and when asked by Median people to solvetheir possible disputes he agreed and put the conditionthat they make him “king” and build a great city at Ec-batana as the capital ofMedian state.[37] Judging from the

Protoma in the form of a bull’s head, 8th century BC, gold andfiligree, National Museum, Warsaw

contemporary sources of the region and disregarding[38]the account of Herodotus puts the formation of a unifiedMedian state during the reign of Cyaxares or later.[39]

4 Culture and society

Greek references to “Median” people make no cleardistinction between the “Persians” and the “Medians";in fact for a Greek to become “too closely associatedwith Iranian culture” was “to become medianized, notpersianized”.[26] The Median kingdom was a short-livedIranian state and the textual and archaeological sourcesof that period are rare and little could be known fromtheMedian culture which nevertheless made a “profound,and lasting, contribution to the greater world of Iranianculture”.[40]

4.1 Language

Main article: Median language

Median people spoke the Median language, which was anOld Iranian language. Strabo in his Geography (finishedin the early 1st century AD) mentions the affinity of Me-dian with other Iranian languages: “The name of Arianais further extended to a part of Persia and of Media, asalso to the Bactrians and Sogdians on the north; for thesespeak approximately the same language, but with slightvariations”.[41]

No original deciphered text is proved to have been writ-

4.2 Religion 5

ten in Median language. It is suggested that similar tolater Iranian practice of keeping archives of written docu-ments in Achaemenid Iran, there was also a maintenanceof archives by Median government in their capital Ec-batana. There are examples of "Median literature" foundin later records. One is according to Herdotus that theMedian king Deioces, appearing as a judge, made judge-ment on causes submitted in writing. There is also a re-port by Dinon on existence of “Median court poets".[42]Median literature is a part of the “Old Iranian literature”(including also Saka, Old Persian, Avestan) as this Iranianaffiliation of them is explicit also in ancient texts, suchas Herodotus’s account[19] that many peoples includingMedes were “universally called Iranian”.[43]

Words of Median origin appear in various other Iraniandialects, including Old Persian. A feature of Old Per-sian inscriptions is the large number of words and namesfrom other languages and the Median language takes inthis regard a special place for historical reasons.[44] TheMedian words in Old Persian texts, whose Median ori-gin can be established by “phonetic criteria”,[44] appear“more frequently among royal titles and among terms ofthe chancellery, military, and judicial affairs”.[44] Wordsof Median origin include:

• *čiθra-: “origin”.[45] The word appears in*čiθrabṛzana- (med.) “exalting his linage”,*čiθramiθra- (med.) “having mithraic origin”,*čiθraspāta- (med.) “having a brilliant army”,etc.[46]

• Farnah: Divine glory; (Avestan: khvarənah)

• Paridaiza: Paradise, (as in Pardis (پردیس

• Spaka- : The word is Median and means “dog”.[47]Herodotus identifies “Spaka-" (Gk. "σπάχα" – fe-male dog) as Median rather than Persian.[48] Theword is still used in modern Iranian languages in-cluding Talyshi, also suggested as a source to theRussian word for dog sobaka.[49][50][51]

• vazṛka-: “great” (as Modern Persian bozorg)[44]

• vispa-: “all”.[52] (as in Avestan). The componentappears in such words as vispafryā (Med. fem.)“dear to all”, vispatarva- (med.) “vanquishing all”,vispavada- (med. -op.) “leader of all”, etc.[53]

• Xshayathiya (royal, royalty): This Median word(∗xšaθra-pā-) is an example of words whose Greekform (known as romanized "satrap" from Gk.“satrápēs – σατράπης") mirrors, as opposed to thetradition[N 3], a Median rather than an Old Persianform of an Old Iranian word.[54]

• zūra-: “evil” and zūrakara-: “evil-doer”.[44]

4.2 Religion

There are very limited sources concerning the religion ofMedian people. Primary sources pointing to religious af-filiations of Medes and found so far include the archae-ological discoveries in Tepe Nush-e Jan, personal namesof Median individuals, and the Histories of Herodotus.The archaeological source gives the earliest of the tem-ple structures in Iran and the “stepped fire altar” discov-ered there is linked to the common Iranian legacy of the“cult of fire”. Herodotus mentions Median Magi as aMedian tribe providing priests for both the Medes andthe Persians. They had a “priestly caste” which passedtheir functions from father to son. They played a signif-icant role in the court of the Median king Astyages whohad in his court certain Medians as “advisers, dream in-terpreters, and soothsayers”. Classical historians “unani-mously” regarded the Magi as priests of the Zoroastrianfaith. From the personal names of Medes as recordedby Assyrians (in 8th and 9th centuries BCE) there are ex-amples of use of the Indo-Iranian word arta- (lit. “truth”)which is familiar from both Avestan and Old Persian andalso examples of theophoric names containingMaždakkuand also the name “Ahura Mazdā".[55] Scholars disagreewhether these are indications of Zoroastrian religion ofMedes. Diakonoff believes that “Astyages and perhapseven Cyaxares had already embraced a religion derivedfrom the teachings of Zoroaster” which was not iden-tical with doctrine of Zarathustra and Mary Boyce be-lieves that “the existence of the Magi in Media with theirown traditions and forms of worship was an obstacle toZoroastrian proselytizing there”.[55] Boyce wrote that theZoroastrian traditions in the Median city of Ray proba-bly goes back to the 8th century BCE.[56] It is suggestedthat from the 8th century BCE, a form of “Mazdaismwith common Iranian traditions” existed inMedia and thestrict reforms of Zarathustra began to spread in westernIran during the reign of the last Median kings in 6th cen-tury BCE.[55]

It is also suggested that Mithra is a Median name andMedes may have practised Mithraism and had Mithra astheir supreme deity.[57]

5 Fall

Further information: Persian Mesopotamia

In 553 BC, Cyrus the Great, King of Persia, rebelledagainst his grandfather, the Mede King, Astyages son ofCyaxares; he finally won a decisive victory in 550 BC re-sulting in Astyages’ capture by his own dissatisfied no-bles, who promptly turned him over to the triumphantCyrus.[58]

After Cyrus’s victory against Astyages, the Medes weresubjected to their close kin, the Persians.[59] In the new

6 8 NOTES

The Ganj Nameh (lit.: Treasure epistle) in Ecbatana. The in-scriptions are by Darius I and his son in Xerxes I

Apadana Hall, 5th-century BC carving of Persian and Mediansoldiers in traditional costume (Medians are wearing roundedhats and boots)

empire they retained a prominent position; in honor andwar, they stood next to the Persians; their court ceremonywas adopted by the new sovereigns, who in the summermonths resided in Ecbatana; and many noble Medes wereemployed as officials, satraps and generals.

6 Kurds and Medes

Main article: Origin of the Kurds

The Russian historian and linguist Vladimir Minorskysuggested that the Medes, who widely inhabited the landwhere currently the Kurds form the majority, might havebeen forefathers of the modern Kurds. He also claimsthat the Medes who invaded the region in the eighth cen-tury B.C.E., linguistically resembled the Kurds. Thisview was accepted by many Kurdish nationalists in thetwentieth century. However, Martin van Bruinessen, aprominent Dutch scholar, argues against the attempt totake the Medes as ancestors of the Kurds.[60]

Contemporary linguistic evidence has challenged thepreviously suggested view that the Kurds are descen-

dants of the Medes.[61][62] Gernot Windfuhr (profes-sor of Iranian Studies) identified Kurdish dialects asParthian, albeit with a Median substratum.[63] DavidNeil MacKenzie, an authority on the Kurdish language,thought that the Medes spoke a northwestern Iranian lan-guage, while the Kurdish people speak Kurmanji whichis also a northwestern Iranian language.[64] The Kurdolo-gist Martin van Bruinessen argues against the attempt totreat Medes as ancestors of the Kurds.[60] Garnik Asa-trian stated that “The Central Iranian dialects, and pri-marily those of the Kashan area in the first place, as wellas the Azari dialects (otherwise called Southern Tati) areprobably the only Iranian dialects, which can pretend tobe the direct offshoots of Median ... In general, the rela-tionship between Kurdish and Median are not closer thanthe affinities between the latter and other North Westerndialects — Baluchi, Talishi, South Caspian, Zaza, Gu-rani, etc.”[65]

It is important to note that in Roman sources the Parthiansare described as a unification of Medes and Scythians.Their costumes,culture and language are described as amixture of both with increase of power being more likethat of the Medes.[66]

Some linguists see a direct derivation from Median toParthian and from Parthian to Kurdish. All three lan-guages belong to theNorthwest Iranian group of the widerIranian language family and are from different time-frames. Median is classified as Northwestern Old Iranian.Parthian was Northwestern from the Middle Iranian Pe-riod. And Kurdish is a Neo Iranian language from theNorthwestern Branch.

7 See also

• Greater Iran

• List of kings of Persia

• List of rulers of Pre-Achaemenid kingdoms of Iran

• Madai

• Qanat water management system

8 Notes

[1] According to the OED entry “Mede”, the word is fromClassical Latin Mēdus (usually as plural, Mēdī) fromAncient Greek (Attic and Ionic) Μῆδος (Cypriot ma-to-iΜᾶδοι, plural) from Old Persian Māda.[4]

[2] A) "..and the Medes (Iranians of what is now north-westIran)..” EIEC (1997:30). B) “Archaeological evidencefor the religion of the Iranian-speaking Medes of the ..”(Diakonoff 1985, p. 140). C) ".. succeeded in uniting intoa kingdom the many Median tribes” (from Encyclopædia

7

Britannica [5]). D) “Proto-Iranian split into Western (Me-dian, and others) and Eastern (Scythian, Ossetic, Saka,Pamir and others)...” (Kuz'mina, Elena E. (2007), Theorigin of the Indo-Iranians, J. P. Mallory (ed.), BRILL,p. 303, ISBN 978-90-04-16054-5)

[3] "..a great many Old Persian lexemes...are preserved in aborrowed form in non-Persian languages – the so-called“collateral” tradition of Old Persian (within or outside theAchaemenid Empire).... not every purported Old Iranianform attested in this manner is an actual lexeme of OldPersian.”[54]

9 References[1] George Rawlinson, The Seven Great Monarchies, Media,

pp. 158–160.

[2] “Historic Personalities of Iran: Median Empire”. iran-chamber.com.

[3] “The Cambridge History of Iran”. google.no.

[4] OED Online “entry Mede, n.”.:

[5] Encyclopædia Britannica Online Media (ancient region,Iran)

[6] Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 1992

[7] “The Book of Iran”. google.com.

[8] Herodotus 1.101

[9] “The History of Leo the Deacon”. google.com.

[10] “Men of Bronze”. google.com.

[11] “A History of Zoroastrianism”. google.com.

[12] “Seas and Waterways of the World”. google.no.

[13] “Priesthood”. google.com.

[14] “Travels in Luristan and Arabistan”. google.no.

[15] “The Decline of Iranshahr”. google.no.

[16] “History of Ancient Geography”. google.no.

[17] (Tavernier 2007, p. 27)

[18] (Diakonoff 1985, p. 57)

[19] (Herodotus 7.62.1)

[20] (Diakonoff 1985, pp. 36–41)

[21] (Levine 1974, p. 119)

[22] (Levine 1974, p. 117)

[23] (Levine 1974, pp. 118–119)

[24] (Levine 1974, p. 118)

[25] (Stronach1982, p. 288)

[26] (Young 1997, p. 449)

[27] (Stronach 1968, p. 179)

[28] (Stronach 1982, p. 290)

[29] (Henrickson 1988, p. ?)

[30] (Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006, p. ?)

[31] (Young 1997, p. 448)

[32] (Dandamaev et al. 2004, pp. 2–3)

[33] (Zadok 2002, p. 140)

[34] (Dandamaev et al. 2004, p. 3)

[35] A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia, 1964

[36] (Diakonoff 1985, p. 112)

[37] (Young 1988, p. 16)

[38] (Young 1988, p. 19)

[39] (Young 1988, p. 21)

[40] (Young 1997, p. 450)

[41] Geography, Strab. 15.2.8

[42] (Gershevitch 1968, p. 2)

[43] (Gershevitch 1968, p. 1)

[44] (Schmitt 2008, p. 98)

[45] (Tavernier 2007, p. 619)

[46] (Tavernier 2007, pp. 157–8)

[47] (Tavernier 2007, p. 312)

[48] (Hawkins 2010, “Greek and the Languages of Asia Minorto the Classical Period”, p. 226)

[49] (Gamkrelidze - Ivanov , 1995, “Indo-European and theIndo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical..”, p.505)

[50] (Fortson, IV 2009, “Indo-European Language and Cul-ture: An Introduction”, p. 419)

[51] (YarShater 2007, “Encyclopaedia Iranica”, p. 96)

[52] (Tavernier 2007, p. 627)

[53] (Tavernier 2007, pp. 352–3)

[54] (Schmitt 2008, p. 99)

[55] (Dandamayev & Medvedskaya 2006, Median Religion)

[56] (Boyce & Grenet 1991, p. 81)

[57] (Soudavar 2003, p. 84)

[58] Briant, Pierre (2006). FromCyrus to Alexander: AHistoryof the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. p. 31.

[59] Herodotus, The Histories, p. 93.

[60] Hakan Özoğlu, Kurdish notables and the Ottoman state:Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and ShiftingBoundaries, SUNY Press, 2004, p. 25.

8 11 FURTHER READING

[61] “Turkey Foreign Policy and Government Guide”.google.com.

[62] “Turkey”. google.com.

[63] Windfuhr, Gernot (1975), “Isoglosses: A Sketch on Per-sians and Parthians, Kurds and Medes”, MonumentumH.S. Nyberg II (Acta Iranica-5), Leiden: 457–471

[64] M. Gunter, Michael. Historical dictionary of the Kurds.

[65] G. Asatrian, Prolegomena to the Study of the Kurds, Iranand the Caucasus, Vol. 13, pp. 1–58, 2009. (p. 21 )

[66] A Roman description of the Parthians and later Persians

10 Sources

• Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1991), Zoroastrian-ism under Macedonian and Roman rule, BRILL,ISBN 978-90-04-09271-6

• Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006),“Media”, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition

• Henrickson, R. C. (1988), “Baba Jan Teppe”, Ency-clopaedia Iranica 2, Routledge &Kegan Paul, ISBN978-0-933273-67-2

• Tavernier, Jan (2007), Iranica in the AchaemenidPeriod (ca. 550-330 B.C.): Linguistic Study of OldIranian Proper Names and Loanwords, Attested inNon-Iranian Texts, Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1833-0

• Dandamaev, M. A.; Lukonin, V. G.; Kohl, Philip L.;Dadson, D. J. (2004), The Culture and Social Insti-tutions of Ancient Iran, Cambridge, England: Cam-bridge University Press, p. 480, ISBN 978-0-521-61191-6

• Diakonoff, I. M. (1985), “Media”, The CambridgeHistory of Iran 2 (Edited by Ilya Gershevitch ed.),Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,pp. 36–148, ISBN 0-521-20091-1

• Gershevitch, I. (1968), “Old Iranian Literature”,Iranian Studies, Hanbuch Der Orientalistik –Abeteilung – Der Nahe Und Der Mittlere Osten 1,1–30: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-00857-1

• Levine, Louis D. (1973-01-01), “GeographicalStudies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros: I”, Iran11: 1–27, doi:10.2307/4300482, ISSN 0578-6967,JSTOR 4300482

• Levine, Louis D. (1974-01-01), “GeographicalStudies in the Neo-Assyrian Zagros-II”, Iran 12:99–124, doi:10.2307/4300506, ISSN 0578-6967,JSTOR 4300506

• Soudavar, Abolala (2003), The aura of kings: legiti-macy and divine sanction in Iranian kingship, MazdaPublishers, ISBN 978-1-56859-109-4

• Young, T. Cuyler, Jr. (1988), “The early historyof the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenidempire to the death of Cambyses”, in Board-man, John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D.M.; Ostwald, M., The Cambridge Ancient His-tory 4, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52,doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002

• Young, T. Cuyler (1997), “Medes”, in Meyers, EricM., The Oxford encyclopedia of archaeology in theNear East 3, Oxford University Press, pp. 448–450,ISBN 978-0-19-511217-7

• Zadok, Ran (2002), “The Ethno-Linguistic Char-acter of Northwestern Iran and Kurdistan inthe Neo-Assyrian Period”, Iran 40: 89–151,doi:10.2307/4300620, ISSN 0578-6967, JSTOR4300620

• Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008), “Old Persian”, inWoodard, Roger D., The Ancient Languages of Asiaand the Americas, Cambridge University Press, pp.76–100, ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1

• Stronach, David (1968), “Tepe Nush-i Jan: AMound in Media”, The Metropolitan Museumof Art Bulletin, New Series 27 (3): 177–186,doi:10.2307/3258384, ISSN 0026-1521, JSTOR3258384

• Stronach, David (1982), “Archeology ii. Medianand Achaemenid”, in Yarshater, E., EncyclopaediaIranica 2, Routledge & Kegan Paul, pp. 288–96,ISBN 978-0-933273-67-2

• Windfuhr, Gernot L. (1991), “Central dialects”, inYarshater, E., Encyclopaedia Iranica, pp. 242–51,ISBN 978-0-939214-79-2

11 Further reading

• "Mede.” Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Ency-clopædia Britannica Online. 16 January 2008.

• Dandamayev, M.; Medvedskaya, I. (2006),“Media”, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition

• Gershevitch, Ilya (1985), The Cambridge History ofIran 2, Cambridge, England: Cambridge UniversityPress, ISBN 0-521-20091-1

• Dandamaev, M. A.; Lukonin, V. G.; Kohl, Philip L.;Dadson, D. J. (2004), The Culture and Social Insti-tutions of Ancient Iran, Cambridge, England: Cam-bridge University Press, p. 480, ISBN 978-0-521-61191-6

9

• Young, T. Cuyler, Jr. (1988), “The early historyof the Medes and the Persians and the Achaemenidempire to the death of Cambyses”, in Boardman,John; Hammond, N. G. L.; Lewis, D. M.; Ost-wald, M, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediter-ranean c. 525 to 479 BC (Cambridge Histories On-line ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–52,doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521228046.002

12 External links• Median Empire at Iran Chamber Society website.

10 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Medes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medes?oldid=662748025 Contributors: Mav, Josh Grosse, Deb, Sfdan, Olivier, Stevertigo,

Cointyro, Michael Hardy, Nat32, John K, JASpencer, Adam Bishop, Wikiborg, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Topbanana, Joy, Fvw, Far-shadrbn, Zestauferov, Eugene van der Pijll, Keldan, SD6-Agent, Robbot, Sverdrup, Sunray, Jpbrenna, Roozbeh, Lzur, David Gerard,Centrx, Jyril, Yak, Zora, RScheiber, AlistairMcMillan, VampWillow, Fishal, Vina, Sonance, Firat~enwiki, Kelson, Robin klein, TrevorMacInnis, Mike Rosoft, Freakofnurture, Pasquale, Rich Farmbrough, Pjacobi, Vsmith, Florian Blaschke, EliasAlucard, Dbachmann,Mani1, Bender235, Jjzeidner, Furius, Prashidi, Zscout370, Kwamikagami, Gilgamesh he, Bookofjude, Smalljim, Nk, Ardric47, Fires-peaker, Pearle, Anthony Appleyard, Mr Adequate, Fornadan, Gpvos, Jguk, Mikenassau, Zereshk, Nightstallion, Adrian.benko, Dejvid,Nuno Tavares, Joriki, Woohookitty, Sburke, Briangotts, Bokpasa, BD2412, Amir85, JIP, Dpr, SouthernComfort, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Multi-hunter Tame, The wub, Ian Pitchford, Sponsianus, Gurch, Mehrshad123, Codex Sinaiticus, Chobot, Shauni, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol,Maziargh, RussBot, Fabartus, Hede2000, Eupator, DanMS, Theelf29, Nicke L, NawlinWiki, Semolo75, Helfire57, Bobak, Aldux, BraneJ,Rob117, Pawyilee, Deville, Codrinb, Andrew Lancaster, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Theda, Denisutku, Assyria 90, Pietdesomere,Fram, Curpsbot-unicodify, Tajik, Arad, CIreland, The Minister of War, BomBom, Attilios, SmackBot, Jagged 85, Big Adamsky, Ge-off.powers, Kintetsubuffalo, ParthianShot, Bluebot, TimBentley, Enkyklios, Hibernian, Donnie Love, Vekoler, TheFeds, Colonies Chris,MercZ, Dre2453w, Diyako, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, Mahanchian, Aryan Khadem, Khoikhoi, Downwards, Fullstop,Zeppelin42, Shadow1, Nepaheshgar, Brainyiscool, SashatoBot, Nishkid64, ManiF, RandomCritic, 3210, Slakr, Ryulong, Houshyar, PatrickSchwemmer, OttomanReference, Shoeofdeath, Billw2, Bifgis, Courcelles, Khosrow II, ChrisCork, Darkred, Umedard, Nunquam Dormio,Drinibot, Richard Keatinge, Karenjc, Cydebot, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Aristophanes68, Meowy, Retau, Dougweller, DumbBOT, Togrol,DBaba, Optimist on the run, Memorymike, Thijs!bot, Mbell, Wahlin, Soapyyy, Mojo Hand, Headbomb, Folantin, Kiumars, Khorshid, NickNumber, Hajji Piruz, Nomore~enwiki, Wayiran, Babakexorramdin, JAnDbot, WANAX, Reshbelek, Deflective, Robert Guiscard, MER-C, 100110100, Ahrarara, Severo, Yahel Guhan, Mardavich, CodexVaticanus, Kwame Nkrumah, JamesBWatson, Michael Goodyear, TheAnomebot2, Catgut, Japo, Chris G, Alvaro pacheco, Paracel63, Akulo, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Artaxiad, Kimse, Cyrus abdi,Mohammad adil, LordAnubisBOT, Wiki1609, LACongress, SohrabeDelavar, Wise.architect~enwiki, Rosenknospe, Kansas Bear, GwenGale, Gemini1980, VatooVatoo, Black Kite, VolkovBot, Shinju, Rasillon, TXiKiBoT, Eranshahr, Aryanan, Atabəy, Tushhan, Supertask,Jackfork, Asoyrun, Je suis de, Alborz Fallah, T.goodband, Burntsauce, Grahamboat, Mai-Sachme, Fltnsplr, Kafkasmurat, SieBot, Fabullus,Mazdakabedi, Til Eulenspiegel, FunkMonk, Helikophis, Mkeranat, OKBot, StaticGull, Alefbe, Alexemanuel, Brusk u Trishka, Iberieli,Arun 01, ClueBot, Dvl007, George955, Nimrud~enwiki, Kerkuklu2, HeviyaJiyan, Arakunem, Spartiatus, Kain Nihil, Kurdology1, SunCreator, Pinkhageo, Morel, Warrior4321, Takabeg, SchreiberBike, BOTarate, La Pianista, Stepheng3, Singularity42, BurgererSF~enwiki,B'er Rabbit, CreazySuit, Nicktalop, DumZiBoT, Kurdo777, Sumerophile, BodhisattvaBot, SilvonenBot, Addbot, ParthianPrince, Litho-derm, Laurinavicius, Aboctok, SwatiAfridi, NjardarBot, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Blueberrybuttermilkpancakes, Loco70, Favonian, Samat-Bot, Lostcashis, Numbo3-bot, Hendorupa, ,ماني Zorrobot, IansAwesomePizza, Jarble, Ninetoyadome, CountryBot, Leovizza, Legobot,Luckas-bot, TheSuave, Yobot, Cyxares, WellsSouth, Iroony, Historicpastime, Szajci, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Medes1, Separesh,Lwbmop3, Materialscientist, E235, Citation bot, Teeninvestor, Quebec99, Xqbot, Ellipi, Clowdi, J04n, GrouchoBot, Xashaiar, Omni-paedista, RibotBOT, Berdiau, Batman2010, Lothar von Richthofen, Sky Attacker, Asraramiz, Jamshid-Shah, Wifione, Marmzok, Oghuzturkish, Chae jung, Pinethicket, Edderso, R1000R1000, 10metreh, Kakhajir, Ghazne, AMAR420, MastiBot, WIMYV, Jang bogo67584,Freedomwrighter, Reconsider the static, Jauhienij, ShapurIII, FoxBot, TobeBot, BrokenMirror2, Zoeperkoe, PPerviz, ویکی ,علی ManojVerman, JLincoln, Ditictur, Adi4094, Tbhotch, Persia2099, Eman84, RjwilmsiBot, RepliCarter, Larry.europe, Phlegat, Antidiskrimina-tor, Hajatvrc, Mackay 86, CalicoCatLover, Sorena.firouzi, EmausBot, John of Reading, Ditanditan, Look2See1, ZxxZxxZ, Pahlavannari-man, Jargoness, Lateg, EddieDrood, QEDK, Mrkaffen, Shahriar 1989, Brownie Charles, Mayur, Sashhenka, MALLUS, Khodabandeh14,Carmichael, Bahast, LikeLakers2, ClueBot NG, Pajoohesh, ANE.Scholar, Dr. Persi, Adamrce, , BarrelProof, Noorgostar, Waynei, Fri-etjes, Matianee, Motabalver, Cocnous, Ceaseless, Nautilyus, Aschillez, Helpful Pixie Bot, Raffeal, Somatrix, Diyako2000, Wbm1058,Gob Lofa, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Derfrent, Behkar, Stevean, Diyairaniyanim, Gomada, Kurdwiki, Veyrayesh, Wikisupporting,Nekounahad, Bokan995, Marcocapelle, Zenbb, Tabande, Konjkaw, Xani95, Carlstak, Johnnyfriendlyone, Soerfm, Account.ka.naam, The-GoodBadWorst, Jeffersoun, Janus945, Kiaxar, Dj777cool, BattyBot, Solhjoo, KurdWarrior, PenningtonClassical, Kurdish tiger, Kiaxar’spuppet sock, Dexbot, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, MVArd, Steinsplitter, Hiwa.ab, Kiaxary, Gabriel Stijena, Sepasee, Zyma, EyeTruth,Armankamali, Hemliganonym, HistoryofIran, Soorena000, Parrin134, Wikidiki124, LouisAragon, Urek Meniashvili, Sirius kurdking,Eagle3399, Spivorg, Pktlaurence, Cobanas, Siddhānāth Dev, Caprimanali, Gutians, \\'arrior 786, Rawen 99, Croiter, Setareh1990, Authn-ticupdater, Artin Mehraban, Rawen 1999 and Anonymous: 372

13.2 Images• File:Ambox_contradict.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Ambox_contradict.svg License: Public do-

main Contributors: self-made using Image:Emblem-contradict.svg Original artist: penubag, Rugby471• File:Babylonlion.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Babylonlion.JPG License: Public domain Contrib-utors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

• File:Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Cylinder_seal_lions_Louvre_MNB1167_n2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2010) Original artist: ?

• File:Ecbatane_-_excavated_house.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Ecbatane_-_excavated_house.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Philippe Chavin (Simorg)

• File:Flag_of_Iran.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public domain Contrib-utors: URL http://www.isiri.org/portal/files/std/1.htm and an English translation / interpretation at URL http://flagspot.net/flags/ir'.htmlOriginal artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Flag_of_Kurdistan.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='http://validator.w3.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='W3C' src='//upload.

13.3 Content license 11

wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg/88px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png'width='88' height='30' style='vertical-align: top' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg/132px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg/176px-Invalid_SVG_1.1_%28pink%29.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='91' data-file-height='31'/></a>iThe source code of the previous SVG was invalid due to 12 errors.

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Hamadan_(Iran)_Relief_Achamenid_Period.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Hamadan_%28Iran%29_Relief_Achamenid_Period.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Map_achaemenid_empire_en.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Map_achaemenid_empire_en.png License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Map_of_Assyria.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Map_of_Assyria.png License: Public domainContributors:

• Based on a map in 'Atlas of the Bible Lands’, C S Hammond & Co (1959), ISBN 9780843709414. Original artist: Ningyou• File:Median_Empire.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Median_Empire.jpg License: Public domainContributors: This image is a copy or a derivative work of oriental_empire.jpg, from the map collection of the Perry-Castañeda Library(PCL) of the University of Texas at Austin. Original artist: William Robert Shepherd

• File:Median_Empire_Protoma.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/Median_Empire_Protoma.jpg Li-cense: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Anonymous (Median Empire)

• File:Median_empire_at_greatest_extent.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/50/Median_empire_at_greatest_extent.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:Micrsoft PaintPreviously published: noneOriginal artist:Artin Mehraban

• File:People_icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart

• File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work: Hansueli Krapf (User Simisa (talk · contribs)) Original artist: HansueliKrapf

• File:Persepolis_Apadana_noerdliche_Treppe_Detail.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Persepolis_Apadana_noerdliche_Treppe_Detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Happolati

• File:Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Persepolis_The_Persian_Soldiers.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Arad

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Rhyton_media.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Rhyton_media.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-tributors: عباسی رضا موزٔه Original artist: Iroony

• File:Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_(Achaemenid_Empire).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Standard_of_Cyrus_the_Great_%28Achaemenid_Empire%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, Based on: [1]Original artist: Sodacan

13.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0