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MEDIATION EFFECT OF SUPERVISORY ALLIANCE ON THE SUPERVISOR-
SUPERVISEE RELATIONSHIP FOR EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION
AFFERO BIN ISMAIL
A thesis submitted in
fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy.
Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education
Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
DECEMBER 2015
iii
DEDICATION
Dedicated to my beloved family, my wife and my mother for their support and patience
during my study
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In The Name of Allah, The Most Merciful and the Most Benevolence.
All praise to Allah (s.w.t) for His Kind Guidance and Mercy, we are made to be part of
His vast creation. Peace and Blessings be upon His prophet Muhammad and the
believers who followed His path to the Day of Judgment. Praise to Allah, for the
completion of this thesis. I would like to acknowledge my appreciation to my sincere
supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Razali Hassan for his advice and support that
motivated me to complete the thesis. I am also grateful for the advice and guidance
from my co-supervisor, Dr. Alias Masek. Without their help and bless, I would not have
completed the research. I also thank to all lecturers and peers for their help and support
during my study in Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM) and also special
thanks to Associate Professor Dr. Norhasni Zainal Abiddin (UPM), Associate Professor
Dr. Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayob (UPM) and Associate Professor Dr. Kamarolzaman
(UTHM) for their kind help as juries in the content validity process. My thanks to all
the kind-hearted lecturers for guiding me throughout the Doctoral Degree Program, all
the FPTV (Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education) staffs for always being there
to assist me during my studies and to all my course mates, thanks for your help and
support. I would like to thank my employer, Ministry of Human Resources (MOHR)
and Malaysia’s Public Service Department for their generosity to sponsor my study. I
also wish to extend my deepest appreciation to Manpower Department, MOHR for
helping me tracing and looking for the respondents. To all respondents, thank you so
much for being able to spend some times completing the questionnaires. Lastly, I would
like to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved wife for supporting me throughout
this period. To my mother that always prays for my success. And my late father whom
his spirit is alive in me, giving me strength for this long journey. And last but not least,
to all people that I haven't mentioned here, thank you so much.
v
ABSTRACT
This research is deployed to discover a resolution for an efficient supervision. Many
problems can be derived from attrition and completion issue of Technical and
Vocational Education and Training (TVET) students in Malaysian Advanced
Technology Training Center (ADTEC). One of the main factors is the failure and
incomplete of the industrial-based project. This issue is an evident that there is a need
for effective supervision. The purpose of this research is to examine the mediation
effect of the Supervisory Working Alliance (SWA) on the relationship between Overall
Supervision Effectiveness (OSE) and independent variables, including Supervisory
Input Support (SIS) and Supervise Individual Characteristic (SIC) among respondents.
The overall research framework is adapted from different Bordin’s Model of Working
Alliance (1983) and Kirkpatrick’s Evaluation Model (1996). This is a fully quantitative
research using survey method. Three hundred and sixty (360) respondents were selected
as research samples by proportionate stratified random sampling method from four (4)
main ADTEC in Malaysia. The data were analyzed quantitatively using descriptive
analysis, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to validate the factors and Structural
Equation Modeling (SEM) to conduct correlation, regression and mediation test to
achieve the research objectives. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) was conducted to
ensure that the data used in this research did not violate the assumption of multivariate
analysis. All hypotheses in this research are fully supported in which there is a positive
significant relationship between variables (SIS, SIC, SWA and OSE); There is a
substantial effect of SIS on SWA, SIC on SWA and SWA on OSE; and SWA mediates
the relationship between SIS and OSE as Full Mediation and between SIC and OSE as
Partial Mediation. In conclusion, the present of SWA mediates the relationship between
SIS, SIC and OSE. This research contributes in new findings to the body of knowledge
in the evaluation of effective supervision. The major contribution of this research is to
introduce the student-supervisor framework for industrial-based project in Malaysian
TVET.
vi
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini dilaksanakan untuk mencari penyelesaian bagi kaedah penyeliaan yang
efektif. Terdapat pelbagai punca kepada masalah kegagalan dan kadar graduan yang
rendah dalam kalangan pelajar Pendidikan Teknik dan Vokasional (PTV) di Pusat
Latihan Teknologi Tinggi (ADTEC) Malaysia. Salah satu faktor yang dikenal pasti
berpunca daripada kegagalan dalam projek dan projek berasaskan industri yang tidak
lengkap. Isu ini telah menjurus kepada keperluan terhadap penyeliaan yang efektif.
Kajian ini secara umumnya bertujuan untuk melihat kesan pengantaraan Ikatan Kerja
Penyeliaan (SWA) atas hubungan antara Keberkesanan Penyeliaan Keseluruhan (OSE)
dan pembolehubah tidak bersandar termasuk Sokongan Input Penyeliaan (SIS) dan
Kriteria Individu Pelajar (SIC) dalam kalangan responden. Ini adalah kajian kuantitatif
sepenuhnya diadaptasi daripada Model Ikatan Kerja Bordin (1983) and Model Penilaian
Kirkpatrick (1996). Tiga ratus enam puluh (360) responden telah dipilih sebagai sampel
kajian ini dengan menggunakan persampelan rawak berstrata daripada empat (4)
ADTEC utama di Malaysia. Data dianalisis menggunakan analisis deskriptif, EFA
untuk mengkaji analisis faktor dan SEM untuk ujian korelasi, regresi dan mediasi untuk
mencapai objektif penyelidikan. EDA telah dijalankan untuk memastikan bahawa data
yang digunakan untuk kajian ini mematuhi andaian analisis multivariat. Semua
hipotesis dalam kajian ini telah disokong penuh di mana terdapat hubungan yang
signifikan antara pembolehubah (SIS, SIC, SWA dan OSE), terdapat kesan yang besar
SIS kepada SWA, dan SIC kepada SWA, dan SWA kepada OSE; dan SWA mengantara
hubungan antara SIS dan OSE sebagai pengantaraan penuh, dan antara SIC dan OSE
sebagai pengantaraan separa. Kesimpulannya, kehadiran SWA telah mengantara
hubungan antara SIS, SIC dan OSE. Kajian ini menyumbang kepada penemuan baru
bagi teori dan pengetahuan dalam penilaian penyeliaan yang efektif. Sumbangan
terbesar kajian ini adalah memperkenalkan rangka kerja penyeliaan yang berkesan bagi
projek berasaskan industri dalam PTV.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv
LIST OF APPENDICES xvi
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of The Study 3
1.2 Problem Statement 11
1.3 Purpose of The Study 12
1.3.1 Specific Objectives of The Study 12
1.4 Research Questions 13
1.5 Hypotheses 15
1.6 Theoretical Framework 15
1.7 Research Framework 18
1.8 Significance of Study 19
1.9 Scope of The Study 21
1.10 Limitation of The Study 21
1.11 Operational Definition 22
1.12 Summary 28
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 29
2.1 Current Issues with TVET in Malaysia 31
2.2 The Importance of Effective Education for Human Capital
Excellence 35
viii
2.3 Attrition and Completion Issues 38
2.4 Challenges in Student’s Study and Supervision 42
2.5 Supervisory Support 48
2.6 Supervisee’s Characteristic 53
2.7 Effective Supervisor 59
2.8 Models in Student’s Supervision 65
2.8.1 Experiential Learning Model 65
2.8.2 A Functional Model 66
2.8.3 A Mentoring Process 67
2.8.4 The Enculturalisation Model 67
2.8.5 A Critical Thinking Model 69
2.8.6 The Feminist Model 69
2.8.7 Bordin’s Model 70
2.9 Creating Conceptual Framework from Previous Research 74
2.9.1 Supervisory Input Support (SIS) 74
2.9.2 Supervisee Individual Characteristic (SIC) 82
2.9.3 Supervisory Working Alliance (SWA) 88
2.9.4 Overall Supervision Effectiveness (OSE) 94
2.10 Summary 101
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 103
3.1 Research Design 103
3.2 Population and Sampling 104
3.3 Instrument’s Development 109
3.4 Instrument’s Reliability anda Validity 115
3.4.1 Jury Validation for Content Validity 118
3.5 Research Hypotheses 119
3.6 Data Collection Procedures 120
3.7 Pilot Study 121
3.8 Response Rate 123
3.9 Exploratory Data Analysis 123
3.9.1 Normality Test 124
3.9.2 Outliers 125
3.9.3 Linearity Test 127
3.9.4 Heteroscedacity Of Errors 129
ix
3.9.5 Independent of Errors 129
3.10 Data Analysis 130
3.10.1 Descriptive Statistics 130
3.10.2 Structural Equation Modeling 131
3.10.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Construct Validity 133
3.10.4 Correlation Coefficient Analysis 134
3.10.5 Regression Coefficient Analysis 134
3.10.6 Mediation Test 134
3.11 Summary 136
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS 138
4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents 140
4.2 EFA, CFA and Measurement Model 141
4.2.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis for SIS 141
4.2.2 Exploratory Factor Analysis for SIC 143
4.2.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Individual Constructs 144
4.2.4 Measurement Model Validity 148
4.3 The Level of SIS, SIC, SWA and OSE 152
4.3.1 Level of Supervisory Input Support 152
4.3.2 Level of Supervisee Individual Characteristic 153
4.3.3 Level of Supervisory Working Alliance 153
4.3.4 Level of Overall Supervision Effectiveness 154
4.4 Correlation Between SIS, SIC, SWA and OSE 154
4.5 Regression Analysis of SIS and SIC on SWA and SWA on OSE 159
4.6 Mediation Test of SWA 162
4.6.1 Direct Effect for Mediation Test 163
4.6.2 Mediation Test for Indirect Effect 166
4.6.3 The Effect Sizes in A Mediation Model 170
4.7 Summary 174
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATION 175
5.1 Research Summary 175
5.1.1 Research Objectives 177
5.1.2 Research Methodology 178
5.1.3 Research Findings 179
x
5.2 Discussion 181
5.2.1 Respondent's Demographic Profile 182
5.2.2 The Level of the Variables 184
5.2.3 The Relationship between SIS, SIC, SWA and OSE 188
5.2.4 Regression Analysis of SIS and SIC on SWA and
SWA on OSE 193
5.2.5 Mediation Analysis of SWA 196
5.2.6 The Student-Supervisor Framework for Effective
Supervision in TVET 200
5.3 Conclusions 208
5.4 Contribution for Theory and Practices 209
5.4.1 Theoretical Contribution 210
5.4.2 Practical Contribution 211
5.5 Recommendation for Future Research 214
5.6 Summary 215
REFERENCES 217
APPENDICES 242
VITA 285
xi
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 Summary of the Relation between Research Questions, Objectives
and Data Analysis 14
2.1 Main Streams of the Education and Training System in Malaysia 33
2.2 Malaysian ADTEC Certification Information 2012 41
2.3 ADTEC ABC Certification Information 2008 – 2011 41
2.4 Number of Skills Certificates and Diplomas Registrations and Awards 44
2.5 Factors that Contribute to Project’s Completion 47
2.6 The Roles of a Supervisor 47
2.7 Phases of the Relationship 54
2.8 Indicators of Effective and Ineffective Supervisors 61
2.9 Links between Brew and Models of Supervision 68
2.10 Summary Models of Supervision 70
2.11 Support and Guidance Needs 76
2.12 Previous Researches on Trainee Characteristics that were Integrated
into Supervisee Individual Characteristics 88
2.13 Variables Representing Research-Related Tasks 96
2.14 Kirkpatrick’s 4 Level Model 98
2.15 Example of Different Dimensions of Effectiveness that were
integrated into Overall Supervision Effectiveness 101
3.1 Number of respondents according to the Centers and Courses
during July 2013 to November 2013 108
3.2 Construct’s Derivation from Literatures 110
3.3 Instrument Development based on Literatures 112
3.4 Summary of the Instrument 115
3.5 Summary of Average Scores of Content Validity 119
3.6 Data Collection Schedule 121
3.7 Correlation Coefficient 122
3.8 Normality Test 124
3.9 Shapiro-Wilk Test 125
xii
3.10 Cook’s and Mahalanobis Distance 126
3.11 Durbin Watson Test 130
3.12 Level and Distribution for the Importance of Research
Construct and Statement 131
3.13 Index Category and the Level of Acceptance for every Index 132
3.14 Summary of Data Analysis 136
4.1 Relation between Research Objectives, Questions, Hypotheses
and Data Analysis 139
4.2 Demographic Profile 140
4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis for SIS 142
4.4 The Final Dimension of SIS 142
4.5 Exploratory Factor Analysis for SIC 143
4.6 Modification Indices for Measurement Model 149
4.7 Goodness-of-fit Indices for the Measurement Model 151
4.8 The Fitness Indexes for New Measurement Model 151
4.9 AVE, CR, Correlation and Squared Correlation between Constructs 152
4.10 Rank of SIS 153
4.11 Rank of SIC 153
4.12 Rank of SWA 154
4.13 Rank of OSE 154
4.14 Correlation Scatter Plot 155
4.15 Correlation between Constructs 157
4.16 Regression Analysis between Constructs 160
4.17 Regression Weight (OSE and SIS) 164
4.18 Regression Weights (OSE and SIC) 166
4.19 Regression Weight and Significant Result 169
4.20 Regression Weight and Significant Result (bootstrapping method) 169
4.21 The Cohen's (1988) Benchmark Range of Effect Sizes 170
4.22 Total Effect 171
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Theoretical Framework for Effective Supervision 17
1.2 Conceptualized Relationship among Variables 18
2.1 Tree View of Structure in Literature Review 30
2.2 K-worker Occupational Competence 31
2.3 Mainstreaming Technical Education and Vocational Training:
Dual-pathway to Employment 37
2.4 Total of Students’ Intake in Malaysian Public Skills Training 40
2.5 Total of Students Graduate in Malaysian Public Skills Training
Institutes 40
2.6 A Model of Training Transfer 56
2.7 Bordin’s Model of Working Alliance 71
2.8 A preliminary Classification Scheme of Learning Outcomes 99
3.1 Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 106
3.2 Determining Sample Size using G*Power 107
3.3 The Process for Developing and Testing Questionnaires 117
3.4 Box Plot for Dependent Variable 126
3.5 Normal P-P Plot of Regression Standardized Residual 127
3.6 Normal Q-Q Plot for SIS 128
3.7 Normal Q-Q Plot for SIC 128
3.8 Scatterplot for Dependent Variable (OSE) 129
4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for SIS (First stage) 144
4.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for SIS (Second stage) 145
4.3 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for SIC 146
4.4 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for SWA 147
4.5 Confirmatory Factor Analysis for OSE 148
4.6 Final Measurement Model (Correlation) 150
4.7 Regression Diagram between Construct (standardized) 160
4.8 Regression Diagram between Construct (unstandardized) 161
4.9 Direct Effect between SIS and OSE (standardized) 163
xiv
4.10 Direct Effect between SIS and OSE (unstandardized) 164
4.11 Direct Effect between SIC and OSE (standardized) 165
4.12 Direct Effect between SIC and OSE (unstandardized) 165
4.13 Analysis Properties for Bootstrapping 166
4.14 Mediation Test of SWA (standardized) 167
4.15 Mediation Test of SWA (unstandardized) 168
4.16 Regression between SWA and OSE 172
5.1 Findings for The Research Framework (Mediation Test) 196
5.2 The Final Research Framework 205
5.3 Student-Supervisor Framework for Effective Supervision in TVET 207
xv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADTEC - Advanced Technology Training Center
COE - Center of Excellence
JMTI - Japan Malaysian Technical Institut
JTM - Jabatan Tenaga Manusia
MOHE - Ministry of Higher Education
MOHR - Ministry of Human Resources
MQF - Malaysian Qualification Framework
MSC - Malaysian Skill Certificate
NKEA - National Key Economic Area
NOSS - National Occupational Skill Standard
NVTC - National Vocational Training Committee
OSE - Overall Supervision Effectiveness
PTV - Pendidikan Teknik dan Vokasional
SIC - Supervisee Individual Characteristic
SIS - Supervisory Input Support
SWA - Supervisory Working Alliance
TVET - Technical and Vocational Education and Training
UKT - Unit Kawalan Teknikal
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
A Set of Research Questionnaire 242
B The Concept and Structure of Malaysian Skill Certification System 270
C Details of the Level for each Construct 272
D Letter of Research Application and Approval 280
E Feedback Form from Panel of the Instrument 282
F VITA 285
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Investment in human capital through effective education is very crucial towards
knowledge-worker (K-worker). The emergence of a knowledge-based economy requires a
vast involvement from institution of higher education, especially in the technical and
engineering discipline to produce competent worker. As the training cost is high, the
stakeholders invest in the skills of their students to improve productivity and the
profitability of the country (Mustapha and Abdullah, 2004). Currently, Malaysia is
developing rapidly and in a dire demand for technical and engineering manpower at the
various levels, especially in the technology and engineering discipline. The demand for
engineers and engineering assistants keeps increasing from 153,000 in the year 1994 to
500,000 in the year 2008 (Nordin, 2008). In the year 2010, the country needed more than
500,000 engineering technicians and engineers (EDMAT, 2002). This figure keeps
increasing by years. Currently, Malaysia has a workforce about 12 million, of which only
about 28 percent are highly-skilled, whilst 60 percent are employed in small and medium-
sized enterprises (Tenth Malaysia Plan, 2012). In 2013, registered engineers in Malaysia
have reached to 80,107 engineers, including 10,901 professional engineers (Board of
Engineers, 2013). NKEAs are expected to create up to an additional 3.3 million jobs will
accommodate of approximately 1.3 million (40%) of Technical and Vocational Education
and Training (TVET)-related jobs by 2020 (Department of Prime Minister, 2012). There is
a demand to increase enrollment in TVET with quality graduates. To satisfy the demands
2
of this manpower, the administration has set in place a great deal of emphasis on TVET to
produce more Knowledge Workers (K-workers).
Synchronizing with the development of K-workers, TVET institutions are
providing effective training to develop people in the professions. There are many elements
in effective training that ranging from methodology, supervision, teaching and learning, on
job training, modules, equipment and trainer‟s competency. In this setting, supervision can
be classified as one of the important elements in effective training. Project supervision or
advising is the consideration of three interrelated areas which are: i) the learning and
teaching process; ii) developing the student; and iii) producing the research
project/outcome as a social practice (Maxwell and Smyth, 2010). They made clear that
supervision is centrally a teaching/learning process, but never-the-less a practice that has
parallel processes, namely, student development and the project itself. Students‟
supervision is not just teaching and learning practice, but it is more than this. Alongside
learning, supervision needs to be treated as student development together with project
knowledge production.
This research seeks to investigate the supervisory inputs that are needed by the
students, the characteristic of students for optimum supervision outcome, the working
alliance between student and supervisor and to measure the supervision effectiveness in
order to develop the student-supervisor framework for effective supervision in TVET. The
supervisory relationship between the students and their supervisors in Malaysian Advanced
Technology Training Centers (ADTEC) during their industrial-based project were
assessed. The function of mediator was found very useful in triggering the relationship
between student and supervisor. After thorough analysis, Supervisory Working Alliance
was found a suitable variable as a mediator to be examined. The mediating effect of the
Supervisory Working Alliance was expected to secure the supervision process and
successfully executed. However, developing effective supervision need to be evaluated
from both students‟ and supervisors‟ perspectives. Thus, the support from the supervisors
and the characteristic of a supervisee has been identified in this research as the main
contribution to the overall supervision effectiveness.
3
1.1 Background of the Study
The concept of effective supervision that was used in this study contributes to the
development of human capital, especially in the aspects of skilled workers . Issue of
skilled workers has become critical and widely debated across the countries. The future of
Malaysia's sustainable economy depends on the skills of its workforce. Besides, effective
supervision will ensure the students graduate on time and to produce more graduates at
times. Research has shown that technical education has assumed a significant role in the
industrial development of Malaysia in terms of supplying necessary skilled workers and
professionals (Abdullah and Mustapha, 2001).
Changes in the global technology and particularly in the Malaysian industries have
created a major need for a skilled workforce and comprehensive training. A holistic skills
training and technical training program to train K-worker should encompass not only the
technical competency but also learning and methodology competencies. Effective
workforce can be achieved through the supervision process during their training and
practice in the Public Skills Training Institute or Institut Latihan Kemahiran Awam
(ILKA) and industries as well. The effective supervision has been portrayed as an
invaluable learning activity for beginners as well as experienced practitioners such as
teachers, administrators, trainers and other professionals.
Many students have noted the importance of the relationship between a scholar and
a supervisor in this context (Graves and Varma, 1999; Cryer, 2000; Phillips and Pugh,
2000), particularly where the two work closely over a number of years. The relationship
between the supervisor and student plays an important role in advancing the student‟s goal
towards project completion. Still, sometimes a problem of compatibility occurs between
them and therefore, Hockey (1997) and Wilkin (1992) indicated that they both asked to
recognize their roles in order to guarantee a good relationship. Learning involves two
parties, the teacher (also known as supervisor, mentor, coach) and the student (known as
the trainee, mentee, mentoree, coachee, protégée).
There are number of research and studies highlighted the importance of supervision
for student professional growth. Nevertheless, most of previous researches focused on
graduate students either at the master or doctorate level. Todd et al. (2006) found that most
4
literatures relating to thesis supervision is aimed at masters and doctoral level students.
There are slight number of them discussed undergraduate student. In summation, the
previous studies, mostly for academic stream rather than Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET). It is supported by Sulaiman (2011) where he observed
that there is a lack of research being done on TVET issue. As we know, TVET differs
from academic. Therefore, an initiative should be taken to bring about more researches on
TVET. This research puts on the TVET as the main reference in developing effective
supervisory practice. Also, it concentrates on undergraduate students for industrial-based
project supervision.
This research primarily focuses on students‟ needs and perceptions in terms of
supervision for industrial-based project. Later on, the focus turned into how the mediator
which is the Supervisory Working Alliance react in the framework. Students own different
needs at different stages of the project process. The needs also varied from one student to
another. Nevertheless, their needs through the process should be supported by supervisors‟
contributions. The discussion from the result gathers the best practices of effective
supervision. Before the details about supervision needs were discussed, it‟s better to
understand the situation or dilemma that is masked under the issues of TVET students‟
especially in their industrial-based project process.
This research caters the TVET students in Malaysia which come from a higher
level cohort of skills and vocational education. To be exact, the Advanced Technology
Training Centers (ADTEC) in Malaysia which is under the Ministry of Human Resources.
ADTEC was chosen as the sampling target because it is one of the important higher
institution that drives the K-Workers. Besides, most of the previous studies in TVET were
concentrated to Malaysian Polytechnic and Community College (Keong, 2014; Efendi and
Khairani, 2014; Haziratul, 2012; Mariappen et al., 2012). TVET seems new to certain
people in Malaysia since the exposure related to this system is yet under proper explained.
The effort to promote TVET has highly increased for the past years after our Prime
Minister has put the skills training as one of the main agendas in Malaysian Budget 2011
and 2012 (Tenth Malaysia Plan, 2012). In practice, many of the early initiatives to promote
TVET catered mainly for traditional arts and crafts as seen in 1900 when the government
of Selangor engaged several local craftsmen comprising of a wood-carver, a silversmith, a
5
blacksmith and a tailor, to teach their crafts to Malay students residing in the Malay
Settlement on the outskirts of Kuala Lumpur (Loh, 1975).
Currently, the TVET in Malaysia is based on National Occupational Skill Standard
(NOSS). To be certified for Malaysian Skill Certification, they should embrace the
minimum requirement in National Occupational Skill Standard (NOSS). NOSS can be
defined as a specification of the competencies expected of a skill worker who is gainfully
employed in Malaysia in an occupational area, level and the pathway to achieve the
competencies. The concept and structure of the Malaysian Skill Certification System can
be clearly explained from Appendix B.
Other institutions either public or private refer to this guideline and proposed a
similar training program. Some institutions introduce different certification such as
Diploma of Technology, Diploma of Vocational or Diploma of Industry that represent the
TVET education, but according to NOSS, these are equivalent to Level 4 and Level 5 for
anAdvanced Diploma. However, the participation at this level is still small since the
operation is still largely concentrated at lower levels.
In general, TVET provision in Malaysia is still largely concentrated on lower-level
skills qualification whereby more than 70 percent of graduates are at Malaysian Skills
Certificates, Levels 1 and 2 (Pang, 2011). Although TVET Institutions are running at high
operating levels, many are not yet operating at full capacity. The overall funding structure
also does not fully support quality and performance of TVET providers. There are many
TVET providers in Malaysia either from public or private institutions. Most of the higher
level of skills qualification (Level 4 and 5) is being conducted by Public Institutions that
are being supported by the Government.
The institutions under the Ministry of Human Resource and Development for
instance, are providing five (5) active institutions currently for conducting these higher
levels, namely the Advanced Technology Training Center (ADTEC) and Japanese
Malaysia Technical Institutes (JMTI) across the country. The number of students who
choose TVET in Malaysia keeps increasing by years. Based on the data from (Jabatan
Tenaga Manusia, 2013), the total of intake in Malaysian Public Skills Training Institutes
has been increasing since 2001 although there are a slight drop in a few years.
6
Malaysian Advanced Technology Training Center (ADTEC) offers Diploma and
Advanced Diploma. Entrance into Malaysian Advanced Technology Training Center
requires a minimum of a pass in Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) with three (3) credits. It is
equivalent to Malaysian Skills Certification at Level 4 and 5. At the end of their studies,
they are required to complete an industrial-project based which determine their
qualifications for Diploma or Advanced Diploma Degree. It is coherent with Level 4 and
level 5 for Malaysian Skills Certification (MSC) that merely require a trainer to complete
an industrial-based project as one of the competency assessment.
Now, the focus is diverted to the supervision activity that take place in TVET
institutions. During the project development process, the students find difficulties in many
aspects for every project stage. They need support and guidance especially from their
supervisor, their closest reference. Conversely, from the supervisors‟ view, they feel like
they have given the best to help the students‟ progress, but the dissatisfaction is still
reported in students‟ perception. In Russell (1996) study, he found that nearly half of the
students felt that the constraints they encountered related to lack of support from the
supervisor and school. These included a lack of encouragement, pastoral care and
reassurance from the supervisor, as well as a lack of formal and informal arrangements for
students to support each other. Depth analysis should be carried out to come up with the
solution for the student-supervisor framework. There are many opinions regarding the
responsibilities of supervisors. Most of all, the supervisor should give constant support and
reassurance to the student (Haksever and Manisali, 2000; Phillips and Pugh, 2000) and
keep the students‟ morale high (Phillips and Pugh, 2000).
The flow of the research problem will be discussed below. The problem that
becomes the ground of this research is identified as the attrition and completion issue. In
higher education, attrition rates and completion rates of students are becoming statistically
of a vital concern. This scenario arises in Malaysian Advanced Technology Training
Center as well. There are students that fail to graduate on time as they could finish it
exactly within the time frame. According to data by Jabatan Tenaga Manusia (2013), the
percentage of graduation is still not impressive, some of them failed and need to extend
their industrial-based project. This indicates the need to improve completion rates. Within
7
this context, concern for quality in higher education is perhaps at an all-time high (Eaton,
1999).
The major cause for attrition and completion issue in ADTEC was investigated and
it was found that the failure or need to extend the industrial-based project as one of the
major concerns (Jabatan Tenaga Manusia, 2013). The percentage of graduation in 2012 is
still not up to 90%. According to data from Unit Kawalan Teknikal (2013), the statistic of
student who could not complete their industrial-based project is worrisome since they
could finish it in the given time. The number of student who failed or extend the Industrial-
Based Project or Projek Tahun Akhir (PTA) were reported. Need analysis was conducted
and it was reported that the issue in this incomplete industrial-based project comes from
the supervision activity (Ismail et al., 2015). This brings forward the demands for effective
supervision. The analysis explained in deeper oversight where the roles of supervisor and
supervisee are highly important for project completion. The consequences of this problem
will affect the institution‟s image, student‟s career and industry. Further elaboration will
start from this point.
The problem in project process comes from project design and the writing of the
report. The problems could also be due to inexperience of the student, to poor supervision
or an inefficient system (Katz, 1997; Sayed et al., 1998; Mouton, 2001). Spear (2000)
concluded that one of the most common complaints from students are concerning
infrequent or erratic contact with supervisors, who may be too busy with administrative or
teaching responsibilities, have too many students or be away from the university too often.
Seagram, Gould and Pyke (1998) indicated that the supervisor-student good relationship is
the key factor in the success or failure of students‟ studies or work. There are so many
authors have claimed that the responsibility of a research falls to the supervisors and some
of them falls to the students. Nevertheless,the amounts of responsibilities actually differ
from each of the research stages (Ismail et al., 2011). Lee (2008) suggested that
supervisors need to be aware of both the positive and negative aspects of each of these
conceptual approaches which include a desire to enthuse, encourage, recognize
achievement and offer pastoral support.
A study took place involving 15 supervisors and 15 supervisees from Electronic
and Electrical department in a Malaysian TVET institution by Ismail et al. (2015). They
8
were asked with a range of questions about their experience in supervision process. These
included the activity in their meetings and what they expected from each other. The
questionnaire was adapted from Supervisory Working Alliance Inventory (SWAI) from
Efstation et al. (1990). The factors in project completion were identified and all of them
were related to supervision issue. Student and supervisor have different views regarding
the important factor in the project‟s completion. It is clear that the roles of supervisor and
student are utmost important as compared to other factors. Interestingly, the supervisor‟s
put the most responsibility to the students with a mean of 4.9 while the student puts the
responsibility to the supervisor with a mean of 4.5. According to Ismail and Abiddin
(2009), students need support from the institution in terms of support and services that
culminates the graduate offices, library, online services, laboratories and thesis writing
guidance.
Furthermore, based on the study by Ismail et al. (2015), most of the supervisors
feel that it is important to interact with students before the process of more technical in
supervision being done. Ensuring work quality and standard falls at second important with
a mean of 3.9. It is followed by work monitoring with a mean of 3.8. Supervisor‟s role
such as problem anticipating, acquiring thesis writing skills and concern about research
progress perceived as Moderate-Highly important with a mean of 3.5.
Supervisors were also asked to rate their experience during their supervision.
Therefore, it seems that the students need more specific guidance from the supervisors.
The problem also comes from the supervision goals where they did not work on specific
goals with a mean of 3.7. In their supervision, the trainee is more anxious and talks less
than the supervisors with a mean of 3.3 and 3.1. From supervisor perspective, they feel that
they always help their supervisee to stay on track with a mean of 4.1 and try to understand
their supervisee with a mean of 4.00. They also think that their supervisee is comfortable
working with them and encourage them to formulate their own idea in their project with a
mean of 4.00, respectively. The supervisees have reported that there are infrequent meeting
with their supervisor with 30% of them practice regular meeting while 70% of them did
not follow. This statement was supported by Spear (2000) that the students always
complain regarding unavailability of the supervisors in the campus or too busy with
administrative/teaching responsibilities.
9
The findings presented by Ismail et al. (2015) showed the intricacies of the student-
supervisor relationship in a research work. It was established that the supervisory
relationship was developed based on both parties. It was also recognized that supervision is
a very complex process which requires complete commitment and respect by and for the
student and the supervisor in order for the relationship is to be fruitful. In as much as the
supervisor is an important gatekeeper involved in evaluating the ethical, professional and
intellectual competence of the student (Campbell, 2000), it was shown that the student
must be viewed as capable, knowledgeable and competent enough to know what he or she
wants to do and how to do it.
When supervision is conceived as a simple learning/teaching dichotomy, this is
insufficient to express the complex nature of supervision. Similarly, discussions are solely
focusing upon the project as the product of the research endeavour miss opportunities to
highlight learning and teaching (Maxwell and Smyth, 2010). There are so many things that
can be learned during the process. Another major element of the supervisor‟s role is to help
students with work planning and meeting set targets. Supervisors need to read through and
provide critical feedback on drafts of the students‟ work (Todd et al., 2006).
As an effective supervisor, there are certain important practices that he/she should
be trained in order to complement the project and supervision needs. Moreover, the current
situation indicates that there is lack of specific guideline as a basis for student-supervisor
responsibilities. The role of supervisor and the motive for supervision also seems to be
unclear. The student also does not distinctly see what their roles are. In the meantime, they
deliver to meet the standard set by the industry. The burden becomes greater when they
have to manage the project that is not under their knowledge with limited resource and
support by the institution.
From supervisors‟ perspective, they sometimes expect more from what their
students are capable of. They think that they have contributed the best to assist the student.
Yet, their efforts still does not meet the students need. Again, lack of information and
guideline of supervisory practice brought this issue out. Effective supervision requires
supervisors to be knowledgeable and skilled in the research field (McQueeney, 1996;
Ismail and Abiddin, 2012). Problems arise when a supervisor is new and not competent
enough to supervise a project (Todd et al., 2006). McMichael (1993) found that new
10
supervisors experienced a number of concerns about their ability to supervise, including
academic expertise, appropriate standards and institutional climates. One way of
overcoming these uncertainties is to produce clear guidelines for both staff and students.
Both of them should play their role effectively and maintain a good relationship during the
period of the program (Cullen et al., 1994; Moses, 1994; Kam, 1997, Phillips and Pugh,
2000).
On the other hand, employers and industry associations state that lack of soft skills,
such as positive work ethics, communications, teamwork, decision making and leadership
skills, is the primary factor hampering employability of many Malaysian graduates (Tenth
Malaysia Plan, 2012). This includes the graduates from skills certification. These skills can
be gained effectively through their industrial-based project (during the final year) where
this process can test their ability in many aspects including teamwork, decision making and
independency. Lack of emphasize of these skills during the supervisory environment will
affect in lack of students‟ skills. There is a need for an effective supervision. Therefore,
the supervisor should give appropriate support, make equal information, time and energy
available to all students and should also meet the students regularly (Hockey, 1996;
Russell, 1996; Ismail et al., 2011).
This research considered a valuable contribution to the society and practioners as it
is capable of filling the gap, especially in supervision area. There are a few gaps
highlighted in this research. First is to fill the lack of research on TVET students
(Sulaiman, 2011). Since TVET mostly focuses on hands-on and practical jobs, this
research is looking for the solutions in terms of developing soft skill among students
academically. Secondly, most of the research of supervision were conducted on
postgraduate students (Phillips and Pugh, 2000; Pierce, 2004; Tancig, 2007; Wisker and
Claesson, 2013). Therefore, this research adds more information and knowledge regarding
undergraduate supervision. SWA was presented as an important component in this
research that plays its role as a mediator. There is small number of research that make use
SWA as mediator compared to as a dependent or independent variable. By manipulating
the role of SWA as mediator, we could see the effect towards the supervision practice. In
addition, this research is enhanced with the combination of supervisor and supervisee
elements in a single research towards effective supervison as compared to previous
11
researches that investigate this elements separately (Ismail and Abiddin, 2012). Lastly,
most of the research about supervision were conducted by foreign scholars such as Hockey
(1996), Inman (2006) and Horrocks and Smaby (2013). Thus, this is a great effort to
deploy this research in Malaysia landscape.
1.2 Problem Statement
Attrition and completion issue reported by the Ministry of Human Resources becomes a
major concern in their institutions that reflect the quality of the education offered by them
(Jabatan Tenaga Manusia, 2013). There are a few factors that contribute to attrition and
completion issue and one of them is regarding their incomplete industrial-based project.
One institution found that they would save one million dollars a year if attrition went down
by 10%, since they would no longer over-enroll students to compensate for expected
attrition (Smallwood, 2004). This scenario brings forward a concern regarding supervision
issue and its effectiveness. It is supported in one of the needs analysis study in 2013 where
the most influential part in maintaining the supervision effectiveness comes from the role
and participation of students (88%) and the supervisors (92%) (Ismail et al., 2015). The
role of a supervisor seems unclear and they seldom give appropriate support to the
students. In terms of students‟ factor, Ismail et al. (2015) found that they seem to have a
lack of confidence and felt isolated towards their supervisors, lacking of curiosity in their
field and less meeting with their supervisor (70%). In this context, the students themselves
need to be motivated and the supervisors should create a culture that can develop the
students. Effective supervision is needed in promoting the institution and to educate the
students (Abdullah et al., 2012). Furthermore, literature on evaluation of research/project
supervision is, perhaps not surprisingly, sparse (Leea and McKenzieb, 2011). The process
of supervision should be enriched with the clear goal, specific task and supervision bond
that can be injected into the process (Bordin, 1983). The consequence of poor support from
their supervisor, and student‟s characteristic is not in the form of instructive, the
development of overall supervision effectiveness will be failed, subsequently results in the
12
slow progress, project failure and the worst part is the failure in human development
(Ismail and Abiddin, 2012). The obligation for completing a project within a reasonable
length of time clearly lies with both the student and the supervisor (Haksever and Manisali,
2000). Thus, supervisors‟ support with good characteristics of a supervisee should be
studied with the intervention of supervisory working alliance to ensure the development of
overall supervision effectiveness is successfully achieved in terms of their satisfaction,
cognitive outcomes, affective outcomes and skill-based outcomes.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The main objective of this research is to determine the mediation effects of Supervisory
Working Alliance (SWA) on the relationship between Supervisory Input Support (SIS),
Supervisee Individual Characteristic (SIC) and Overall Supervision Effectiveness (OSE)
among respondents in Technical and Vocational Education and Training framework.
1.3.1 Specific Objectives of the Study
i) To determine the level of Supervisory Input Support (SIS), Supervisee Individual
Characteristic (SIC), Supervisory Working Alliance (SWA) and Overall
Supervision Effectiveness (OSE) among respondents.
ii) To determine the relationship between Overall Supervision Effectiveness and
independent variables, including Supervisory Input Support, Supervisee Individual
Characteristic and Supervisory Working Alliance among respondents.
iii) To determine the prediction effect of Supervisory Input Support and Supervisee
Individual Characteristic on Supervisory Working Alliance.
iv) To determine the prediction effect of Supervisory Working Alliance and Overall
Supervision Effectiveness among respondents.
v) To determine the mediation effect of Supervisory Working Alliance on the
13
relationship between Overall Supervision Effectiveness and independent variables,
including Supervisory Input Support and Supervisee Individual Characteristic
among respondents.
vi) To introduce the student-supervisor framework for effective supervision in TVET.
1.4 Research Questions
The main research questions that are addressed in this study are as follows:
i) What is the level of the variables (namely; Supervisory Input Support (SIS),
Supervisee Individual Characteristic (SIC), Supervisory Working Alliance (SWA)
and Overall Supervision Effectiveness (OSE) among respondents?
ii) Are the variables (namely; Supervisory Input Support, Supervisee Individual
Characteristic, Supervisory Working Alliance and Overall Supervision
Effectiveness) correlated with each other?
iii) What is the prediction effect of Supervisory Input Support on Supervisory Working
Alliance?
iv) What is the prediction effect of Supervisee Individual Characteristic on
Supervisory Working Alliance?
v) What is the prediction effect of Supervisory Working Alliance on Overall
Supervision Effectiveness?
vi) Can the Supervisory Working Alliance contribute to the Overall Supervision
Effectiveness as mediator?
vii) Does the Technical and Innovation Input contribute to the Supervisory Input
Support as a dimension?
viii) What is the student-supervisor framework for effective supervision in TVET?
In order to get clear picture regarding how the research objectives, research
questions and the corresponding research methods are inter-related, Table 1.1 provides the
details for each questions and objective with appropriate data analysis.
14
Table 1.1: Summary of the Relation between Research Questions, Objectives and Data
Analysis
No. Objectives Research Questions Data Analysis
i. To determine the level of SIS, SIC,
SWA and OSE among respondents.
What is the level of the variables
(namely; SIS, SIC, SWA and OSE)
among respondents?
Descriptive Statistics
(Frequency, Percentage,
Mean, Std. Deviation)
ii. To determine the relationship
between OSE and independent
variables, including SIS, SIC and
SWA among respondents.
Are the variables (namely; SIS, SIC,
SWA and OSE) correlated with each
other?
Correlation Coefficient
Analysis
iii. To determine the prediction effect of
SIS and SIC on SWA.
What is the prediction effect of SIS on
SWA?
Regression Coefficient
Analysis
iv. To determine the prediction effect of
SWA on OSE among respondents.
What is the prediction effect of SIC on
SWA?
Regression Coefficient
Analysis
v. To determine the mediation effect of
SWA on the relationship between
OSE and independent variables,
including SIS and SIC among
respondents.
What is the prediction effect of SWA
on OSE?
Mediation Test
Can the SWA contributes to the OSE as
mediator?
vi. To introduce the student-supervisor
framework for effective supervision
in TVET.
Does the Technical and Innovation
Input (TII) contributes to the SIS as a
dimension?
Exploratory Factor
Analysis
What is the student-supervisor
framework for effective supervision in
TVET?
All above
15
1.5 Hypotheses
On the basis of the research framework, the following null (O) statistical hypotheses were
set:
Hypothesis 1O: There is no positive relationship between Overall Supervision Effectiveness
and independent variables (namely; Supervisory Input Support, Supervisee Individual
Characteristic and Supervisory Working Alliance).
Hypothesis 2O: There is no significant effect of independent variables (namely;
Supervisory Input Support and Supervisee Individual Characteristic) on Supervisory
Working Alliance.
Hypothesis 3O: There is no significant effect of Supervisory Working Alliance on Overall
Supervision Effectiveness.
Hypothesis 4O: There is no mediation of Supervisory Working Alliance on the relationship
between Overall Supervision Effectiveness and independent variables (namely;
Supervisory Input Support and Supervisee Individual Characteristic).
1.6 Theoritical Framework
Generally, the theoretical framework from the collection of literatures forms the research
framework in this research. Upon reviewed the literature, this research hypothesized that
an effective students and supervisor framework for TVET should be developed based on
the needs from both parties. The theoretical framework of this research is based on a few
models by experienced and expert scholars. For supervisory contribution, Holloway‟s
Supervision Model was chosen to be part of this research because it emphasis on its
training aspects. The primary goal of supervision according to Holloway (1995) is the
establishment of an ongoing relationship in which the supervisor designs specific learning
tasks and teaching strategies related to the supervisee‟s development as a professional. In
addition, the supervisor empowers the supervisee to enter the profession by understanding
16
skills, attitudes and knowledge demanded by the professional and guiding the relationship
strategically to facilitate the trainee‟s achievement of a professional standard.
Supervisor‟sfunctions referred to the mode of interaction a supervisor used to impact
knowledge to their supervisees based on the following modes: monitoring/evaluating,
advising/instructing, modelling professional behaviour, consulting and supporting/sharing.
Kraiger et al.‟s (1993) Model of Training Effectiveness becomes the basis for
Trainee Characteristic as it focuses on the criteria for trainee‟s characteristic such as
motivation, personality, self-efficacy and intrinsic orientation. Kraiger et al.‟s (1993)
Model demonstrated that supervision effectiveness can be stimulated by selecting a
motivated trainee on the basis of his/her characteristics. The difference between this
research and previous research is that this research categorized SIC into four main
characteristics that were extracted from various terms, different forms of training
motivation and based on an integrative literature review.
The Supervisory Working Alliance Model as proposed by Bordin (1983) consists
of three major components: i) mutual agreement on supervision goals; ii) specific tasks
related to supervision goals; and iii) the development of bonds between supervisor and
supervisee. It was the relational bond that develops between supervisor and supervisee
when they work together to achieve mutual goals through clearly identified tasks. SWA
Model was selected as the mediator as it has strength to intervene the supervision
relationship.
The Four Levels of Evaluation, also referred to as the Kirkpatrick Evaluation
Model, was created by Donald Kirkpatrick, Ph.D. in 1950 to define the four levels of
training evaluation. The four levels of evaluation are: i) the reaction of the student and their
thoughts about the training experience; ii) the student's resulting learning and increase in
knowledge from the training experience; iii) the student's behavioral change and
improvement after applying the skills on the job; and iv) the results or effects that the
student's performance has on the business (Kirkpatrick, 1996). Kirkpatrick Evaluation
Model plays an important role in designing the Overall Supervision Effectiveness.
Most of the previous studies discussed that students place high demands on the
academic environment for information and support to students. Therefore, students‟ needs
have to be addressed at institutional, departmental and individual levels. In this research,
17
the overall supervisory effectiveness has been assessed to identify what kind of needs that
should be provided or improved. The theoretical framework explains the input, process and
output of the supervisory stages towards effective supervision that comes from varies of
demographic background. The Supervisory Contribution and Trainee Characteristic in
input section were identified as an important factor to develop Effective Supervision. The
present of Supervisory Relationship will either strengthen or weaken the relationship. The
theoretical framework is shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Theoretical Framework for Effective Supervision
Demography
Gender/ Age
Course
Family Background
INPUT
OUTPUT
PROCESS
Supervisory Contribution
Managerial/Academic/
Language/ Interpersonal/
Project
Creativity/ Innovative
Organizational/Accountability
Trainee Characteristic
Intrinsic/ Extrinsic
Orientation
Motivation
Self-Efficacy
Supervisory Relationship
Supervision Goal/ Task/ Bond
Supervisory Meeting
Interpersonal Relationship
Direct-indirect Support
Effective Supervision
Satisfaction
Cognitive Outcome/ Individual Performance
Affective Outcome/ Knowledge
Skill-based Outcome/ Psychomotor
Holloway’s
Supervision
Model
Kraiger et
al.’s Model of
Training
Effectiveness
Bordin’s
Supervisory
Working
Alliance
Model
Kirkpatrick’s
Model of
Training
Evaluation
18
1.7 Research Framework
This research majorly focuses on students‟ and supervisors‟ elements with reference to
TVET environment, especially for industrial-based project supervision. The independent
variables defined in this study are Supervisory Input Support (SIS) and Supervisee
Individual Characteristic (SIC). All variables were examined from students‟ perspectives.
Supervisory Working Alliance (SWA) acts as the variable that mediates the Overall
Supervision Effectiveness (OSE). The relationship between respondents‟ data of
Supervisory Input Support (SIS) and Supervisee Individual Characteristic (SIC) with the
Overall Supervision Effectiveness (OSE) was assessed. The Overall Supervision
Effectiveness (OSE) is the dependent variable. SIS and SIC is the input and SWA is the
process while the output is OSE as in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2: Conceptualized Relationships among Variables (Ismail et al., 2013)
Supervisee
Individual
Characteristic (SIC)
Intrinsic
Orientation
Self-Efficacy
Personality
Self-Motivation
Supervisory Input
Support (SIS)
Managerial Input
Project Input
Academic Input
Interpersonal Input
Technical and
Innovation Input
Supervisory
Working Alliance
(SWA)
Supervision Goal
Project Task
Bond
Development
Overall
Supervision
Effectiveness
(OSE)
Satisfaction
Cognitive
Outcomes
Skill-based
Outcomes
Affective
Outcomes
19
Nonetheless, the research framework is refined to make sure that the
instrument/questionnaire for this research will not be too long to ensure the respondents
complete the questionnaire honestly. Therefore, at least four important dimensions within
each independent variable are included. Dimensions within SIS included are Managerial
Input, Project Input, Academic Input, Interpersonal Input, Technical Input and Innovation
Input. Further, SIC included are Intrinsic Orientation, Self-Efficacy, Self-Motivation and
Personality. Meanwhile, dimensions of SWA included are Supervision Goal, Project Task
and Bond Development; and dimensions of OSE included are Satisfaction, Cognitive
Outcomes, Skill-based Outcomes and Affective Outcomes.
Technical and Innovation Input (TII) represent as the new introduced dimension for
SIS while the SWA represents the contribution of this element as the mediator since lack
of research being done by using this construct as mediator and in a single research together
with SIS and SIC. The overall research framework is adapted from Lessing and Schulze
(2002), Terry and Frank (2002), McAlpine and Norton (2002), Frick (2007), Kirkpatrick
(1996), Colquitt et al. (2000), Sterner (2009), Bordin (1983), Bahrick (1990), Lewin
(1938), Judd (1994), Kam (1997), Holton (2005) and Kraiger et al. (1993).
This framework had been successfully presented during 6th International Seminar
on Regional Education on 22nd and 23rd May 2013 in Selangor, Malaysia. The research in
question was eventually took the institutional perspective and the perspective of the
students. The outcome of the framework is a contribution to the enhancement of an
effective supervision.
1.8 Significance of Study
Theoretically, the present research contributes to the body knowledge by identifying
whether the Supervisory Working Alliance can mediate the relationship between
independent variables and the Overall Supervision Effectiveness. Practically, this research
is useful to inspire the organization and future researcher to enhance the supervisory
practice and offers a new perspective of effective supervision. Effective supervision is very
20
important to students, especially when doing certain project. This element plays a major
factor that influences the progress of students‟ studies. By improving the supervisory
elements, we can improve the study process and enhance the project progress. Good
supervisory practice offered by institute can attract more students. Excellent students that
are born from this institute will give good impression to the others. Thus, by investigating
these elements, there will be a high contribution to the institute. Besides, this research is
analysed and provides the best practice of an effective supervisor. Pertinent to its aims, the
findings of this study seek to:
i) Propose a new approach of supervision practice.
ii) Provide information about the students‟ needs towards the supervisory system
within Malaysian TVET.
iii) To determine the responsibilities and effective practices of supervision.
iv) To analyse the significance of supervisory input that should be improved.
v) Provide a good characteristic of a supervisee that can ensure the supervision
effectiveness.
vi) To understand how the institute can facilitate the progress of students through
the timely and appropriate provision of relevant information and input.
vii) To minimize the gap between multiple implementation of supervision practice
between TVET providers.
In response to the gaps that this research is trying to fill, it is vital to ensure this
research is successfully executed. The lack of research on TVET in various area could be
overcome by this research where it served as an additional information regarding TVET
system,especially in supervision area. The concept of effective supervision based on
undergraduate students was determined since most of the previous researches concentrated
on postgraduate students. By controlling the funtion of SWA as mediator rather than
dependent or independent variable, we could see the effect that it brings towards the
supervision practice. Since thisresearch is conducted on Malaysian students, it is
considered an important finding because most of the research of supervision was
conducted by foreign scholars. This is significant for Malaysia to have its own approach
based on its landscape. The significance of the study can be considered at two levels. First,
this study provides useful information, such as students‟ needs towards the effective
21
supervision. Secondly, this study could contribute to the improvement of the supervisory
practise by the institutes. The intended results bring an effective and efficient
implementation of student-supervisor framework. It is hoped to help institution and
practitioner including student and supervisor in practicing effective supervision.
1.9 Scope of the Study
The scope of this research encompasses the literature review of existing theory and
research to develop a research framework for the mediation effect of Supervisory Working
Alliance on the relationship between independent variables and Overall Supervision
Effectiveness. This research mainly focuses on the students‟ needs and expectation
towards Supervisory Input Support and Supervisee Individual Characteristic. Their
perceptions towards these needs were analyzed to find the solutions for effective
supervision. Apart from this, their expectations towards these elements were assed to
establish a framework that can be applied to students‟ studies. Finally, these needs serve as
a guide to enhance the industrial-project based supervision. This research is focused only
on students with industrial-based project. It is confined to only Diploma/Higher Diploma
or Malaysian Skill Certificate Level 4 or 5 students and they should already commence
their project. It is important to ensure the validity and reliability of the data is protected.
This research‟s findings were unique only to public institutions under the Ministry of
Human Resources.
1.10 Limitation of the Study
The limitations of this research are categorized into a few aspects. In terms of time, the
duration of data collection was limited to 9 months only since students‟ first registration
for industrial-based project programs. If the researcher is not aware of the allocated time,
22
he has to wait until another year for new respondents. The respondents‟ information are
confidential to be revealed by the institutes. Thus, the researcher went to each institute to
get actual data of the respondents. This affects the effort to apply a better sampling method
during the research because of this constriction. Since this research is not funded by any
grant, the researcher had to be careful in budget allocation. This research covers all
ADTECs in Peninsular Malaysia. ADTEC is chosen as the research population based on
the factor that there is little research being conducted on this place compared to
polytechnic and community college. Therefore, the limitation of the sample is taken into
consideration. The literatures for this research are mostly synthesis from foreign scholars.
Thus, the researcher needed to be careful in defining the operational definition and
constructing the variables. The questionnaire were translated as well. Other than that, the
present research is limited in a research of perceptions. In terms of generalization, other
institution either public or private institutes with similar environments may make a similar
generalization since this research only covers the students from ADTEC under the
Ministry of Human Resources.
1.11 Operational Definition
Each of the variables in this research consists of a specific terms and criteria that was
derived from the groups of existing theories and models. The terms that used have been
defined based on its operation.
i) Academic Input
Supervisors believed that they were contributing by organizing help with skills, developing
language, writing, by collecting relevant literature and through networking or putting
students in contact with others working in the area (Brown and Atkins, 1988). During
project development, a student need to have knowledge in project and to complete a final
thesis. This requires organizational and project skills. In this research, academic input
covers the supervisor‟s expertise, evaluation and the writing skills.
23
ii) Affective Outcome
According to Kraiger et al. (1993), Affective Outcome covers attitudinal, motivational,
motivational disposition, self-efficacy and goal setting. In this research, it covers the
maturity, personality and the professionalism of the students.
iii) Bond Development
Bond Development is the development of bonds between supervisor and supervisee
(Bordin, 1983). There are bonds associated with the carrying out of a common enterprise.
In this research, it covers the relationship between them and entails the growth of the
interaction between both parties.
iv) Cognitive Outcome
According to Kraiger et al. (1993), Cognitive Outcome covers Verbal Knowledge,
Organization Knowledge and Cognitive strategies. In this research, this element is
determined by the knowledge acquisition of the students from the project.
v) Industrial-Based Project
According to SFSU (2012), an industrial-based project must re-design of existing product
leading to user improvements. The product innovation must be based on: i) New and
immerging technologies; ii) Societal developments; iii) Environmental Concerns; iv)
Design and incorporation of unique visual languages; v) Solving a problem through the
innovative use of materials; and vi) Development of innovative manufacturing methods. In
this research, an industrial-based project is the final year project for a Diploma and Higher
Diploma program.
vi) Interpersonal Input
Interpersonal relationships between students and their supervisors are a determinant of
student success (Lessing and Schulze, 2002; Ives and Rowley, 2005; Lin and Cranton,
2005). Therefore, a supervisor and student must have a very good relationship and be very
close to each other. This includes the communication, motivation and counseling.
24
vii) Intrinsic Orientation
Intrinsic orientation refers to the extent to which educational training meets the internal
interest of trainees, such as opportunities for personal growth and development, or skill and
knowledge improvement (Facteau et al., 1995). In this research, students‟ Intrinsic
Orientation is analyzed based on their concern for personal growth and the interest to
improve their skill and knowledge.
viii) Managerial Input
Students need particular guidance on when to start and stop the project, data analysis,
when to start drafting the thesis and how to structure it (Holdaway, 1995). In this research,
this input explains how the supervisor manages the progress of his/her student‟s project.
ix) Mediating Effect
A mediating effect is created when a third factor intervenes between the independent and
outcome variable (Hair et al., 2006). In this research, SWA acts as a mediator variable. A
mediator variable or mediating/intervening variable in statistics is a variable that describes
how, rather than when, effects will occur by accounting for the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables.
x) Overall Supervision Effectiveness
Quality of research supervision is a subjective construct – the perceived satisfaction of the
student with the supervisory process and practice (Kam, 1997). Effectiveness means the
capability of producing an effect. The word effective is sometimes used in a quantitative
way, being very or not much effective. However, it does not inform on the direction
(positive or negative) and the comparison to a standard of the given effect. This research
refers effective as appropriate and complements what students‟ needs. The dimensions for
this construct are Satisfaction, Cognitive Outcome, Skill-Based Outcome and Affective
Outcome.
217
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