Medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are various plants thought by some to have medicinal properties, but few plants or their phytochemical constituents have been proven by rigorous science or approved by regulatory agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration or European Food Safety Authority to have medicinal effects.

The articles in this Category can be about traditional healing uses of plants, allopathic medicines derived from plants, and pharmacological research results about a plant.

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources, including plants. The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines pharmacognosy as "the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources." [1]

Aloe vera

Aloe vera

Aloe vera plant with flower detail inset.

Aloe vera, also known as the true or medicinal aloe, is a species of succulent plant that probably originated in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, Northern Africa, the Canary islands and Cape Verde. Aloe vera grows in arid climates and is widely distributed in Africa, India and other arid areas. The species is frequently cited as being used in herbal medicine. Many scientific studies of the use of aloe vera have been undertaken, some of them conflicting.[1][2][3][4] Despite these limitations, there is some preliminary evidence that Aloe vera extracts may be useful in the treatment of wound and burn healing, minor skin infections, Sebaceous cyst, diabetes and elevated blood lipids in humans.[3] These positive effects are thought to be due to the presence of compounds such as polysaccharides, mannans, anthraquinones and lectins.[3][5][6]

Aloe vera is a stemless or very short-stemmed succulent plant growing to 60–100 cm (24–39 in) tall, spreading by offsets. The leaves are thick and fleshy, green to grey-green, with some varieties showing white flecks on the upper and lower stem surfaces.[7] The margin of the leaf is serrated and has small

white teeth. The flowers are produced in summer on a spike up to 90 cm (35 in) tall, each flower pendulous, with a yellow tubular corolla 2–3 cm (0.8–1.2 in) long.[7][8] Like other Aloe species, Aloe vera forms arbuscular mycorrhiza, a symbiosis that allows the plant better access to mineral nutrients in soil.[9]

Taxonomy and etymology

Spotted forms of Aloe vera are sometimes known as Aloe vera var. chinensis.

The species has a number of synonyms: A. barbadensis Mill., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe perfoliata L. var. vera and A. vulgaris Lam.,[10][11] and common names including Chinese Aloe, Indian Aloe, true Aloe, Barbados Aloe, burn Aloe, first aid plant.[8][12][13][14][15] The species name vera means "true" or "genuine."[12] Some literature identifies the white spotted form of Aloe vera as Aloe vera var. chinensis,[16]

[17] however, the species varies widely with regard to leaf spots [18] and it has been suggested that the spotted form of Aloe vera may be conspecific with A. massawana.[19] The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 as Aloe perfoliata var. vera,[20] and was described again in 1768 by Nicolaas Laurens Burman as Aloe vera in Flora Indica on the 6th of April and by Philip Miller as Aloe barbadensis some ten days after Burman in the Gardener's Dictionary.[21]

Techniques based on DNA comparison suggest that Aloe vera is relatively closely related to Aloe perryi, a species that is endemic to Yemen.[22] Similar techniques, using chloroplast DNA sequence comparison and ISSR profiling have also suggested that Aloe vera is closely related to Aloe forbesii, Aloe inermis, Aloe scobinifolia, Aloe sinkatana and Aloe striata.[23] With the exception of South African species, A. striata, these Aloe species are native to Socotra (Yemen), Somalia and Sudan.[23] The lack of obvious natural populations of the species have led some authors to suggest that Aloe vera may be of hybrid origin.[24]

Distribution

The natural range of Aloe vera is unclear, as the species has been widely cultivated throughout the world. Naturalised stands of the species occur in the southern half of the Arabian peninsula, through North Africa, from Morocco to Egypt and Sudan, along with the Canary, Cape Verde and Madeira Islands. This distribution is similar to the one of Euphorbia balsamifera, Pistacia atlantica and a few others, suggesting that a dry sclerophyl forest once covered large areas, but has been dramatically reduced due to desertification in the Sahara, leaving these few patches isolated. The species was introduced to China and various parts of southern Europe in the 17th century.

Alternative names

- In India, the plant is known as Ghrtakumari and is sometimes used in Ayurvedic healing. In states of Rajasthan and Gujarat it is known as GwarPatha, In Tamilnadu it is known as Katralai.

- In Pakistan, the plant is known as Quargandal and is used in Unani (Greek-Islamic) medicine.

- In South America it is known as Sabila.

- In Indonesia, it is known as Lidah Buaya.

In many parts of India the plant extract is used as a home remedy for numerous skin allergies, acne, fungus infections and beauty-aid. In the state of Kerala, where it is known as kattar vazha, Aloe Vera is a common household name and for a long time it is being used for Ayurvedic treatment. And in the state of Tamil nadu, Aloe vera is known as katraazhai (Tamil: கற்றா�ழை�) and it has also a pet name kumari. The pulp of the plant is highly regarded for its anti-ageing potential, hence the name kumari. The pulp is used extensively in Siddha medicines for treating constipation, enlargement of spleen, zymotic disease, chengamaari (a type of venereal infection) etc.[27]

-In Mexico and Latin America it is often referred to as either "Savia", "Savila", or "Sabila." It is widely used both by Indigenous Peoples as well as by some Mestizos as a traditional medicine.

Cultivation

Aloe vera can be grown as an ornamental plant.

Aloe vera has been widely grown as an ornamental plant. The species is popular with modern gardeners as a putatively medicinal plant and due to its interesting flowers, form and succulence. This succulence enables the species to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for rockeries and other low-water use gardens.[7] The species is hardy in zones 8–11, although it is intolerant of very heavy frost or snow.[8][28] The species is relatively resistant to most insect pests, though mealy bugs, scale insects and aphid species may cause a decline in plant health.[29][30] In pots, the species requires well-drained sandy potting soil and bright sunny conditions. The use of a good quality commercial propagation mix or pre-packaged "cacti and succulent mix" is recommended as they allow good drainage.[31] Terracotta pots are preferable as they are porous.[31] Potted plants should be allowed to completely dry prior to re-watering. During winter, A. vera may become dormant, during which little moisture is required. In areas that

receive frost or snow the species is best kept indoors or in heated glasshouses.[8] Large scale agricultural production of Aloe vera is undertaken in Australia,[32] Bangladesh, Cuba,[33] the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico,[34] India,[35] Jamaica,[36] Kenya and South Africa,[37] along with the USA[38] to supply the cosmetics industry with Aloe vera gel.

Uses

Medicinal uses

Scientific evidence for the cosmetic and therapeutic effectiveness of Aloe vera is limited and when present is typically contradictory.[1][2] Despite this, the cosmetic and alternative medicine industries regularly make claims regarding the soothing, moisturising and healing properties of Aloe vera, especially via Internet advertising.[3][39][40][41][42] Aloe vera gel is used as an ingredient in commercially available lotion, yogurt, beverages and some desserts.[43][44][45] Aloe vera juice is used for consumption and relief of digestive issues such as heartburn and irritable bowel syndrome. It is common practice for cosmetic companies to add sap or other derivatives from Aloe vera to products such as makeup, tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, incense, razors and shampoos.[43] Other uses for extracts of Aloe vera include the dilution of semen for the artificial fertilization of sheep,[46] use as fresh food preservative,[47] and use in water conservation in small farms.[48]

Aloe vera has a long association with herbal medicine, although it is not known when its medical applications were first discovered. Early records of Aloe vera use appear in the Ebers Papyrus from 16th century BCE,[15] in both Dioscorides' De Materia Medica and Pliny the Elder's Natural History written in the mid-first century CE[15] along with the Juliana Anicia Codex produced in 512 CE.[43] Aloe vera is non-toxic, with no known side effects, provided the aloin has been removed by processing. Taking Aloe vera that contains aloin in excess amounts has been associated with various side effects.[3][4][49] However, the species is used widely in the traditional herbal medicine of China, Japan, Russia, South Africa, the United States, Jamaica and India.[3]

Aloe vera is alleged to be effective in treatment of wounds.[4] Evidence on the effects of Aloe vera sap on wound healing, however, is limited and contradictory.[4] Some studies, for example, show that Aloe vera promotes the rates of healing,[50][51] while in contrast, other studies show that wounds to which Aloe vera gel was applied were significantly slower to heal than those treated with conventional medical preparations.[52][53] A more recent review (2007) concludes that the cumulative evidence supports the use of Aloe vera for the healing of first to second degree burns.[54] In addition to topical use in wound or burn healing, internal intake of Aloe vera has been linked with improved blood glucose levels in diabetics,[55][56] and with lower blood lipids in hyperlipidaemic patients,[57] but also with acute hepatitis (liver disease).[49] In other diseases, preliminary studies have suggested oral Aloe vera gel may reduce symptoms and inflammation in patients with ulcerative colitis.[58] Compounds extracted from Aloe vera have been used as an immunostimulant that aids in fighting cancers in cats and dogs;[5] however, this treatment has not been scientifically tested in humans. The injection of Aloe vera extracts to treat cancer has resulted in the deaths of several patients.[59]

Topical application of Aloe vera may be effective for genital herpes and psoriasis.[60] However, it is not effective for the prevention of radiation-induced injuries. Although anecdotally useful, it has not been proven to offer protection from sunburn or suntan.[61] In a double-blind clinical trial the group using an

Aloe vera containing dentifrice and the group using a fluoridated dentifrice both demonstrated a statistically significant reduction of gingivitis and plaque.[62]

Aloe vera extracts have antibacterial and antifungal activities, which may help in the treatment of minor skin infections, such as boils and benign skin cysts. Aloe vera extracts have been shown to inhibit the growth of fungi that cause tinea;[63] however, evidence for control beneath human skin remains to be established. For its anti-fungal properties, Aloe vera is used as a fish tank water conditioner. For bacteria, inner-leaf gel from Aloe vera was shown to inhibit growth of Streptococcus and Shigella species in vitro.[64] In contrast, Aloe vera extracts failed to show antibiotic properties against Xanthomonas species.[65]

Commodity uses

Aloe vera is now widely used on face tissues, where it is promoted as a moisturiser and/or anti-irritant to reduce chafing of the nose of users who suffer hay-fever or cold.[66] It has also been suggested that biofuels could be obtained from Aloe vera seeds.[67] It can also be used to retwist dreadlocked hair, a favourite agent for vegans and those who prefer natural products. To add Aloe Vera is also used for soothing the skin, and keeping the skin moist while eliminating the risk of flaky scalp and skin in harsh and dry weather.

Historical uses

Aloin was the common ingredient in OTC laxative products in the United States prior to 2003, when the FDA ruled that aloin was a class III ingredient, therefore banning its use.[68] It should be noted that processed aloe that contains aloin is used primarily as a laxative, whereas processed aloe vera juice that does not contain significant amounts of aloin is used as a digestive healer. Manufacturers commonly remove aloin in processing due to the FDA ruling.

Culinary uses

Aloe is also used as a foodstuff. Some molecular gastronomists have begun to take advantage of its gelling properties. Perhaps most notably among these is Chef Quique Dacosta's "Oysters Guggenheim," created at El Poblet in Spain.[69]

Biologically active compounds

Aloe vera leaves contain a range of biologically active compounds, the best studied being acetylated mannans, polymannans, anthraquinone C-glycosides, anthrones and anthraquinones and various lectins.[3][5][6]

Cultivated Aloe vera

Some varieties of Aloe vera have no spots.

Aloe vera growing on a roadside in Aruba Aloe vera fields

Azadirachta indica Aka NEEM

Neem

Azadirachta indica (Neem) is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native to India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Pakistan, growing in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Other vernacular names include Neem (Hindi, Urdu and Bengali), Nimm (Punjabi), Arya Veppu (Malayalam), Azad Dirakht (Persian), Nimba (Sanskrit and Marathi), DogonYaro (in some Nigerian languages), Margosa, Neeb (Arabic), Nimtree, Vepu, Vempu, Vepa (Telugu), Bevu (Kannada), Kohomba (Sinhala), Vembu (Tamil), Tamar (Burmese), sầu đâu, xoan Ấn Độ (Vietnamese), Paraiso (Spanish), and Indian Lilac (English). In East Africa it is also known as Muarubaini (Swahili), which means the tree of the 40, as it is said to treat 40 different diseases.

Neem is a fast-growing tree that can reach a height of 15–20 m (about 50–65 feet), rarely to 35–40 m (115–131 feet). It is evergreen, but in severe drought it may shed most or nearly all of its leaves. The branches are wide spread. The fairly dense crown is roundish or oval and may reach the diameter of 15–20 m in old, free-standing specimens.

Contents

Trunk

The trunk is relatively short, straight and may reach a diameter of 1.2 m (about 4 feet).It is classified as a bush but it is not very weak.

[edit] Leaves

The opposite, pinnate leaves are 20–40 cm (8 to 16 in.) long, with 20 to 31 medium to dark green leaflets about 3–8 cm (1 to 3 in.) long. The terminal leaflet is often missing. The petioles are short. Very young leaves are reddish to purplish in colour. The shape of mature leaflets is more or less asymmetric and their margins are dentate with the exception of the base of their basiscopal half, which is normally very strongly reduced and cuneate or wedge-shaped.

[edit] Flowers

The (white and fragrant) flowers are arranged axillary, normally in more-or-less drooping panicles which are up to 25 cm (10 in.) long. The inflorescences, which branch up to the third degree, bear from 150 to 250 flowers. An individual flower is 5–6 mm long and 8–11 mm wide. Protandrous, bisexual flowers and male flowers exist on the same individual.

[edit] Fruit

The fruit is a smooth (glabrous) olive-like drupe which varies in shape from elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe are 1.4-2.8 x 1.0-1.5 cm. The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is 0.3-0.5 cm thick. The white, hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two or three, elongated seeds (kernels) having a brown seed coat.

The neem tree is very similar in appearance to the Chinaberry, all parts of which are extremely poisonous.

[edit] Ecology

The neem tree is noted for its drought resistance. Normally it thrives in areas with sub-arid to sub-humid conditions, with an annual rainfall between 400 and 1200 mm. It can grow in regions with an annual rainfall below 400 mm, but in such cases it depends largely on ground water levels. Neem can grow in many different types of soil, but it thrives best on well drained deep and sandy soils. It is a typical tropical to subtropical tree and exists at annual mean temperatures between 21-32 °C. It can tolerate high to very high temperatures and does not tolerate temperature below 4 °C . Neem is a life-giving tree, especially for the dry coastal, southern districts of India. It is one of the very few shade-giving trees that thrive in the drought-prone areas. The trees are not at all delicate about the water quality and thrive on the merest trickle of water, whatever the quality. In India it is very common to see neem trees used for shade lining the streets or in most people's back yards. In very dry areas the trees are planted in large tracts of land.

[edit] Invasiveness

Neem is considered an invasive species in many areas where it is non-native, including some parts of the Middle East, and most of Sub-Saharan Africa including West Africa where in Senegal it has been used as a malarial drug and Tanzania and other Indian Ocean states where in Kiswahili it is known as 'the panacea', literally 'the tree that cures forty [diseases]', where ayurvedic uses are practitioned.

Ecologically, it survives well in similar environments to its own, for example replacing the babul acacia tree from India with African acacia species.

[edit] Chemical compounds

The late Pakistani scientist Salimuzzaman Siddiqui was the first scientist to bring the plant to the attention of phytopharmacologists.[citation needed] In 1942, while working at the Scientific and Industrial Research Laboratory at Delhi University, British India, he extracted three bitter compounds from neem oil, which he named nimbin, nimbinin, and nimbidin respectively.[1] The seeds contain a complex secondary metabolite azadirachtin.

[edit] Uses

In India, the tree is variously known as "Sacred Tree," "Heal All," "Nature's Drugstore," "Village Pharmacy" and "Panacea for all diseases." Products made from neem tree have been used in India for over two millennia for their medicinal properties: Neem products have been observed to be anthelmintic, antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, contraceptive and sedative.[1] Neem products are also used in selectively controlling pests in plants. It is considered a major component in Ayurvedic medicine and is particularly prescribed for skin disease.

All parts of the tree have medicinal properties (seeds, leaves, flowers and bark) and are used for preparing many different medical preparations.

Part of the Neem tree can be used as a spermicide [2] Neem oil is used for preparing cosmetics (soap, shampoo, balms and creams, for example Margo

soap), and is useful for skin care such as acne treatment, and keeping skin elasticity. Neem oil has been found to be an effective mosquito repellent.

Neem derivatives neutralise nearly 500 pests worldwide, including insects, mites, ticks, and nematodes, by affecting their behaviour and physiology. Neem does not normally kill pests right away, rather it repels them and affects their growth. As neem products are cheap and non-toxic to higher animals and most beneficial insects, they are well-suited for pest control in rural areas.

Besides its use in traditional Indian medicine, the neem tree is of great importance for its anti-desertification properties and possibly as a good carbon dioxide sink.

Practitioners of traditional Indian medicine recommend that patients suffering from chicken pox sleep on neem leaves.

Neem gum is used as a bulking agent and for the preparation of special purpose food (for diabetics).

Aqueous extracts of neem leaves have demonstrated significant antidiabetic potential. Traditionally, slender neem branches were chewed in order to clean one's teeth. Neem twigs

are still collected and sold in markets for this use, and in India one often sees youngsters in the streets chewing on neem twigs.

A decoction prepared from neem roots is ingested to relieve fever in traditional Indian medicine. Neem leaf paste is applied to the skin to treat acne, and in a similar vein is used for measles and

chicken pox sufferers. Neem blossoms are used in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka to prepare Ugadi

pachhadi. "Bevina hoovina gojju" (a type of curry prepared with neem blossoms) is common in Karnataka throughout the year. Dried blossoms are used when fresh blossoms are not available. In Tamilnadu, a rasam (veppam poo rasam) made with neem blossoms is a culinary speciality.

A mixture of neem flowers and bella (jaggery or unrefined brown sugar) is prepared and offered to friends and relatives, symbolic of sweet and bitter events in the upcoming new year.

Extract of neem leaves is thought to be helpful as malaria prophylaxis despite the fact that no comprehensive clinical studies are yet available. In several cases, private initiatives in Senegal were successful in preventing malaria.[3] However, major NGOs such as USAID are not supposed to use neem tree extracts unless the medical benefit has been proved with clinical studies.

Uses in pest and disease control

Neem is deemed very effective in the treatment of scabies, although only preliminary scientific proof, which still has to be corroborated, exists,[citation needed] and is recommended for those who are sensitive to permethrin, a known insecticide which might be an irritant. Also, the scabies mite has yet to become resistant to neem, so in persistent cases neem has been shown to be very effective. There is also anecdotal evidence of its effectiveness in treating infestations of head lice in humans. A tea made of boiled neem leaves, sometimes combined with other herbs such as ginger, can be ingested to fight intestinal worms.[citation needed]

The oil is also used in sprays against fleas for cats and dogs.

As a vegetable

The tender shoots and flowers of the neem tree are eaten as a vegetable in India. Neem flowers are very popular for their use in Ugadi Pachhadi (soup-like pickle), which is made on Ugadi day in the South Indian States of Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. A souplike dish called Veppampoo Rasam (Tamil) (translated as "neem flower rasam") made of the flower of neem is prepared in Tamil Nadu.

Neem is also used in parts of mainland Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Laos (where it is called kadao), Thailand (where it is known as sadao or sdao), Myanmar (where it is known as tamar) and Vietnam (where it is known as sầu đâu and is used to cook the salad: gỏi sầu đâu). Even lightly cooked, the flavour is quite bitter and thus the food is not enjoyed by all inhabitants of these nations, though it is believed to be good for one's health. Neem Gum is a rich source of protein. In Myanmar, young neem leaves and flower buds are boiled with tamarind fruit to soften its bitterness and eaten as a vegetable. Pickled neem leaves are also eaten with tomato and fish paste sauce in Myanmar.

Association with Hindu festivals in India

Neem leaf or bark is considered an effective pitta pacifier due to its bitter taste. Hence, it is traditionally recommended during early summer in Ayurveda (that is, the month of Chaitra as per the Hindu Calendar

which usually falls in the month of March - April), and during Gudi Padva, which is the New Year in the state of Maharashtra, the ancient practice of drinking a small quantity of neem juice or paste on that day, before starting festivities, is found. As in many Hindu festivals and their association with some food to avoid negative side-effects of the season or change of seasons, neem juice is associated with Gudi Padva to remind people to use it during that particular month or season to pacify summer pitta. In Tamilnadu during the summer months of April to June, the Mariamman temple festival is a thousand year old tradition. The Neem leaves and flowers are the most important part of the Mariamman festival. The goddess Mariamman statue will be garlanded with Neem leaves and flowers. During most occasions of celebrations and weddings the people of Tamilnadu adorn their surroundings with the Neem leaves and flowers as a form of decoration and also to ward off evil spirits and infections.

Patent Controversy

In 1995, the European Patent Office (EPO) granted a patent on an anti-fungal product, derived from neem, to the US Department of Agriculture and multinational W. R. Grace and Company.[4] The Indian government challenged the patent when it was granted, claiming that the process for which the patent had been granted had actually been in use in India for over 2,000 years. In 2000, the EPO ruled in India's favour but the US multinational mounted an appeal claiming that prior art about the product had never been published in a scientific journal. On 8 March 2005, that appeal was lost and the EPO revoked the Neem patent rights keeping the tree free of these patent restrictions.[4]

Gallery

Flowers in Hyderabad, India. Trunk

Animals under a Neem tree in a rural Punjabi home Neem flowers in closeup

Ocimum tenuiflorumAka TULSI

Tulsi

Ocimum tenuiflorum (also tulsi, tulasī, or Holy Basil) is an aromatic plant in the family Lamiaceae which is native throughout the Old World tropics and widespread as a cultivated plant and an escaped weed.[1] It is an erect, much branched subshrub 30-60 cm tall with hairy stems and simple opposite green leaves that are strongly scented. Leaves have petioles, and are ovate, up to 5 cm long, usually slightly toothed. Flowers are purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls.[2] There are two main morphotypes cultivated in India—green-leaved (Sri or Lakshmi tulsi) and purple-leaved (Krishna tulsi).[3]

Tulsi is cultivated for religious and medicinal purposes, and for its essential oil. It is widely known across South Asia as a medicinal plant and an herbal tea, commonly used in Ayurveda, and has an important role within the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism, in which devotees perform worship involving Tulsi plants or leaves.

There is also a variety of Ocimum tenuiflorum which is used in Thai cuisine, and is referred to as Thai holy basil, or kraphao (กะเพรา)[4]—not be confused with "Thai Basil", which is a variety of Ocimum basilicum.

In Ayurveda

Tulsi flowers.

Tulsi has been used for thousands of years in Ayurveda for its diverse healing properties. It is mentioned by Charaka in the Charaka Samhita,[5] an ancient Ayurvedic text. Tulsi is considered to be an adaptogen,[6]

balancing different processes in the body, and helpful for adapting to stress.[7] Marked by its strong aroma and astringent taste, it is regarded in Ayurveda as a kind of "elixir of life" and believed to promote longevity.[8]

Tulsi’s extracts are used in ayurvedic remedies for common colds, headaches, stomach disorders, inflammation, heart disease, various forms of poisoning, and malaria. Traditionally, tulsi is taken in many forms: as herbal tea, dried powder, fresh leaf, or mixed with ghee. Essential oil extracted from Karpoora Tulsi is mostly used for medicinal purposes and in herbal cosmetics, and is widely used in skin preparations due to its anti-bacterial activity. For centuries, the dried leaves of Tulsi have been mixed with stored grains to repel insects.[9]

Recent studies suggest that Tulsi may be a COX-2 inhibitor, like many modern painkillers, due to its high concentration of eugenol (1-hydroxy-2-methoxy-4-allylbenzene).[10][11] One study showed Tulsi to be an effective treatment for diabetes by reducing blood glucose levels.[12] The same study showed significant reduction in total cholesterol levels with Tulsi. Another study showed that Tulsi's beneficial effect on blood glucose levels is due to its antioxidant properties.[13] Tulsi also shows some promise for protection from radiation poisoning [14] and cataracts.[15]

Some of the main chemical constituents of Tulsi are: Oleanolic acid, Ursolic acid, Rosmarinic acid, Eugenol, Carvacrol, Linalool, and β-caryophyllene.[6]

Thai cuisine

Closeup of Tulsi leaves.

The leaves of holy basil, known as kraphao in the Thai language (กะเพรา), are commonly used in Thai food.[16][17] Thai holy basil (Thai: kraphao / กะเพรา) should not be confused with horapha (Thai: โหระพา), which is normally known as Thai basil,[16][17] or with Thai lemon basil (Thai: แมงลั ก).

The best-known dish made with this herb is Phat kraphao (Thai: ผั ดกะเพรา)—beef, pork or chicken stir fried with Thai holy basil.

In Hinduism

Tulsi, which is Sanskrit for "the incomparable one", is worshiped throughout India, most often regarded as a consort of Vishnu in the form of Mahalakshmi.[18][19] According to Brahma Vaivarta Purana she is the expansion of Radha.[20] There are two types of Tulsi worshiped in Hinduism—"Rama Tulsi" has light green leaves and is larger in size; "Shyam Tulsi" has dark green leaves and is important for the worship of Vishnu.[21] Many Hindus have tulsi plants growing in front of or near their home, often in special Tulsi pots. It is also frequently grown next to Vishnu temples, especially in Varanasi.[22]

In the ceremony of Tulsi Vivah, Tulsi is ceremonially married to Vishnu annually on the eleventh bright day or twelfth of the month of Kartika in the lunisolar calendar. That day also marks the end of the four month cāturmāsya period, which is considered inauspicious for weddings and other rituals, and so the day inaugurates the annual marriage season in India. The ritual lighting of lamps each evening during Kartika includes the worship of the Tulsi plant, which is considered auspicious for the home. Vaishnavas especially follow the daily worship of Tulsi during Kartika.[23]

Vaishnavas traditionally use japa malas made from tulsi stems or roots, which are an important symbol of initiation. Tulsi malas are considered to be auspicious for the wearer, and believed to put them under the protection of Vishnu or Krishna. They have such a strong association with Vaishnavas, that followers of Vishnu have long been called "those who bear the tulasi round the neck".[19]

Gallery

Tulsi plants

Close up of tulsi flowers and seeds

Turmeric

Turmeric

Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae.[2] It is native to tropical South Asia and needs temperatures between 20 °C and 30 °C, and a considerable amount of annual rainfall to thrive.[3] Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes, and re-seeded from some of those rhizomes in the following season.

The rhizomes are boiled for several hours and then dried in hot ovens, after which they are ground into a deep orange-yellow powder commonly used as a spice in curries and other South Asian and Middle Eastern cuisine, for dyeing, and to impart color to mustard condiments. Its active ingredient is curcumin and it has a distinctly earthy, slightly bitter, slightly hot peppery flavor and a mustardy smell.

In medieval Europe, turmeric became known as Indian Saffron, since it was widely used as an alternative to the far more expensive saffron spice.[4]

Erode, a city in the south Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is the world's largest producer and most important trading center of turmeric in Asia. For these reasons, Erode in history is also known as "Yellow City"[citation

needed] or "Turmeric City".[citation needed] Sangli, a town in the southern part of the Indian western state of Maharashtra, is the second largest and most important trading center for turmeric in Asia.

Nomenclature and taxonomy

Kingdom | Plantae (plants), Phylum | Magnoliophyta (flowering plants), Class | Liliopsida (monoctyledons), Order | Zingiberales (gingers, bananas, birds-of-paradise, heliconias, costus, cannas, prayer plants, arrowroots, ...), Family | Zingiberaceae (ginger family), Genus | Curcuma (curcuma), Species | Curcuma longa (common turmeric),

Usage

Culinary uses

Turmeric powder is used extensively in South Asian cuisine.

Commercially packaged turmeric powder

Turmeric grows wild in the forests of Southeast Asia. It has become the key ingredient for many Indian, Persian, Thai and Malay dishes, not only in curry, but also in masak lemak, rendang and many more.

In Indonesia, the turmeric leaves are used for Minangese or Padangese curry base of Sumatra such as rendang, sate padang and many other varieties.

Although most usage of turmeric is in the form of root powder, in some regions (especially in Maharashtra), leaves of turmeric are used to wrap and cook food. This usually takes place in areas where turmeric is grown locally, since the leaves used are freshly picked. This imparts a distinct flavor.

In non-South Asian recipes, turmeric is sometimes used as an agent to impart a rich, custard-like yellow color. It is used in canned beverages and baked products, dairy products, ice cream, yogurt, yellow cakes, orange juice, biscuits, popcorn color, sweets, cake icings, cereals, sauces, gelatins, etc.[citation needed] It is a significant ingredient in most commercial curry powders. Turmeric is mostly used in savory dishes, as well as some sweet dishes such as the cake Sfouf.

Although usually used in its dried, powdered form, turmeric is also used fresh, much like ginger. It has numerous uses in Far Eastern recipes, such as fresh turmeric pickle which contains large chunks of soft turmeric.

Turmeric (coded as E100 when used as a food additive)[5] is used to protect food products from sunlight. The oleoresin is used for oil-containing products. The curcumin/polysorbate solution or curcumin powder dissolved in alcohol is used for water-containing products. Over-coloring, such as in pickles, relishes, and mustard, is sometimes used to compensate for fading.

In combination with annatto (E160b), turmeric has been used to color cheeses, yogurt, dry mixes, salad dressings, winter butter and margarine. Turmeric is also used to give a yellow color to some prepared mustards, canned chicken broths and other foods (often as a much cheaper replacement for saffron).

Turmeric is widely used as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking. Many Persian dishes use Turmeric, for the coloring of rice bottoms as well as a starter ingredient for almost all Iranian fry ups (which typically consist of oil, onions and turmeric followed by any other ingredients that are to be included). In Nepal, turmeric is widely grown and is extensively used in almost every vegetable and meat dish in the country for its color as well as for its medicinal value. In South Africa turmeric is traditionally used to give boiled white rice a golden color.

Uses in folk medicine

Turmeric plant

Main article: Curcumin

In Ayurvedic practices, turmeric has many medicinal properties and many in South Asia use it as a readily available antiseptic for cuts, burns and bruises. It is also used as an antibacterial agent.

It is taken in some Asian countries as a dietary supplement, which allegedly helps with stomach problems and other ailments. It is popular as a tea in Okinawa, Japan. Pakistanis also use it as an anti-inflammatory agent, and remedy for gastrointestinal discomfort associated with irritable bowel syndrome, and other digestive disorders. In Afghanistan and northwest Pakistan, turmeric is applied to a piece of burnt cloth, and placed over a wound to cleanse and stimulate recovery. Indians, in addition to its Ayurvedic properties, use turmeric in a wide variety of skin creams that are also exported to neighboring countries.

Preliminary medical research

Turmeric is currently being investigated for possible benefits in Alzheimer's disease,[6] cancer, arthritis, and other clinical disorders.[7]

Turmeric rhizome

In the latter half of the 20th century, curcumin was identified as responsible for most of the biological effects of turmeric. According to a 2005 article in the Wall Street Journal, research activity into curcumin and turmeric is increasing, with supplement sales increased 35% from 2004. The U.S. National Institutes of Health currently has registered 19 clinical trials underway to study use of dietary turmeric and curcumin for a variety of clinical disorders (dated February 2010).[8]

Cosmetics

Turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens.[citation needed] Turmeric paste is used by some Indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair. Turmeric paste is applied to bride and groom before marriage in some places of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, where it is believed turmeric gives glow to skin and keeps some harmful bacteria away from the body.

The government of Thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids (THC) from turmeric. THCs are colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin-lightening properties and might be used to treat skin inflammations, making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations.

Dye

Inflorescence in Goa, India.

Turmeric makes a poor fabric dye as it is not very lightfast (the degree to which a dye resists fading due to light exposure). However, turmeric is commonly used in Indian clothing, such as saris.

Gardening

Turmeric can also be used to deter ants. The exact reasons why turmeric repels ants is unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests it works.[9]

Ceremonial uses

Turmeric is also used in various rituals, such as the turmeric ceremony or gaye holud, part of the Bengali wedding. It is widely used in all parts of India during wedding ceremony, particularly in North India and the Deccan Plateau.

It is also used in Pujas to make a form of the elephant God Ganesha. It is made by mixing turmeric with water and forming it into a cone-like shape.

During the south Indian festival Pongal, a whole turmeric plant with the root is placed as part of the ceremonial decorations. Also, fresh root is some times tied around the pot boiling the ceremonial rice.

In southern India, as a part of the marriage ritual, a piece of dried turmeric tied with string is sometimes used to replace the Thali necklace temporarily or permanently.

Modern Neopagans list it with the quality of fire, and it is used for power and purification rites.

In Goa and Dakshina Kannada (Karnataka state, India) turmeric plant leaf is used to prepare special sweet dishes, patoleo, by layering on the leaf — rice flour, and coconut-jaggery mixture, and then closing and steaming in a special copper steamer (goa).