Medicinal plants and food medicines in the folk traditions of the … 2000.pdf · 2012-04-13 · Table 1 lists the medicinal plants and food medicine of the folk traditions of the

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70 (2000) 235–273

Medicinal plants and food medicines in the folk traditionsof the upper Lucca Province, Italy

A. Pieroni *Dipartimento di Scienza del Suolo e Nutrizione della Pianta, Uni6ersita degli Studi di Firenze, Piazzale delle Cascine, 28,

I-50144 Florence, Italy

Received 20 November 1999; accepted 6 December 1999

Abstract

An ethnopharmacobotanical survey of the medicinal plants and food medicines of the northern part of LuccaProvince, north-west Tuscany, central Italy, was carried out. The geographical isolation of this area has permitted thesurvival of a rich folk phytotherapy involving medicinal herbs and also vegetable resources used by locals as foodmedicine. Among these are the uncommon use of Ballota nigra leaves as a trophic protective; the use of Liliumcandidum bulbs as an antiviral to treat shingles (Herpes zoster); Parmelia sp. as a cholagogue; Crocus napolitanusflowers as antiseptic; Prunus laurocerasus drupes as a hypotensive; and the consumption of chestnut flour polentacooked with new wine as bechic. Many wild gathered greens are eaten raw in salads, or in boiled mixtures, as ‘bloodcleansing’ and ‘intestine cleansing’ agents. Of particular interest is the persistence of the archaic use of Bryonia dioicaroot against sciatica, and the use of ritual plant therapeuticals as good omens, or against the ‘evil eye.’ Over 120species represent the heritage of the local folk pharmacopoeia in upper Garfagnana. Anthropological and ethnophar-macological considerations of the collected data are also discussed. © 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rightsreserved.

Keywords: Medicinal plants; Ethnobotany; Food medicine; Tuscany; Italy

www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

1. Introduction

Systematic explorations of traditional pharma-copoeias are urgently required in Southern Eu-rope, especially in those areas which, forgeographical and historical reasons, remain rela-tively isolated, and where industrial development

has not lead to a complete decline of theirtraditions.

Moreover, little is known about the practice offood medicine, despite the role of medicinal cuisi-nes and consumption of health edibles havingheld a central position in traditional folk medicalsystems (Johns, 1980; Etkin and Ross, 1993;Etkin, 1994, 1996).

The area which has been the subject of ourinvestigation is situated in northwestern Tuscany,Lucca Province (central Italy), and comprises the

* Present address: Venloer Str. 233a, D-50823 Cologne,Germany.

E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Pieroni)

0378-8741/00/$ - see front matter © 2000 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

PII: S 0378 -8741 (99 )00207 -X

A. Pieroni / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70 (2000) 235–273236

upper part of the Serchio Valley (Garfagnana).The Garfagnana consists administratively of 16municipalities, covers 534 km2, and has 30 350inhabitants. We confined our attention to thenorthern part of the Garfagnana, comprising fivesmall municipalities; (San Romano, Piazza al Ser-chio, Sillano, Minucciano and Giuncugnano), allof which cover 191 km2 and include 8100 inhabi-tants (42.6 inhabitants per km2).

This area is typical mountainous terrain, delim-ited by the Apuan Alps in the west and theApennines in the east, facing, respectively theTyrrhenian coast and the region Emilia-Romagna.

Part of the western side of this territory isincluded in the Regional Natural Park of theApuan Alps, while a project to include the easternpart of the Garfagnana in the newly establishedNational Park of the Tosco-Emilian Apennines isunderway.

The natural landscape of the upper part of thevalley is characterised principally by chestnutwoods (Castanea sati6a Mill.), to around 1000 mabove sea level, while the higher terrain is coveredby beech woods (Fagus syl6atica L.) extending toabout 1600 m above sea level. There are manydifferences between the Apennine and Apuanfloras owing to their different geological originsand proximity to the sea, the Apuan Alps havingmore maritime influence, and a distinctive cal-careous geology.

The Garfagnana region was inhabited by mansince the Middle Palaeolithic, but dominatedmore recently by Ligurian-Apuanians, traces ofwhom have been found throughout the valley inthe numerous, widely distributed cremation tombs(in the form of boxes made of stone slabs). TheLigurian-Apuanians were a great hindrance toRoman expansion and upon their defeat in 179BC they were deported en masse to Sannio, andthus began, in Garfagnana, the period of Romancolonization which absorbed the residue of thepopulation. On the fall of the Roman Empire itwas the Longobards (570–774) who, in the suc-ceeding barbarian invasion, left the most evidenceof their presence in this region. From the 12thcentury, free municipalities were established. Themajority of these decided spontaneously to place

themselves under the protection of the Duke ofFerrara, while at the same time Lucca dominatedthe lower part of the valley. These occupationswere intended to be temporary but they persisteduntil the Unification of Italy (1860) when theterritory was annexed to the Kingdom of Italy.

Because of its history and geographical isola-tion, the Garfagnana has maintained its very dis-tinctive characteristics compared with the rest ofTuscany. However, the traditional agro-sylvo-pas-toral lifestyle began to decline during the 1950sand 60s, although today interest is reviving tosave, maintain and increase the role of traditionalactivities, such as the cultivation of chestnut trees(Castanea sati6a L.) and emmer wheat (Triticumdicoccon Schrank).

The interest of the present study was focusedon medicinal plants and vegetable food medicineused in the local folk pharmacopoeia. Attemptshave been made to correlate these data with otherpharmaco-botanical research works carried out inthe Province of Lucca in the last 20 years (Pagniand Corsi, 1979; Corsi et al., 1981; Uncini Man-ganelli and Tomei, 1995, 1996) and more generalethnobotanical work touching all the Italianpeninsular areas.

A further aim of this research was to developan ethnobotanical framework inside a project ani-mated by various local actors and anthropologists(Pieroni, 1999a) for re-evaluating local oral tradi-tional knowledge within the newly born Docu-mentation Centre ‘Gastone Venturelli’ in Piazzaal Serchio.

2. Methods

Field research was conducted by collecting eth-nobotanical information during interviews with141 knowledgeable persons (103 women and 38men) native to the territory. The age of the infor-mants ranged between 40 and 96 years (the aver-age age being 67).

The field research involved 28 very small vil-lages (population from 50 to 1000 inhabitants):Caprignana, Orzaglia and San Romano (includedin the San Romano Municipality), Capanne diSillano, Dalli Sotto and Sillano (belonging to the

A. Pieroni / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 70 (2000) 235–273 237

Sillano Municipality), Castelletto, Foce deiCarpinelli, Giuncugnano, Magliano and Varliano(Municipality of Giuncugnano), Metra, Minuc-ciano, Gorfigliano, Gramolazzo, Pieve SanLorenzo and Verrucolette (Minucciano Munici-pality) and Borsigliana, Colognola, Cogna, Livig-nano, Gragnana, Nicciano, Petrognano, Piazza alSerchio, San Donnino, Sant’Anastasio andVergnano (in the Municipality of Piazza al Ser-chio). The location of the area studied is shown inFig. 1.

No special selection criteria were used in thechoice of the informants because one of the aimsof this work was to assess the breadth of popular

heritage in the field of food medicine, knowledgeof which is widespread among locals. By contrast,knowledge of traditional phytotherapeuticals isnormally exclusive to the few traditional healers.

A questionnaire was filled in for each quota-tion, in order to try to filter out, in a second phaseof the research, ‘contamination’ from importedmodern sources (magazines, books, television,etc.). Clues to such might be complicated dosagesand mixtures of plants in the medicinal prepara-tions; quotations of the scientific name of thespecies; the quotation of official pharmaceuticaltherapeutic properties (such as ‘bechic’ or ‘anal-gesic’). Suspect non-original data were eliminatedand represented 0.8% of the total collected.

Fig. 1. Location of the area studied.


Normally people reported species using dialect(with which the interviewer was conversant) defin-ing the properties of the plant and of the foodmedicine with simple assertions such as ‘It’s goodfor…’, ‘It’s good against…’, ‘To cure…’.

Infusions and decoctions represented most ofthe recorded medicinal preparations, while in thecases of external use, simply the fresh plant, or itsjuice, or sometimes poultices made with eggs,flour and fat were quoted.

An attempt was made to classify the percep-tions of the role of food species as food medicineby analysing the different assertions that weremade. In some cases medicinal properties of thefood species were excluded (‘I don’t know if it isgood for’, ‘I don’t think it is good for any-thing…’, ‘I don’t remember…’), in other casesmedicinal properties were generally postulated (‘Itis good for the health…’) without any other spe-cification. Sometimes they were more exactly de-scribed (‘It is good for x or y’), and only in a fewcases were they very strongly emphasised (‘It isvery/extremely good for…’).

We elaborated these data regarding the func-tion as food medicine ascribed to some plants, bydividing the average values into four classes: norole, low, middle and high.

Plants recognised by the villagers were collectedand identification was carried out by the author;nomenclature followed the standard botanicalwork for Italian flora (Pignatti, 1997).

Voucher specimens are deposited at the Docu-mentation Centre in Piazza al Serchio.

3. Results and discussion

Table 1 lists the medicinal plants and foodmedicine of the folk traditions of the Garfagnana.Over 120 species (mostly wild) were recorded.Asterisks indicated non-native species. Specialmarks indicate uses that have died out at thepresent day.

Exotic species and other imported supposed‘health’ plants were not considered, but non-na-tive plants, whose cultivation or naturalisation inthe territory have already consolidated a traditionfor at least two centuries, were recorded.

Indications of the medicinal uses or propertieswere reported as quoted by the informants, with-out trying to ‘translate’ their assertions to themodern pharmaceutical lexicon (for example, ex-pressions such as ‘against…’ or ‘cleansing’ havebeen maintained).

Some of the recorded uses are common andalready documented in the scientific literature,others are original. The most interesting uses andaspects of the collected data are discussed below.

3.1. New phytotherapeutic reports

In Table 1 are reported all the species quotedby at least two informants. The table also cites thepharmaceutical reference in the monographs ofthe German Commission E, as well as whether ornot a medical use of the species was reported inthe most important ancient Greek and Romanmedical or natural treatises of Dioscoride,Theophrastus, Galen, Pliny (Lenz, 1859; Benedumet al., 1994) and in the mediaeval ‘Commentari’by the Tuscan physician Pietro Andrea Mattioli(1568).

The recorded data were also compared withthose collected during field ethnobotanical re-search carried out in peninsular Italy after the 2ndWorld War (Bertagnon, 1955; Chiovenda-Bensi,1955, 1957, 1960; Bandini, 1961; Barone, 1963;Lomagno and Lomagno Caramiello, 1970; Tam-maro and Pietrocola, 1975; Tammaro, 1976;Gastaldo et al., 1979; Rando and Servettaz, 1979;Servettaz et al., 1979; Chicchiricco et al., 1980;Corsi et al., 1981; Martini, 1981; Bellomaria,1982; Bellomaria and Lattanzi, 1982; Capasso etal., 1982; Cappelletti et al., 1982; D’Andrea, 1982;Chimenti Signorini and Fumagalli, 1983; Martini,1983; Bellomaria and Della Mora, 1985; Cappel-letti, 1985; Leporatti et al., 1985a,b; Antonone etal., 1988; Coassini Lokar and Poldini, 1988;Guarrera, 1988; Leporatti and Pavesi, 1989, 1990;De Feo et al., 1992; De Feo and Senatore, 1993;Guarrera, 1994; Uncini Manganelli and Tomei,1999) and to the standard treatise of the Italianmedicinal flora (Gastaldo, 1987). Uncommon andinteresting uses were recorded for Ballota, Bry-onia, Crocus, Parmelia and Prunus laurocerasusspp. For these botanicals, the folk prescriptions

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Table 1Medicinal plants and medicinal foods reported by at least two informants in the upper Garfagnana

Local names Quotations inPart used Medicinal FoodWild (W) or Role as food-Scientific name Number of Monographmentionsmedicinec of the Ger-cultivated (C), Mediter-popularpopular use

usevoucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-ical medicalmission Ementreatises(number; +,

positive; −,negative)

W, GAABI199 Resin DigestiveAbies alba Abete Aromatising 4 Yes: 12243, YesgrappaMiller +(aromatised

(Pinaceae) grappa)Diaphoretic Soups (withFlowersMillefoglie No 8 Yes: 01102,W, GAACH199 YesAchillea mille-

folium L. (infusion) other wild +greens)(Compositae)

Castagno d’IndiaAesculus Fruits –AgainstW, GAAES199 YesYes: 01136,17Nohippocas- +colds andtanum L. other infec-

tions of the(Hippocas-tanaceae) respiratory

tract (ritual:carryingfruits in thetrouser-pocket)

Aethusa cy- Leaves Yes (the spe-Diaphoretic, NoW, GAAET99 Cicuta – No 4in relation to cies wasnapium L.intestinal probably not(Umbel-

distinguishedinflamma-liferae)tions (infu- from Conium

maculatum)sion) c

Bulb Bechic (de-Allium cepa C, GAALL199 Cipolla YesYes: 02815,35Raw in coction); +mixed(Liliaceae)

salads,‘Bloodcleansing’ roasted,

condiment(eaten raw,cooked, oras condi-ment)

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240Table 1 (Continued)

Scientific name Part used Quotations inMedicinal FoodWild (W) or Role as food-Local names Number of Monographmentionsmedicinec of the Ger-cultivated (C), Mediter-popularpopular use

usevoucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-men ical medicalmission E

(number; +, treatisespositive; −,negative)

C, GAALL299 YesAllium sati6um L. Yes: 04792, +Condiment 76HypotensiveBulbAglio(cold macerate(Liliaceae)or as condi-ment); Anti-helmintic;Against the ‘evileye’, witchesand also the‘buffardello’, akind of good,but troublingspirit (necklacesmade by freshcloves)b

Aglio selvatico Condiment 5 NoW, GAALL399 Yes (but notAllium 6ineale L. Whole plant Against the‘evil eye’b distinguished(Liliaceae)

from other spe-cies of wildgarlic)

Aerial partsW, GAAPI399 Diuretic (eatenCrescioneApium nodiflorum NoNo21Raw in sal-adsL. (Umbel- raw); Against

liferae) abdominalpains, also inveterinary use(infusion); Di-gestive (freshjuice)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Part used Medicinal MonographFoodLocal namesWild (W) orScientific name Role as food- Quotations inNumber ofof the Ger- Mediter-popular use popular mentionscultivated (C), medicinec

voucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-useical medicalmission Emen


Parenti AerialArctium lappa ‘From theW, GAARC199 YesNo3Boiledparts; root (stems andpoisonsL. (Composi-

leaf-stalks)tae) cleansing’,digestive(boiled orinfusion ofthe aerialparts or de-coction ofthe root)

Erbo bon; Aerial Digestive,Artemisia ab- W, C, Aromatising YesYes: 00349,33also in vet- +Erbo bonoGAART199 parts wine andsinthium L.

(Compositae) grappaerinary (infu-sion oraromatisedwine orgrappa); Forweaning (ex-ternal appli-cation of thefresh leaveson the moth-er’s breast)b

Shoots DiureticW, GAASP199 Boiled 3 No YesAsparagus acu- Asparago sel-(cooked)tifolius L. vatico

(Liliaceae)AgainstLeavesErbo moro –W, GABAL199 NoBallota nigra 5 No Yeswounds andL. (Labiatae)sprains (ex-ternally inpoultice)

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MedicinalLocal names Part usedScientific name Food Quotations inRole as food- Number of MonographWild (W) ormentionscultivated (C), of the Ger-popular use Mediter-medicinecpopular

use man Com- ranean histor-voucher speci-mission Emen ical medical(number; +, treatisespositive; −,negative)

Boiled, then NoW, GABET199 YesBeta 6ulgaris ‘Intestine Bieta selvatica; Bi- 8Leavesspp. maritima cleansing’and C, eta; Bietola stewed or in

GABET299(L.) Acrcang. (cooked) omelettes, orand Beta 6ul- in stuffing forgaris spp. 6ul- pies or

tortelligaris L.

(Chenopodi-aceae)

Betulla Bark andBetula pendula Against cold,W, GABET399 YesYes: 00958, +3No–internal use;sapRoth (Betu-Against alope-laceae)cia, externaluse (decoctionof the bark,than addingsap)

Aerial parts Against stom- 12 Yes: 49052, −YesFried, boiled,Borago officinalis Boragine;W, GABOR199ach-ache; ‘In-BuragineL. (Boragi- then stewed

naceae) testinal or stuffing forcleansing’ pies and

tortelli(cooked)Cavolo di San Vi-W, GABRA199 LeavesBrassica oleracea As a good NoNo5Snack ano omen (eating aspp. robertiana

little piece of(Gay) Rouy etFouc. (Cruci- the raw leaf)b

ferae)

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Table 1 (Continued)




Brassica oler- C, GABRA299 Cavolo nero Leaves Antirheuma; Yes (but notNo10Boiled,this variety)acea spp. ol- Vulnerary; soups

eracea var. Skin antisep-tic (externalacephala DC.applicationf. serotina

(Cruciferae) of freshleaves);Depurative(cooked)

Colacci; Erbo Root Diureticb; ToBryonia dioica W, GABRY199 – YesYes: 03042,15No‘reinforcedei bisci; ZuccaJacq. (Cucur- −

bitaceae) matta bones’ (coldmacerate)b;Anti-sciatica(poulticepreparedfrom pro-longed boil-ing of cubesof the rootin a smallamount ofwater)b

Boiled No – –Young –shoots

W, GABUN199 Depurative, Boiled,Bunias erucago YoungSportavecchia 9 No Nomild laxativeaerial partsL. (Cruci- soups (with(cooked)ferae) other

greens)Aerial 9As a good No YesBussolo; VerdeC, W, –Buxus semper- No

omen (burn-6irens L. GABUX199 partsing a bundle(Buxaceae)of the aerialparts)b

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Scientific name Part used Quotations inMedicinal FoodWild (W) or MonographRole as food-Local names Number ofmedicineccultivated (C), mentions of the Ger- Mediter-popularpopular use

voucher speci- man Com-use ranean histor-ical medicalmission Ementreatises(number; +,


Calamintha Digestive (as 51W, GACAL199 Nepitella; Nip- Leaves Condiment YesNocondiment);nepeta (L.) for mush-itella; Nipotella

rooms, veg-Bechic (infu-Savi (Labiatae)sion or fumi- etables and

saucesgations)Raponzolo Leaves andCampanula ra- Depurative Salads, boiledW, GACAM199 30 No No

rootspunculus L. (raw in sal-ads); Laxative(Campanu-(boiled)laceae)

Fruits DigestiveZenzero; 8 Yes: 49003, +–Capsicum an- CondimentC, GACAP199 Peperoncinonuum L.a (condiment);

Against(Solanaceae)the‘evil eye’(necklacesmade by driedfruits)b

Bechic (infu- NoLeaves As a case forCastagnoC, GACAS199 No 5Castanea sati6a Nohome madesion); AgainstMillerpies(Fagaceae) sores (external

poultice)Fruits Bechic YesNo 16Boiled,

roasted,(‘vinata’: po-lenta made dried; Flourwith flour of (ground driedchestnuts and chestnuts):novel wine) pancakes, po-

lenta

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Table 1 (Continued)




Ceterach offici- DepurativeW, GACET199 Felcina – No 3 No Yes? (maybeAerial partsnarum DC (infusion) not distin-

guished from(Aspleniaceae)Asplenium spp.)

Against wartsLatte FabioW, GACHE199Chelidonium ma- –Juice No 12 Yes: 01141, +Yesjus L. (external ap-(Papaveraceae) plications)

Spinacio che fa in Boiled, asLeaves ‘IntestineChenopodium W, GACHE199 8 No Yesbonus-henricus stuffing formontagna; Spina- cleansing’

cio selvaticoL. (Chenopo- pies and(cooked)diaceae) tortelli

Yes: 49019, +Leaves ‘Blood cleans- YesSalads, boiledRadicchio diW, GACIC199 Cichorium inty- 36ing’ (raw orcampo; Radicchio and/or stewedbus L.

selvatico(Compositae) cooked)Fruits Against di-Citrus limon (L.) Condiment 13 No YesC, GACIT199 Limone

Burm. f. arrhoea (de-coction)(Rutaceae)

VezzadroW, GACLE199 ‘Blood cleans-Clematis 6italba Young Boiled, than YesNo23shootsL. (Ranunco- ing’ (cooked); fried with

Against the scrambledlaceae)‘evil eye’ (de- eggs in

omelettescoction,baths)b

Anti-di-FruitsCorniolo; Crog-W, GACOR199Cornus mas L. Raw, jams, Yes 11 No(Cornaceae) nolo liqueursarrhoeic (raw,

jams); Diges-tive (liqueurs)

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Cassella; Cassel- A. erialW, GACRE199 ‘Blood andCrepis capillaris 17Salads, No No?parts intestinallola; Tassella; boiled,(L.) Wallr.

soups (with(Compositae) Tassellola cleansing’other wild(eaten raw

or cooked) greens)Bucaneve; Croco FlowerCrocus napoli- Against liceW, GACRO199 Snack No 5 No No

tanus Mord. (externalbuds, flow-poultice)bersEt Loisel.

(Liliaceae)Melo cotognoC, W, Fruits Against di-Cydonia Jams 13 No Yes

GACYD199 arrhoeaoblonga L.(Rosaceae)

Cardo; Gobbo Leaf-stalks Boiled, then‘LiverCynara cardun- C, GACYN199 8 Yes Yesculus L. spp. eventuallycleansing’

fried or ascardunculusvar. altilis timbalesDC

Stems, Diuretic (in-W, GACYN199 – NoGramigna; 5Cynodon dacty- No YesSciambia Rhizomelon (L.) Pers. fusion)

(Graminae)W, GADAU199Daucus carota LeavesCova; Covetta; Depurative YesNo10Salads,

boiled,Pastineggio; (raw orL. (Umbel-Pastinella cooked); Di-liferae) soups

uretic (infu-sion)

W, GAECH199Echium italicum AerialBoragine; Against ab- YesNo8Fried,parts boiled, thendominalBuragineL.

pains; ‘Intes- stewed, or(Boragi-naceae) in stuffingtinal cleans-

for pies anding’ (cookedtortelliaerial parts)

Equisetum ar- SterileW, GAEQU199 Coda d’asino Depurative – No 7 Yes: 01109, Yes6ense L. +shoots(Equise-taceae)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Scientific name Local names Part used Food Quotations inRole as food- Number of MonographMedicinalWild (W) ormentionspopular of the Ger-popular use Mediter-medicineccultivated (C),

ranean histor-use man Com-voucher speci-ical medicalmission Emen


Juice AgainstW, GAEUP199Euphorbia cy- –Erbo della rogna No 6 No Yeswartsparissias L.

(Euphorbi-aceae)

Purgative,W, GAEUP299 StemsCacabuzzi – No 13 No YesEuphorbia lath-especially inrys L. (Eu-

phorbiaceae) veterinary(decoction)b

AgainstLeavesC, W, NoFicus carica L. 6Fico No YesAs a casewarts (fresh(Moraceae) GAFIC199 for home-juice) made pies

Finocchio sel-W, GAFOE199 Fruits Digestive: Yes: 00125,Foeniculum 6ul- Yes 78CondimentCarminativegare Miller +vatico; Anacini (especially(decoction or with friedspp. 6ulgare

pigs liveras condi-(Umbel-liferae) ment); and boiled

Against the chestnuts)‘evil eye’,also in vet-erinary (rit-ual: inside apiece of redcloth hungon one’sclothing oron animals)b

Bark AgainstW, GAFRA199Fraxinus ornus Frassino YesNo9– NoL. (Oleaceae) haemor-

rhoids (de-coction);Veterinaryuse (againstchicken in-fections)

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Leaves, NoGenziana Aperitif Snack (rawW, GAGEN199 7Gentiana kochi- No(cold macer-Stems, root)ana Perr. et

Song. (Gen- roots ate); Diges-tianaceae) tive (infusion

or root eatenraw);Againststomach-ache (infu-sion)

AerialW, GAHEL199Helichrysum AgainstCanugiolo; – YesNo31NoCanugioroitalicum colds and asparts

Bechic (infu-(Roth) Don(Compositae) sion, fumiga-

tions, aspillowfillingb); Asa good omen(burningdried plant)b

W, GAHEL199 Erba nocca;Helleborus Leaves, Antiseptic; YesNo11No–juice Insect repel-Puzzonefoetidus L.

lent (external(Ranuco-laceae) application

of the decoc-tion);Againstwarts (freshjuice); Vet-erinary use(against apig infectioncalled ‘redillness’, anti-septic)b

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Table 1 (Continued)

Part usedScientific name Medicinal Monograph Quotations inFoodWild (W) or Local names Role as food- Number ofof the Ger-cultivated (C), Mediter-mentionsmedicinecpopularpopular use

ranean histor-man Com-voucher speci- usemission Emen ical medical(number; +, treatisespositive; −,negative)

NoLeaves Skin anti-W, GAHEL299 Cavolo morto;Helleborus 7 YesNo–inflamma-6iridis L. Risino

(Ranuco- tory;laceae) Anti-haem-

orrhoids (ex-ternapplicationof the freshleaves)

Fruits Anti-di-C, GAHOR199 Hordeum 6ul- 10As a type No YesOrzoarrhoeic; of coffeegare L.

(roasted(Ranuco- Tonic (de-coction oflaceae) and groundthe roasted fruits)fruits)

W, GAHUM199Humulus Boiled and YesYoung Yes: 00128,Depurative 8Lopporo;lupulus L. Luppolo; in(cooked),shoots +

DigestiveLupporo(Can- omelettes,nabaceae) (aromatised aromatising

grappa) grappaYoungW, GAHYP199 Depurative Raw inGrassaporci;Hypochoeris 13 YesNo

Ingrassaporciradicata L. (mixed sal- mixed sal-aerial partsads, boiledads or(Compositae)

boiled) and/orstewed,soups

Leaves DiaphoreticNoceC, W,Juglans regia YesYes: 01070,8No–(decoction, +GAJUN199L. (Juglan-

daceae) than externalapplicationof a piece ofcloth soakedin the decoc-tion on theforehead)

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‘Nocino’ (aGreen Digestive 15 No Yesfruits (‘nocino’) kind of

home-madeliqueur)Eaten raw,– NoSeeds – –pressed toobtain oilb,pancakes, inbreadb

Ginevro; YesGalbulus Against mus- Yes: 00336,46Juniperus com- W, GAJUN199 Condiment Ginepro; Zine- for meat +munis L. cular pains

(olive oil(Cupres- prosaceae) macerate);

Digestive (ascondiment)Against ‘badStems and – No No No No

leaves spirits’(burning thedried plant)b

AgainstLactuca serriola No? (maybeLeavesLattuccioW, GALAC199 Salads 8 Nowarts (fresh not distin-L.

(Compositae) guished fromjuice); Depu-other similarrative, ‘intes-Compositaetinespecies)cleansing’

(raw leaves)‘BloodLeavesW, GALEO199Leontodon Boiled (withCastracani; 5 No No

otherCentocoglionituberosus L. cleansing’greens)(Compositae) (cooked)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Part used MedicinalWild (W) orScientific name Food Quotations inLocal names Role as food- MonographNumber ofof the Ger-medicinec mentionspopular use Mediter-popularcultivated (C),

usevoucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-ical medicalmen mission E


Aperitif, Di- No YesW, GALAU199 CondimentLaurus nobilis LeavesAlloro; Orbaco 16gestive (infu- for sauces,L. (Lau-sion and as boiledraceae)

chestnutcondiment)and meat

Against shin-Lilium can- YesC, GALIL199 Giglio; Giglio di Bulb – No 10 Nodidum L. gles (externalSant’Antonio(Liliaceae) poultice pre-

pared by fry-ing the bulbin olive oil)AgainstSeedsLino No 18 Yes: 00180,C, GALIN199Linum usitatis- YesBoiled in

+colds andsimum L. water as asore throats type of(Linaceae)

porridgeb(external ap-plication ofa compressprepared byboiling theseeds inwine)

Lippia triphylla Cedrina; Erba AromatisingLeaves Digestive 17 No –C, GALIP199(L’Her.) O. Luisa liqueurs(infusion and

aromatisedKuntzea

(Verbe- liqueurs);naceae) For weaning

(external ap-plication ofthe freshleaves on themother’sbreast)b

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Fruits Reconstituent;Malus domestica C, W, Melo; Melo cas- YesEaten raw, 14 NoroastedBorkh. Mild laxativecianoGAMAL199

(Rosaceae) (especially alocal variety,‘mela cas-ciana’)

Yes: 05108, +65SoupsW, GAMAL199 Malva; Malvia Against tooth-Leaves YesMal6a syl6estrisache (poulticeL. (Malvaceae)prepared bycrashed freshleaves or gar-gles of the in-fusion);External anti-inflammatory(foot-baths);Bechic: againstcolds; Di-aphoretic;Anti-haemor-rhoids (infu-sion); Againstabdominalpains (infu-sion); Mildlaxative(soups)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Part used MedicinalWild (W) or FoodScientific name Quotations inRole as food- Number ofLocal names Monographpopularcultivated (C), popular use medicinec Mediter-mentions of the Ger-

man Com-use ranean histor-voucher speci-mission E ical medicalmen

treatises(number; +,positive; −,negative)

Matricaria Analgesic andW, GAMAT199 Camomilla Capitolum YesYes: 00167, +54Aromatisinglight sedative liqueurschamomilla L.

(Compositae) (infusion); Di-gestive; ‘Intes-tine cleansing’(infusion oraromatisedliqueurs)Against ab-Menta limona;W, GAMEL199Melissa officinalis CondimentLeaves YesYes: 01125, +No 9

L. (Labiatae) for sauces,Melissa dominal painsmeat,(infusion)omelettes

Digestive (in-Menta LeavesMentha sp. pl. YesAromatisingW, C, 18 Yes: 00250, +liqueur andfusion andGAMEN199(Labiatae)

liqueurs); omelettesMouth andthroat antisep-tic (infusion)

Fruits Anti-di-NespoloW, C,Mespilus german- Raw (after a YesNo6arrhoeicGAMES199 natural fer-ica L.

(cooked fruits)(Rosaceae) mentation onstraw),cooked

Digestive (aro-BasilicoC, GAOCI199Ocimum AromatisingLeaves 8 No Yesbasilicum L. liqueurmatised(Labiatae) liqueurs)

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Scientific name Part used Quotations inMedicinal FoodWild (W) or Role as food-Local names Number of Monographmentionsmedicinec of the Ger-cultivated (C), Mediter-popularpopular use

usevoucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-ical medicalmen mission Etreatises(number; +,


NoAgainst sore YesAerialOrigano CondimentW, GAORI199 Origanum 6ul- 7throat (infu-garis L. (La- partssion); Diges-biatae)tive(condiment)

YesAgainst theLeavesOlivoC, GAOLE199Olea europaea – No 16 Yes: 03866,−‘evil eye’L. (Oleaceae)

(raw leaves);Against ‘badspirits’(burned)b

Cooked, Yes 25Vulnerary;Fruits Yes: 00235,−against pickled, oil

burns (exter-nal applica-tion of oil);Antiotalgic(instillationof hot oil);Mild laxative(cooked rawfruits andoil)

Oxalis ace- ThirstW, GAOXA199 Asprini Leaves Snack 7 No Yestosella L. quenching(Oxalidaceae) (raw)

Fruits Recon- YesBoiled inMiglioCb Panicum mili- 5 Nomilkaceum L. stituent

(Grami- (cooked)b

naceae)

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Table 1 (Continued)

Part used MedicinalWild (W) orScientific name Food Quotations inLocal names Role as food- MonographNumber ofof the Ger-medicinec mentionspopular use Mediter-popularcultivated (C),

usevoucher speci- man Com- ranean histor-ical medicalmen mission E


NoYoung YesDepurativeW, GAPAP199 Boiled,Papa6er rhoeas Belle bimbe; Pa- 11aerial parts (cooked) soups (withL. (Papaver- pavero; Pupat-

tole; Rosolette other wildaceae)greens)

Parietaria dif- Diuretic; –W, GAPAR199 Gamborosso; Aerial YesNo45NopartsTosanello ‘Bloodfusa M. et K.

(Urticaceae) cleansing’(infusion);Skin anti-inflammatory(freshlycrushedplant); Skinantiseptic(external ap-plication ofthe decoc-tion);Against sorethroat (infu-sion and/orgargles);Againstsprains(poultice ofthe freshlycrushedplant in rawscrambledeggs)

Parmelia sp. ‘LiverW, GAPAR199 Alichene Whole – No 4 No Yesplant(Parmeli- cleansing’;

bechic (de-aceae)coction)

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Caffarella; Far- Leaves HypotensiveW, GAPET199Petasites hy- – No 3 Yes: 49036, −Yesfalla; Gaffarello (infusion)bribus (L.)

Gaertn. (Com-positae)

Insect repel-FagioloC, GAPHA199 –Phaseolus 6ul- NoLeaves 2 No Yesgaris L. (Legu- lant (rawminosae) leaves)

Anti-warts No 6Boiled, soupsSeeds YesNo(ritual use: thebeans wereput on thewart for awhile, then re-moved andconserved in adark place un-til putrefied, atwhich pointthe wart wasto have disap-peared)b

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Table 1 (Continued)


ranean histor-man Com-usevoucher speci-mission Emen ical medical(number; +, treatisespositive; −,negative)

Yes: 00741, +Lingua di vacca; YesW, GAPLA199Plantago lance- Leaves Boiled, soupsSkin antiseptic 39Orecchia d’asino;and GAPLA299olata L. and (in mixtures(local applica-

Plantago major Pe’ d’asino; with othertion of thegreens)Tirafila; TirafiloL. (Plantagi- leaves);

naceae) Againstwounds(poultice madewith freshleaves, breadand milk);Against tooth-ache (local ap-plication ofthe leaves)Depurative(cooked)Mild laxativeC, W, Raw, jams 8 No YesCiliegio FruitsPrunus a6ium L.

GAPRU199Prunus cerasus C, W, YesCeragio Fruits Mild laxative Raw, jams 7 No

GAPRU299L. var. austeraL. and Prunuscerasus L. var.cerasus(Rosaceae)

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ranean histor-man Com-voucher speci- usemen mission E ical medical


FruitsMarascoPrunus cerasus C, W, Digestive YesNoAromatising 10(‘maraschino ‘maraschinoGAPRU399var. acida

’’: aromatisedAchers. etand fer-Graebn.mented(Rosaceae)liqueur)

Agoro; LauroW, C, Fruits AgainstPrunus lauro- –No8Raw,liqueurs,headacheGAPRU499cerasus L.a

Rosaceae) jam(aromatisedand fer-mentedliqueurs);Hypotensive(eaten raw,jams)

6 NoFruits Against di- YesPrunus spinosa Palline bocche; Raw, jams,W, C,arrhoea (rawPrignolo; Pruno;L. liqueurGAPRU599and jams);Strozzapreti;(Rosaceae)

Uva bocca Digestive(liqueur)

Pyrus commu- Mild laxa- No15 YesC, GARPYR199 Pero Fruits Eaten raw,roastednis L. tive; Recon-

(Rosaceae) situent;Anti-di-arrhoeic (es-pecially alocal variety,‘pera car-avella’)

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Table 1 (Continued)

FoodLocal names Part used MedicinalWild (W) or Role as food- Number of Monograph Quotations inScientific namementionscultivated (C), of the Ger- Mediter-popular medicinecpopular use

use ranean histor-man Com-voucher speci-mission E ical medicalmen(number; +, treatisespositive; −,negative)

Diaphoretic, Yes: 03546, YesCambiumQuercia; Cerro –W, GAQUE199 NoQuercus cerris 5especially inL. +

(Fagaceae) relation withintestinalinflammation(decoction)

A ‘coffee’–Seeds No – –(made fromdried orroastedgroundseeds)b

Young DepurativeReichardia pi- W, GAREI199 17 No No? (proba-Sassello; Sas- Raw in sal-croides L. ads, boiled bly not dis-(raw oraerial partssaiolo

tingishedboiled)(Compositae)from otherCompositaespecies)

Depurative,Rosa canina L. YoungW, GAROS199 Rosa Snack No No 5‘intestineshoots (raw)b,sensu Bou-

boiled,leng. cleansing’soups(infusion or

eaten raw)No NoAgainst eyePetals Snack 4

inflamma-tions (infu-sion); As agood omen(consecratedpetals eatenas snack)b

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Pseud-Peterlenga; Refreshing Snack, jams 17 Yes: 00739, YesPettellenga; Pit- (infusion, −ofruitstellenga snack)

Against 13 Yes: 01228,LeavesTremarinoGAROSM199Rosmarinus Condiment Yesofficinalis L. +colds, bechic for meat

(decoction in(Labiatae)milk); Diges-tive (condi-ment)

Rubus idaeus VulneraryW, GARUB199 Lampone Leaves – No 5 No NoL. (external ap-(Rosaceae) plication of

fresh leaves)No – –Fruits – Raw, jams,

syrupsMora Fruits Bechic (raw,W, GARUB299 Raw, jams 21 No YesRubus ulmi-

jams)folius Schott(Rosaceae)

– Boiled, thanYoungScepe; Spina; No – –shootsRovo in omelettes

with scram-bled eggs

W, GARUM199 Erba putta; PanRumex acetosa 6Snack ‘Blood No YesStems,L. and leavese vino; Zezzoraand cleansing’

GARUM299 (infusion);Rumex ace-Againsttosella L.

(Polygo- thirst (eatennaceae) raw as

snack)

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Table 1 (Continued)


voucher speci- man Com-use ranean histor-men ical medicalmission E


Rumex crispus Leaves Boiled,Vulneray;Romicia;W, GARUM399 YesNo4NoagainstRomice; Rombi-L. (Polygo- soups (in

cia mixturesnaceae) burns andwith otherskin-inflam-

mations (ex- greens)ternalapplicationof the freshleaves)

Aerial Aperitif, di-W, GARUT199Ruta chalepen- Ruta Aromatising 7 No Yesgestive (infu-parts grappasis L. (Ru-

taceae) sion,aromatisedgrappa)Smooth anti- 19SalviaC, GASAL199 LeavesSal6ia offici- Condiment Yes: 00293, Yes

nalis L. (La- for sauces +inflammatorybiatae) and meat(gargles);

Tooth anti-septic (appli-cation of thefresh leaves);Digestive(condiment)

Sambucus nigra No6Antiseptic,W, GASAM199 Sambuco Leaves Yes– NoL. (Caprifoli- againstaceae) tooth-ache

(external ap-plication ofthe freshleaves); Anti-inflammatory(infusion)

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Scientific name Part used MedicinalWild (W) or FoodLocal names Quotations inRole as food- MonographNumber ofof the Ger-medicinec mentionspopularpopular usecultivated (C), Mediter-

usevoucher speci- ranean histor-man Com-ical medicalmen mission E


Flowers – No 5 Yes: 00146, YesDigestive+(infusion of

the driedflowers)

21 No YesFruits ‘Cleansing’ Jams,(syrups) syrups

CondimentDigestiveTimoW, GASAT199 No 7 No YesSatureja mon- Aerial(infusion,tana L. (La- parts for saucescookedbiatae)foods);Against ‘badspirits’ (driedplants lefthanging inbedrooms)b

WholeW, GASED199Sedum reflexum As a goodErbo dell’Acen- NoNo22No–L. (Crassu- omen (theplantsione; Parruccalaceae) plant was

collected onAscensionday; broughtinto thehome whereits floweringwas seen asa goodomen, itsdeath as badforecast)b

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Table 1 (Continued)

Scientific name Part used MedicinalWild (W) or FoodLocal names Quotations inRole as food- MonographNumber ofof the Ger-medicinec mentionspopularpopular usecultivated (C), Mediter-

usevoucher speci- ranean histor-man Com-mission E ical medicalmen

treatises(number; +,positive; −,negative)

Cucina; ErbaW, GASIL199 ‘Cleansing’Silene 6ulgaris Young YesNo18Boiled, (Moench) (cooked soups (withshoots andstriscia; Strigiola:

StrisciolaGarcke otherleaves)leavesgreens),(Caryophyl-stuffing forlaceae)tortelli

Purgative,FruitsCacabuzziW, GASOL199 –Solanum ni- No 4 No Yesgrum L. especially in(Solanaceae) veterinaryb

(decoction)Tubers AgainstPatataC, GASOL299 No 6 NoSolanum –Boiled,

burns, skintuberosum roasted,fried, soups,inflamma-L.a

pies(Solanaceae) tions (exter-nalapplicationof the freshcut tuber)

Sonchus asper Leaves NoDepurative, 19 YesCicerbita; Cicer-W, GASON199 Salads,L. (Composi- boiled,bica; Riccino; ‘intestinetae) cleansing’ soups (withRiccetto

other(raw);Against greens)alopecia(raw)Against di- 3 NoRaw (after YesW, GASOR199 FruitsSorbo; Sorbolo Sorbus domes-arrhoea a naturaltica L.

fermenta-(Rosaceae) (raw, jams)tion onstraw), jams

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voucher speci- man Com-use ranean histor-men ical medicalmission E


Taraxacum Leaves ‘BloodW, GATAR199 Dente di leone; YesSalads, Yes: 09148,20Piscialletto boiled,cleansing’;officinale +

Web. (Com- soups (with‘To decreasepositae) the blood other

greens)sugar’ (eatenraw orboiled)

Aerial No‘BloodW, GATEU199 QuerciolaTeucrium Yes– No 9chamaedrys cleansing’,parts, rootL. (Labiatae) Digestive;

Hypotensive;Anti-phtisis;Against boils(infusion)

Aerial 7Against cold; No YesThymus pule- CondimentPepolino; Pe-W, GATHY199 Bechic (infu-partsgioides L. porino; Pepurino for sauces,sion); Diges- meat(Labiatae)tive (cookedfoods)

Tiglio FlowersTilia platyphyl- W, GATIL199 Yes: 00182, YesAgainst – No 16colds, sorelos Scop. +

(Tiliaceae) throat, stom-ach-ache,sedative, ‘re-freshing’ (in-fusion)Against theLeaves – No 4 Yes: 05893, Yes

−‘evil eye’(baths withthe infusion)

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Table 1 (Continued)



Fruits Recon- No YesBoiled withFarroC, GATRI199 Triticum dicoc- 9con Schubler water orstituent(Grami- (cooked) milknaceae)

Triticum aes- FruitsC, GATRI299 AgainstGrano YesNo6NoHome-madepasta, pan-ti6um L. sprains

(poultice cakes, bread(Grami-naceae) made with

flour andraw scram-bled eggs)

Ortica WholeW, GAURT199Urtica dioca L. Against Yes: 49020,65 YesBoiled,and Urtica +alopecia (lo- soups,and GAURT299 plant

stuffing forurens L. cal applica-tortelli(Urticaceae) tion of

infusions ofaerial partsor root);Againsttooth-acheand assmooth anti-septic (gar-gles);Anti-inflam-matory, ‘in-testinecleansing’(cooked);Againstrheumatismand arthritis(external ap-plication ofthe freshaerial parts)

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Vaccinium myr- Against 24 Yes: 07987,W, GAVAC199 Mirtillo; Bagola Raw, jams, Fruits Yes+syrupsalopecia; totillus L. (Eri-

improve eyecaceae)performances(eaten raw)Depurative:Valerianella Gallina grassa; YoungW, GAVAL199 Salads 11 No NoLight seda-carinata aerial partsGallinella;

Pancagiolo;Loisel. (Vale- tive (eatenraw)Pancagiottorianaceae)

Verbascum Leaves,W, GAVER199 Tasso bardasso Against YesNo9No–thapsus L. roots wounds (ex-

ternal appli-(Scrophulari-aceae) cation of the

leaves); Vet-erinary use(root:against piginfections);Tonic(leaves:smoked withtobacco)

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Table 1 (Continued)



Against NoWine, vine- 31FruitsViteC, GAVIT199Vitis 6inifera Yesspp. 6inifera gar, grappacolds and

sore throat(Vitaceae)(boiledwine); Anti-septic (vine-gar);Digestive;Antiseptic(grappa)

Fruits Bechich (ex-W, GAZEA199Zea mays L.a Granturco; For- NoFlour: po- 8 No –lentaternal cata-mentone(Grami-

plasms ofnaceae)polenta)

Roasted No – –Youngcobs

a Not native in the studied region.b Disappeared from cultivation/usage.c Role as a food medicine: , low; , medium; , high.


collected in the studied area are also unknownboth in the old medical treatises and in the mod-ern phytopharmacology (Evans, 1996; Wichtl,1997).

3.1.1. Ballota nigraThe external use of the fresh leaves of black

horehound against wounds, and in poultice tocure sprains, should be further analysed. Phyto-chemically this species has not been well studied,although given the chemotaxonomic closeness tothe genus Marrubium, one might suppose a syner-gism between labdane-type diterpens (as marru-bin, which was already isolated in blackhorehound, Bruneton, 1995) and the cinnamicacid derivatives (Wichtl, 1997). Recently, differentphenylpropanoids (among them the new com-pound ballotetroside) were isolated from theaerial parts of the plant and showed antibacterialactivity (Seidel et al., 1997, 1998; Didry et al.,1999). Phenylpropanoids are known to have anti-inflammatory properties (Harborne and Baxter,1993).

3.1.2. Bryonia dioicaThe use of the poisonous root of bryony was

well known in all old medical texts until the lastcentury (a broad description of its properties isgiven in Cazin, 1868).

Nevertheless, it is interesting that in upperGarfagnana an ancient role for this species as adiuretic (macerated in cold water) and externallyin a poultice against sciatica, as well as the use ofits young shoots for food, has been maintained.Recently Bryonia extracts, traditionally still usedin ethnomedicinal practices in Jordan and Arme-nia, showed antimicrobial and antidiabetic activi-ties (Karageuzyan et al., 1998; Mahasneh andEl-Oqlah, 1999). Cucurbitacine glycosides of bry-ony are well known (Bruneton, 1995), althoughtheir analgesic and anti-inflammatory actionshave not yet been well investigated.

The food use of the young shoots, recorded inthe studied area, seems to represent a vestige fromarchaic times and was recorded by bothDioscoride and Pliny (Lenz, 1859).

3.1.3. Crocus napolitanusOf the external use of a poultice of C. napoli-

tanus flowers as an antiseptic against lice, it isonly possible to find a partial ethnobotanicalconfirmation in a small, mountainous area innortheastern Italy (Cappelletti, 1985), where theentire flowering plant would have been used forthe purpose. Moreover, in Garfagnana, flowerbuds were also used and consumed as snacks(Pieroni, 1999a). Despite the very complex use ofsaffron (Crocus sati6us) in the historical and folkmedicine (and gastronomy) of many Europeanand Near Eastern regions, phytochemically orbiologically this genus has been scarcely investi-gated until now. The presence of carotinoidderivatives of crocetin-type and of picrocrocineand safranal (which have shown anti-cancer ac-tion, Escribano et al., 1996) are not able, alone, toexplain the properties ascribed to the flowers ofCrocus spp. Recently phenolic glucosides and g-lactone glucoside were also isolated from thesprouts of C. sati6us (Gao et al., 1999).

3.1.4. Parmelia sp.A medicinal use for this lichen is quite rare and

previous fieldwork recorded its bechic and anti-inflammatory properties (Uncini Manganelli andTomei, 1995). We also recorded a cholagogue use(‘liver cleansing’) for its decoctions: such usageseems to be unknown in literature.

Lichens have played an important role in theold historical medicine and were indicated in lungand liver afflictions as well as menstrual com-plaints (Mattioli, 1568), while in Spanish popularmedicine they were especially quoted against kid-ney and respiratory disorders (Gonzales-Tejero etal., 1995). In the modern pharmacology lichenmetabolites isolated from Parmelia spp. showedantiproliferative and cytotoxic activity in recentstudies (Kumar and Muller, 1999a), inhibitoryaction against leukotriene B4 synthesis (Kumarand Muller, 1999b) and antimycobacterial proper-ties (Ingolfsdottir et al., 1999).

3.1.5. Lilium candidumThe use in Garfagnana of the bulbs of the

cultivated L. candidum in the form of a poulticeprepared by frying the bulb in olive oil and apply-


ing this externally against shingles (Herpeszoster), and the evident success of this practice isinteresting. This use was also recently recorded inother areas of northwestern Tuscany (UnciniManganelli and Tomei, 1995). Lily bulbs andflowers were used in the past for many skin andarticular complaints (Mattioli, 1568). However,only recently has phytochemical work been car-ried out specifically on Lilium candidum bulbs andeight spirostanol saponins (including four newcompounds) and two furostanol saponins wereidentified (Mimaki et al., 1998). This should givesome impulse to pharmacologists for further stud-ies in order to understand better any possibleantiviral action of Lilium spp. bulb extracts.

3.1.6. Prunus laurocerasusThe use in the studied area of the fruits of P.

laurocerasus (established in Italy from Turkey inthe 16th century); their consumption as snacks ortheir preparation in the form of home-made jamsand liqueurs against head-ache and as a hypoten-sive, should prompt a re-evaluation of the role ofthe cyanogenic glycosides, which are contained inthe leaves and seeds, especially of the species(Roth et al., 1994). Systematic phytochemical in-vestigations of the laurel cherry drupes have notyet been carried out.

3.2. Medicinal plants as food medicine

About 60% of the recorded medicinal plants inthe upper Garfagnana also play a role as foodmedicine.

A relevant role as food medicine was observedfor home-made medicinal digestive spirits or aro-matized grappas. Here the role as food plant (orrather consumption in a food context) is stronglysurpassed by a medicinal function. In particular,Artemisa absinthium, Ocimum basilicum, Matri-caria chamomilla, Lippia tryphylla and Rutachalepensis aerial parts are normally used as aper-itifs, stomachic or digestives. A. absinthium leaveswere also used in the past to wean sucklings, byexternal application of the fresh leaves on themother’s breast; the very bitter taste of worm-wood is perceived as ‘healthy’. The vernacularname of the species: ‘Erbo bono’, meaning ‘GoodHerb’, ‘Tasty Herb’ underlines this.

In a second group, which includes condiments,the role as food medicine is still considered rele-vant. Local wild and/or cultivated species are usedto flavour food preparations and a digestive orcarminative action is normally recognised.

Typical of the studied region is the gathering ofCalaminta nepeta, Foeniculum 6ulgare spp. 6ul-gare, Satureja montana and Thymus pulegioides(all growing wild), used to flavour and make moredigestible heavy preparations, such as tradition-ally cooked lamb, pig liver, boiled chestnuts orbeans.

In some cases these species are also used sepa-rately as medicinal herbs in the form of infusionsor decoctions with the same aims.

A third group comprises the ‘cleansing’ wildgreens; they represent the most interesting class ofthe recorded food medicine. They are gatheredespecially in spring and normally eaten raw insalads or in boiled mixtures, sometimes also in theform of vegetable soups and their food medicinalrole is recognisable. Their ‘cleansing’ action,sometimes more narrowly described as ‘bloodcleansing’, ‘intestine cleansing’ and ‘liver cleans-ing’ is only approximately translatable as a di-uretic or mild laxative or cholagogue properties.In the folk culture of the studied territory ‘cleans-ing’ is also translatable as depurative, tonic, re-freshing, roborant, or remineralising.

‘Cleansing’ attributes were reported in particu-lar for Bunias erucago, Borago officinalis, Apiumnodiflorum, Campanula rapunculus, Chenopodiumbonus-henricus, Cichorium intybus, Crepis capil-laris, Echium italicum, Hypochoeris radicata, Lac-tuca serriola, Leontodon tuberosus, Mal6asyl6estris, Reichardia picroides, Silene 6ulgaris,Sonchus asper, Taraxacum officinale and Valeri-anella carinata.

A few of these species were ignored both by theold medical treatises (which considered them‘only’ food supplements) and the divergence be-tween the historical official medicine and folkmedicine seems to become quite relevant in thisfield. Different species are also not quoted by themodern pharmacognosy and phytochemistry.Nevertheless, correct recording of the folk medici-nal cosmology in upper Garfagnana ought toinclude these botanicals.


Among this group and the above quoted groupof condiments we recorded the highest informantconsensus values, which confirms a widespreadpopular recognition of these species. On the quan-titative data, a central role was played by themethod adopted in carrying out the research,which considered many old informants and notonly special knowledge people (healers).

More attention should be paid in the ethnob-otanical methodology to these aspects, especiallyin southern European areas, where folk practiceshave a widespread character and the ‘healers’have never represented — at least since the lasttwo centuries — the hinge of local ethnomedicine.

Moreover, ethnobotanical surveys about wildfood species traditionally gathered in Mediter-ranean areas are very rare (Paoletti et al., 1995;Ertug-Yaras, 1997) and further studies are neces-sary to quantify the eventual biological/pharma-cological implications of their consumption.Evidence that phytochemicals ingested in tradi-tional diets play a role as modulators in humanmetabolism has been in any case already welldiscussed (Johns and Chapman, 1995; Johns,1996).

Another aspect includes traditional food prepa-ration, which is considered to be healthy andsometimes also able to treat minor troubles. Per-ceptions as food-medicine are sometimes remark-able; as in the case of ‘vinata’, for example; a sortof chestnut flour polenta, boiled in new wine(instead of water or milk, with which polenta isnormally prepared), which is considered very ac-tive in curing coughs and other bronchialafflictions.

A separate ‘chapter’ comprises the snacks, con-sumption of which in this ‘non-institutional’ formis becoming rare today. This is the sort of con-sumption typically carried out by women or chil-dren, during little breaks from chores, or evenconcurrent with other activities.

Examples are Oxalis acetosella and Rumex ace-tosella, consumed against thirst, of Rosa caninapseudofruits and stems taken as a ‘cleansing’agent, and of the root of Gentiana kochiana, takenas a digestive.

3.3. Ritual medicinal plants

Finally we recorded some species belonging toritual botanicals, whose ‘medicinal’ use consistedof protecting houses, families and villagers againstthe ‘evil eye’, bad influences or spirits andillnesses.

This type of usage has very nearly disappeared.If the action of garlic cloves and the introducedcayenne pepper fruits, and juniper aerial partsagainst the ‘evil eye’ and as good omens, is well-known in other European areas (Hoefler, 1908;Hansel et al., 1993; Teti, 1995), it has not previ-ously been reported about a specific use of theaerial parts of Buxus semper6irens, Clematis 6i-talba, Brassica oleracea spp. robertiana (an en-demic subspecies of wild kale), Satureja montanaand Foeniculum 6ulgare spp. 6ulgare fruits. Pecu-liar ritual uses of Sedum reflexum and Aesculushippocastanum have been already described in thenear upper Versilia (Corsi et al., 1981).

The plants which are reputed to be ‘active’ areall wild species; perhaps morphological aspectscould have played a role (very sharp leaves injuniper and Satureja spp.), but for other specieshistorical reasons might be postulated, as in thecase of Buxus and Foeniculum for example. UpperGarfagnana was dominated for long periods byLongobards, who left many traces derived fromthe old Germanic mythology. In central Europe,Buxus was considered to have apotropaic proper-ties (Hoffmann-Krayer and Bachtold-Staubli,1942), whilst wild fennel is well known to havehad a ritual significance in old Greece and by theRomans (Ratsch, 1995).

3.4. Conclusion

From our ethnobotanical findings, more than120 species represent the heritage of the folkmedicine of the upper Garfagnana. If more sys-tematic ethnobotanical field work is necessary inother Italian areas, especially in the field of foodmedicine, further phytochemical and phytophar-macological studies must be undertaken to inves-tigate remaining unknown (or not yet sufficientlyanalysed) resources of Mediterranean popularpharmacopoeias.


For local communities, such as in upperGarfagnana, this research should stimulate theimplementation of ‘re-collected’ data inside con-crete eco-sustainable interdisciplinary projects, in-volving natural, social, cultural and economicaspects.

Acknowledgements

Special thanks are due to all the informants ofthe 28 villages of the upper Garfagnana, whovolunteered to share their precious experiencesabout medicinal plants; to the Comunita Mon-tana della Garfagnana (Castelnuovo Garfag-nana); to Umberto Bertolini (Piazza al Serchio);Orietta Bonini (Lucca); Antonella Ferri (Gramo-lazzo) and Anna Satti (Caprignana).

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