Meeting the Water and Sanitation Millennium … the Water and Sanitation Millennium Development Goals ... Methodology to assess human resource requirements ... Meeting the gap

Human resource gaps and shortages in the water and sanitation sector

Meeting the Water and Sanitation Millennium Development Goals

A study of Human Resource Development Requirements in Five Countries

Synthesis ReportFebruary 2011


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Contents Executive summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 3

1. Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7

2. Methodology to assess human resource requirements .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9

3. Existing institional context .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 9

4. Assessment of existing and future HR needs .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

Bangladesh .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .11 Mali .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .14 South Africa .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .15 Timor-Leste .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .16 Zambia .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .17

5. Key constraints for human resource development .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 18

6. Meeting the gap – recommendations for supply of trained individuals .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 19

7. Strengthening the enabling environment for human resource development .. .. .. .. .. 21

About the report

The report has been prepared by Sue Cavill (independent consultant), and Jonathan Parkinson and Kirsten de Vette from the International Water Association. The synthesis is based on five case study reports which are available from the IWA’s Water Wiki site.

Acknowledgments

In addition to the consultants who undertook the case studies, we would like to thank the UK’s Department for International Development who funded the study, UNICEF for co-funding the Zambian case study, and WaterAid for their support for the case studies in Timor-Leste, Bangladesh and Mali; WSUP (Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor) for their support to the study in Zambia; and PAWS (Partners for Water and Sanitation) for their support to the South Africa study. In addition, we thank the many other individuals who assisted the consultants during the course of their fieldwork with the provision of data and information.

We would also like to thank the reference group and peer reviewers who supported this research project, in particular to: Darren Saywell (International Water Association); Peregrine Swann (WHO); Richard Carter (WaterAid/Cranfield University); Tom Slaymaker (WaterAid); Sue Coates (WEDC, Loughborough University); Richard Franceys (Cranfield University); Mike Kang (Engineers Without Borders); Sam Parker (WSUP); Paul Edwards (UNICEF), Guy Howard (DFID) and Sanjay Wijesekera (DFID).


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The purpose of this research, supported by the UK’s Department for International Development (DFID), is to provide recommendation for use by senior decision makers, related to human resources (HR) requirements in the drinking water, sanitation and hygiene promotion (WASH) sub-sectors. The aim of this pilot study was to assess human resource requirements for reaching the MDG targets related to water supply and sanitation in five countries: Bangladesh, Timor Leste, Mali, South Africa and Zambia. The study focussed on identifying shortages and gaps where public sector institutions, non-governmental organisations and private companies involved in service provision lack sufficient staff and/or expertise necessary to attain these targets. The pilot study was a step in the process of determining the global human resource requirements in the drinking-water and sanitation sector. Addressing these requirements is key to both accelerating progress to meet the MDG target for drinking-water and sanitation and for achieving the ultimate goal of universal coverage.

A relatively standardised methodological framework was piloted in each country to collect relevant data and information using institutional surveys, semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The methodology used four broad categories to assess staffing requirements: engineer, associated professional, technician and skilled worker. Shortages were estimated using the differences between existing service coverage and the coverage in accordance with the attainment of future goals. However, some case studies derived these values in different ways; for instance, using data from the relevant institutions and organisations about

their expected rates of recruitment. Assessments of skill deficiencies (gaps) were based upon a qualitative estimate of staffing needs relevant to service delivery.The case studies highlighted the importance of human resources at the household and community level for the implementation of water supply and sanitation projects. It is recommended therefore that future assessments take this into consideration in conjunction with the human resource requirements for supporting and managing these inputs.

Common human resource deficiencies The study found that reliable estimates of people working in the sector are difficult to obtain due to the fact that available information is often incomplete and generally unreliable. The lack of data has implications for assessing existing and estimating future skills shortages. Nonetheless, notwithstanding the inaccuracies of the data, the case studies show that the supply of qualified staff entering the workforce is insufficient for various reasons. These can be summarised as being related to the following issues:i) Inappropriate training and ill-equipped training institutions – The problem of increasing access to water and sanitation is not just associated with the total number of workers but the quality of the training. Often recently qualified staff lack some important competences that are needed for work in the WASH sector. As well as outdated curricula, standards of teaching can be linked to poor incentives due to low salaries and a general lack of resources.ii) Lack of opportunities for practical WASH related work experience – The lack of opportunities for graduates to get practical WASH-related experience is a

significant problem. This is compounded by inadequate support for the transition from academia to the work environment and lack of mentors to train less experienced staff. iii) Gender inequalities – WASH is a male dominated sector; the case studies demonstrate clear gendered occupational boundaries, with men and women tending to do different jobs in the sector; with men working more on water supply and women more on hygiene promotion. In general, there is a low level of women graduates from universities especially from technically orientated courses. The low representation of women in technical and managerial positions can be linked to a failure to promote careers in the sector to young women and a lack of policy incentives to recruit more women.iv) Training of semi-skilled/unskilled technicians – Many water and sanitation services are provided by semi-skilled or unskilled workers who are either self-employed or employed by locally-based, small-scale private firms. These workers often have low levels of literacy and acquire practical skills informally as apprentices or from members of their family. v) Staff recruitment and retention – Private companies, NGOs and donor agencies generally attract the most skilled labour with the highest qualifications. But, there is strong competition from more cutting edge industries such as telecoms and marketing. Problems related to the lack of incentives to work for public sector agencies include low salaries and poor working conditions compared with comparable jobs in other sectors. This is particularly notable in remote locations.vi) Lack of incentives– The case studies point to a number of organisational issues that impact on the delivery

Executive summary


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of water and sanitation services. In particular, the inability of public sector agencies to offer the necessary job security and environments to attract and retain suitably qualified and competent staff points to a deeper organisational weakness. vii) Inadequate support for decentralised service providers – In some countries the transfer of responsibility from national to devolved authorities has been successful in the water sector, but for sanitation it remains limited. The greatest challenges lie in rural areas where the move to devolve responsibility for water and sanitation systems from central to local government level is often not accompanied by the necessary transfer of human and financial resources. As a result, organisations with increased roles

and responsibilities at the decentralized level require new capacities, new sets of skills and working practices.viii) Ineffective institutions – Whilst many countries face challenges regarding the supply of workers into the sector, in all five countries, there are also equally serious challenges of deployment. There are qualified workers in urban areas who are unemployed, whilst there are unfilled posts in rural areas. This points towards inadequacies in the sector as a whole and poor coordination between agencies.

Recommendations to increase the supply of trained staffi) Increase support for training institutions – There is a pressing need to improve standards of teaching as part of continuing education of WASH

professionals. Additional funding is needed for universities, colleges and other training institutions to enable them to upgrade the quality of their educational activities. ii) More work experience opportunities for students – There is also a need for more work placements for students in the sector and for employers and educational institutes/training institutes to communicate with one another more coherently regarding sector needs. iii) Focus on skills required for asset management and O&M – The MDG targets have provided the political incentive to invest in new facilities, but more attention is needed to improve skills for operation and maintenance.iv) Short-term courses – There is a specific need for a more strategic and

Behind Basra School for girls 2008 (Credit: Essam al-Sudani)


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structured approach for the organisation and delivery of short-term courses which need to be better institutionalised within existing training institutions. v) Vocational courses – On-the-job vocational training is required and staff who have received training should be encouraged to share their new knowledge with their peers as part of in-house vocational training. There is also a need for a range of ‘quick win’ training initiatives to develop essential skills/competencies in areas that can produce rapid results. In particular, these include community-based sanitation and hygiene promotion.ii) Ensure professionals have a broad skills base – There is a specific need to attract professionals with a broader base of skills (notably social scientists) to work in the WASH sector. iii) Specific focus on capacity development in small towns and rural areas – Institutions need to ensure that the most qualified individuals are not all centred in the larger cities. Specific attention is required to deploy and retain the workforce to ensure access to and provision of services across the country on an equitable basis. To support this, ways should be found to speed up the decentralisation process, with transfer of additional functions – and funds – to local authorities. Building adequate HR capacity for drinking water and sanitation can only be achieved in the context of broader civil service reform policies in

place.iv) Incentives – Underlying these recommendations is a need to offer more competitive employment packages and opportunities for career development combined with a system of rewards to incentivise workers. For instance there is a need for an incentive structure to encourage the deployment of staff to rural and remote areas. Performance related pay and bonuses for exceeding targets may act as strong incentives to improve performance, motivate and retain staff and to encourage capacity development. These are private sector principles that have been successfully used in public sector service providers, but there is a need for these principles to be adopted more widely. ii) Addressing the gender imbalance – There is a need to understand why there are still a relatively small proportion of women working in the sector. For women to play a more significant role in meeting predicted future demands for WASH sector workers, it is clear that more girls should be encouraged to gain technical qualifications and employers’ preferences should be reshaped to ensure that women participate in the labour market on more equal terms.

Institutional support for human resource developmentEvidently the effectiveness of individuals is highly dependent upon them having the right skills required for the tasks that

they are expected to perform. However, for staff to realise their potential it is very important they are able to access the right equipment to carry out their task effectively. This is particularly apparent for district level public sector institutions whose jobs are seen to be undermined by the lack of access to transport and communications equipment.

Although there is evidently a need for targeted programmes to enable training institutions increase both the quantity and quality of qualified individuals, the challenges related to human resources capacities listed above need to be addressed as part of comprehensive national level sector development plans. The case studies support the need for increased clarity between national level agencies about their institutional roles, but also the need for a single agency with a clear mandate to co-ordinate human resource development within the sector.

In support of this, more work is needed to better understand the relationship between the number of organisations working in the national WASH sector, the levels of capacity available and how this aligns with national HR priorities, policies and strategies. A database to collate information and act as a HR register at the national level would potentially be a very useful tool to support sector development.


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BackgroundIn 2006, the WHO World Health Report estimated that 4.3 million additional health workers would be needed worldwide to achieve the health related Millennium Development Goals. Subsequently in 2010, UNESCO estimated that 10.3 million new teachers would be needed to meet the MDG of achieving universal primary education.

In the water and sanitation sector, the human resource requirement to meet the MDG targets is relatively unknown and therefore there is a need to assess the effectiveness of service providers to meet the MDGs and to sustain services in relation to the overall numbers of staff, their qualifications and level of professional expertise.

Purpose and objectivesThe purpose of this research is to provide recommendation for use by senior decision makers, related to human resources (HR) requirements in the drinking water, sanitation and hygiene promotion (WASH) sectors. Within this overall purpose, the specific objective of this study was to develop and pilot a methodology to assess human resource capacity shortages and gap at the national level. Based on the application of the methodology, the findings from this pilot research will be used to inform a more extensive study to assess HR requirements in a broader geographical area.

ScopeThis synthesis report comprises an outline of the methodology employed in five national case studies; and a summary of the main findings from the research. This is followed by conclusions and recommendations on ways in which human resources might be developed

and used more effectively to improve access to and sustain water and sanitation facilities in low and middle income countries. The methodology assessed the capacity shortages (where demand for a particular occupation outstrips the supply) and gaps (when people lack the necessary skills to perform their job in an effective manner) at national levels.

In the main JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) figures for access to ‘safe’ drinking-water and improved sanitation were used to enable comparisons between countries. This is because the JMP has a consistent and robust methodology for measuring consumer use. But, it should be noted that in some case studies, most notably the Bangladesh case study, national figures for coverage were used instead.

Given the limited time and availability of resources, the pilot phase focused

on a small set of countries selected for the research: Zambia, Mali, Timor-Leste, Bangladesh and South Africa. The selection of case studies was made according to a typology developed for this research based on the following criteria:w Governance context; w Progress towards the water and

sanitation MDG targets; w Characteristics of the sector; w Regional spread.

The study focussed on the following four categories of personnel to assess staffing requirements in the government agencies, NGOs and private companies (Figure 1):a) Engineer: a person who is qualified

or professionally engaged in any branch of engineering related to the provision of water and sanitation facilities or infrastructure.

b) Associated professional: an occupation related to water, sanitation

1 Introduction

Training providers

Service providers

SERVICE PROVISIOn

Early education

Government

Private sector

NGO

Higher level education

Vocational training

Institutional strengthening

Incentives for individuals

Figure 1: Conceptual framework for human resource development


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or hygiene promotion requiring further education (usually to degree level) in a non-engineering topic (e.g. geology or social sciences).

c) Technician: someone who has technical training, a practical understanding of general theoretical principles (but not to graduate degree level) and experience in the application of technologies.

c) Skilled worker: a worker who has acquired technical skills but lacks

formal qualifications such as a plumber, mechanic, driller, mason or latrine caster.

Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from the public sector and parastatal institutions, from the private sector (private consultancy companies, individual contractors, drillers and artisans and so forth), as well as NGOs active in the sector.

Related to the training and vocational development of staff in these categories, the study looked at the capacity of existing educational and training institutions. From a qualitative perspective, the study also looked into the broader issues that influence the effectiveness of individuals related to the organisation that they work for and the lack of incentives that often undermine an individual’s motivations (see Figure 1).

(Credit: DFID)


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Each case study employed a variety of quantitative and qualitative research techniques including a literature review, questionnaires, focus group discussions, and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders within the water, sanitation and hygiene sub-sectors.

Various approaches have been proposed and used for estimating the supply and the requirements for human resources. These various methods can be used to answer different kinds of questions and have different assumptions, data requirements and costs. The approach adopted by the study was a combination of the following three approaches:

1. The service target driven method: estimates how many staff of a particular type are required to meet the MDG target per year for number and types of services. This method converts targets into human resource requirements by means of staffing and productivity standards (’manning’ ratios). 2. The demand based method (focused on the service user): not a professionally determined need but demand for human resources, derived from the demand for a service based on the cost of obtaining it. 3.The supply based method (focused on the service provider): expert opinion about the number of various types of staff per capita, typically measured as the ratio of workers to total population, expressed per 1000 connections.

The following steps (summarized in

Figure 2) outlined the methodology used to perform the case studies in order to make recommendations for HR development: 1. Inventory of human resources – To include: grade (if used), job classification, job categories; distribution between HQ and Regional Offices; age distribution of current staff to assist in

forward planning for replacements due to retirements. 2. Define baseline water and sanitation coverage – Current level of access and use of improved water supply and sanitation.3. Define service targets and estimate human resource needs – An estimate of projected human resources

2 Methodology to assess human resource requirements

Figure 2: Methodology flow chart1

1 Adapted from Carefoot, Neil and Howard Gibson. 1984. “Human Resources Development Handbook. Guidelines for Ministries and Agencies responsible for water

supply and sanitation.” WHO Geneva

Establish DEMAnD for services

Summarise human resources

9. Compare demand / supply with MDG target

10. Identify nature of shortages and gaps

Make recommendations for

HR development

Establish SUPPLY of services

Establish TARGETS for services

6. An inventory of training resources and

trainers

3. Define MDG/ service targets and estimate

manpower needs

7. Potential human resource supply and

attrition rates

4. Identify service/occupational

priorities and training requirements

8. Summarise human resource supply

5. Summarise human resource requirements

1. Inventory of Human Resources

2. Define baseline water and sanitation

coverage


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requirements to meet MDG or national service coverage targets.4. Identify occupation priorities and training requirements – For existing employees, determining skill gaps and the corresponding training required. 5. Summarise human resource requirements – Make a national summary of human resources and training requirements for the sector. 6. An inventory of training institutes and trainers – including universities, specialized colleges, technical vocational/trade—training institutes; and commercial schools. Are qualified trainers available? 7. Estimate potential human resource supply and attrition rates – An

estimate of the potential human resource supply by job category.8. Summarise human resource supply – a national summary of the total supply (projected potential availability) of human resource.9. Compare demand and supply – Comparison between the demand and the supply of human resources in order to meet the MDG target. 10. Identify nature of gaps and shortages in specific occupations – based upon consultation with representatives from service providers and other key stakeholders.

Summary of key assumptionsThe methodology adopted by the study

assumes that the MDG targets are practicable and can be achieved using existing approaches towards service delivery. In addition, the following assumptions were made:1) Existing coverage data is sufficiently

accurate. 2) Attainment of MDG coverage is

“improved” levels of water and sanitation.

3) Implicit is an emphasis on increasing access to service delivery rather than operation and maintenance of existing services. 4) Household and community involvement are a solution to worker shortages – yet these were not included in the assessment.

(Credit: WaterAid)


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The following section sets out the institutional landscape in the case study countries including: the role and responsibility of the different national institutions; existence of policies to guide the sector; as well as the role of donors and UN agencies – for example the role of UNICEF in Bangladesh and Zambia and donors in Timor Leste, Mali and Zambia – together with NGOs and the local private sector.

BangladeshIn Bangladesh, the Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) is the national government agency responsible for the provision of water and sanitation facilities in rural areas. The Water and Sanitation Authorities (WASAs) are responsible for the delivery of water and sewerage services in the larger cities, whereas local government authorities implement water supply projects in the 300 smaller municipalities (Pourashavas). The Local Government Engineering Department (LGED) is also involved in the construction of larger sanitation infrastructure – particularly sewerage and drainage systems in urban areas that do not fall under the responsibility of the WASAs. In general, there is a lack of clarity in terms of mandate between these agencies about their specific roles and responsibilities in the sector. As a result, different agencies perform similar functions and no single agency has developed sufficient competence for the sector as a whole. In addition, in the larger cities, coordination gaps are particularly apparent between the WASAs and the respective city corporations who, in most instances, would prefer municipal services to be brought under their administrative domain.

MaliThe WASH sector in Mali has recently

undergone profound changes. The implementation of physical projects was transferred from government to the private sector in 2000. This led to important changes in the roles and responsibilities of the main public institutions, and hence also in their demand for human resources. In addition, the public utility EDM (Energie du Mali) has been partly privatised and delegated management of small piped water schemes and other urban water supplies to the private sector is now being encouraged. In addition, the decentralisation process that started in 1993 was extended to the WASH sector in 2000, and the transfer of responsibilities to the 703 municipalities started in 2004. This has led to a strong demand for capacity building in the municipalities, and to a shift from centralised to decentralised service management. However, the progress of decentralisation is slow moving and legislation, procedures and processes are not yet fully in place. The sector is also fragmented and uncoordinated, with donor agencies and NGOs funding projects at all administrative levels, including paying civil servants’ salaries. A sector programme for the water and sanitation sector called PROSEA was initiated in 2005 but the sector is still far from implementing a sector-wide approach (SWAP).

South AfricaIn South Africa, at the national level the Department of Water and Environment (DWEA) is the institution primarily responsible for water and sanitation sector policy, support and regulation. The Department of Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs (DCGTA) regulates, oversees and supports the activities of local authorities, which is critical as it is the

local governments and municipalities that are responsible for the provision of water services. Water Services Authorities (WSAs) are legally mandated bodies responsible for ensuring provision of water services to people. A WSA can be a metropolitan, district or local municipality responsible for a specific geographic area. The WSAs designate publicly or privately owned companies who are the organizations that provide the actual services to the consumer. Thus, the most important role for the WSAs is to manage and oversee the supply of water and sanitation services to consumers (households, businesses and industries) and operate wastewater collection and treatment systems. In some situations WSAs operate some local water resource infrastructure (such as dams and boreholes), bulk water supply schemes. Often they are designated as the primary hygiene promotion institutions at the municipal level. Water boards operate some water resource infrastructure, bulk potable water supply schemes, some retail water infrastructure and some waste water systems. Their primary role is to sell water to municipalities and industries.

Timor Leste In Timor Leste, the National Directorate for Water and Sanitation Services (DNSAS), part of the Ministry of Infrastructure, bears responsibility for managing water supply systems. Various multilateral and bilateral donor agencies play a strong part in WASH funding to enable Government agencies to engage private sector firms and local NGOs to rehabilitate or construct new WASH infrastructure. But for large projects, construction contracts typically go to Indonesian companies. Promotion and support for onsite sanitation is provided by DNSAS and two departments within

3 Existing institutional context


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the Ministry of Health—Environmental Health and Health Promotion. The Ministry of Health takes on responsibility for hygiene promotion at the community level through its network of health clinics and mobile health teams. Government legislation requires communities in rural areas to manage their own infrastructure and to establish their water user groups.

ZambiaIn Zambia, the Ministry of Local Government and Housing (MLGH), through its Department of Housing and Infrastructure Development (DHID), has the overall responsibility for rural water supply and sanitation. The Department of Housing and Infrastructure

Development of MLGH is responsible for the day-to-day execution of urban water supply and sanitation (UWSS) activities. The Ministry of Energy and Water Development (MEWD), through its Department of Planning and Information and its Department of Water Affairs (DWA), has the overall leadership on water policy and is responsible for water resource management. Local Authorities are responsible for the actual implementation and monitoring of water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion, particularly in rural areas. The Ministry of Health (MoH) is responsible for the planning, coordination and monitoring of hygiene promotion at community level. The

Ministry of Community Development and Social Services (MCDSS) provides support to its district and sub-district level staff to participate in the planning, implementation and monitoring of water supply, sanitation and hygiene promotion activities. The Ministry employs community development officers and community development assistants. NGOs play a key role in provision of RWSS and several NGOs have considerable experience from implementing community-based RWSS projects. The private sector is also active within both rural and urban water supply and sanitation.

(Credit: WaterAid)


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BangladeshAt the national level, despite having a comprehensive policy, there is a lack of clarity of the roles and responsibilities amongst the agencies involved in establishing and operating water and sanitation systems. As a result, the human resource (HR) capacity within the sector remains fragmented.

The total number of persons employed in the water and sanitation sector in Bangladesh is estimated to be approximately 41,000 in 2009. Approximately 83% of these are categorized as technically qualified and the remaining 17% are comprised of management support and administrational staff.

Only 14% of the 41,000 people working in the sector are women; 66% of these are employed by NGOs to work on community level hygiene promotion activities. This contrasts significantly against the public and private sector which employs only 1% and 0.5% respectively. It is very difficult to find women working at management level or as skilled and semi-skilled workers in these organisations.

Over 40% of the total work in rural areas is undertaken by associated professionals working for NGOs with a strong focus on health and hygiene promotion. Volunteers, whether as individuals or community based organizations, take on roles as WASH committee members, pump caretakers and operators and community health promoters. The contribution of community resources is considerable and has a major role to play in the implementation of water and sanitation projects.

Amongst the three broad sectors of

employment, the private sector currently employs more than half of the total technical staff followed by the public sector (30%) and then the NGO sector (18%). The sector is dominated by men. Only 14% of the total persons engaged in the sector are women, many of whom are employed by NGOs.

More than 2600 engineering students graduate with university degrees per year (22% from schools of civil engineering), but not all of these will be employed in the water supply and sanitation sector. In terms of the number of students qualifying with a diploma, the number has risen from 1833 in 2005 to 4079 in 2009 and the total number in 2010 is expected to be 4170. Out of these approximately one third are expected to qualify in civil engineering.

Public sector agencies such as The Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE) and the Water and Sewerage Authorities (WASAs) predominantly employ engineers and technicians. But many of these are not well-equipped with the range of skills required for ensuring sustainable and hygienic water and sanitation facilities. Many of the WASA workers are untrained and the level of supervision tends to be poor. This results in poor quality of work and unsatisfactory facilities. To overcome this, an initiative by the Dhaka Water and Sanitation Authority (DWASA) and Asian Development Bank is underway to improve the quality of workmanship of semi-skilled/unskilled plumbers and mechanics. There are also professional associations such as Institute of Engineers, Bangladesh and the Bangladesh Engineers Registration Board that support capacity development.

Whilst the private sector attracts retired public workers with better remuneration packages, the low turnover of staff and lack of opportunities for career progression is one reason for poor performance in the public sector. Employees generally stay in the same position for many years, which has a negative impact on staff motivation and subsequent performance. Progression by age rather than merit is the norm but there can also be staff in ‘temporary’ positions for very long periods – over 20 years in some cases

Recruitment problems are made worse by tedious and lengthy administrative processes in public sector agencies. Compared with the public sector water utilities under the responsibility of the Department of Public Health Engineering (DPHE), DWASA has a high degree of functional autonomy for human resource matters, which include recruitment of officers and staff. However, even with the autonomy, the recruitment process can be lengthy.

According to the current Government statistics, there is relatively little progress required to achieve the target coverage of water and sanitation facilities. Therefore, according to methodology piloted by the study, there is little shortage in numbers of staff to achieve the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets. On the basis of the national data on access, whilst it is plausible that overall there are enough people employed, they are clearly not adequately trained to achieve adequate service delivery particularly in urban areas at least. Moreover, this does not take into consideration the quality of service delivery or the need for human resources to operate and maintain systems.

4 Assessment of existing and future HR needs


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Therefore, based on expected investments and estimates of staff requirements provided by the various organisations and companies working in the sector, the study estimates that the future requirement of total workers in the sector will almost double by 2015 from 40,708 to 80,554 to achieve higher levels of service – as well as basic access (74% higher than the existing provision). The estimated increase in engineers is 2.5 and that of associated professionals is 4.7 times the respective current values.

MaliMali has a relatively low level of women participation in the workforce. Women generally work in administrative functions, with the highest amount of female engineers in the public sector. The actual percentages of women participation in the workforce is 18% in public sector, 28% in private sector (12% consultancy and 16% hand pump suppliers) and 18% in the NGO sector.Privatisation and decentralisation in the water sector have changed the demand for specific types of human resources due to changing roles and responsibilities of the main government agencies. This is particularly the case for the new Ministry (of Environment and Health) which was established to take responsibility for sanitation and hygiene promotion.

The total number of skilled workers across all sectors related to water and sanitation is estimated to be almost 2600. A considerable majority (77%) are employed in the water sector, compared with 16% in the sanitation sector and only 7% in the hygiene sector. It is predicted that from 2009 an additional 1446 workers (equivalent to 240 professionals per year) are required in the WASH sector to achieve the MDG targets in 2015. The need is highest in the water sector (63% of overall

requirements), followed by sanitation (19%) and hygiene (8%).

The supply of water and sanitation sector professions and technicians comes from various educational institutions. An estimated 180 graduates enter the WASH sector each year; approximately 43% of these come from WASH sector–specific training courses, 7% from universities and 50% from technology colleges and continuing professional development institutions. Specialist training centres such as CREPA also play an important role in building the capacity of existing workers, helping them to gain specialist knowledge. A total of 450 people took a WASH related short course in 2009.

It is estimated that only 10-15 % of the graduates from formal education (university, technical college and professional development institutions) with degrees will actually work in the WASH sector. Private companies express dissatisfaction with the capabilities of graduates, stating that they lack the ability to apply theoretical knowledge in practical situations as well as skills for report writing, communicating in foreign languages, computer modelling and management.

South AfricaEven today, the legacy of Apartheid has a direct impact on how organisations involved in the administration and delivery of water and sanitation services operate. This is particularly noticeable in relation to the level of institutional capacity and the skills, knowledge and competencies of those working in such organisations.

Greater capacity constraints exist in the water sector than the sanitation sector – this might be explained by policy commitments to improve the operation and maintenance of water supply

systems that have created an increased demand for more skilled personnel.

There is a real danger of the country slipping backward and failing to maintain existing progress towards MDG targets, particularly if it does not significantly invest in people and skills to maintain the new infrastructure being built. To operate and maintain the existing infrastructure at least 1100 civil engineers are needed, effectively doubling the current supply of engineers.

A significant number of infrastructure projects have been commissioned in response to the historical backlog and the increased demand for public sector housing and services; including water supply and sanitation. Over the next ten years, this is expected to result in a large demand for semi-skilled and un-skilled jobs, as well as professional managers to oversee such operations.

In the past, government policy for human resource development has focused on technical skills, especially with regard to increasing the number of qualified engineers. However, the study found most serious shortages in human resources to be in middle level skilled technicians and managers – especially for financial management. There is a notable gender divide in this area in which only 35% of the highly skilled positions are occupied by women.

Over 40% of technical positions in local government are reported to be vacant; suggesting a very high demand for science and management based occupations. Yet there are also a significant number of qualified graduates unable to find employment. This apparent contradiction occurs because many graduate engineers are not considered employable due to lack of practical skills. To overcome this, retired professionals are encouraged to mentor


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graduates for a short period of time upon entering employment. In addition, mergers between the technical colleges, technikons and universities are an attempt to improve quality of education.

To recruit and retain qualified staff in rural areas is particularly difficult. The research found vacant senior positions in rural areas being filled with people who have less than the appropriate qualifications and skills required. The reason for this is the extreme shortage of qualified people and their lack of willingness to work in rural locations, there is an urgent need for an incentive structure to favour rural employment.

The poor situation surrounding the capacity of institutions involved in water provision and delivery will act as a severe constraint on the sustainability of future services. One of the constraints that municipalities continue to face is

the lack of capacity and the absence of appropriate structures, systems, incentives and policies to enable institutions to provide effective water, sanitation and hygiene services.

Timor-Leste A cap on public services and the bureaucracy surrounding recruitment in Timor Leste has resulted in little expansion of government staffing in the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) sector since independence in 2002. As a result, there is estimated to be only 235 staff with WASH-related skills within relevant government agencies (mainly public health engineers). Timor Leste has a low level of women participating in the WASH workforce; only 14 women out of 235 working in government agencies, 4 out of 224 working in the private sector and 34 out of 184 working for NGOs. Most of these are employed in the category of skilled workers.

The Timor-Leste study showed that water supplies are typically constructed by communities with support from NGOs and private sector. But as many as 30% of such systems fail in the first year, which raises questions about whether communities are prepared or equipped to take on design, implementation and operation and maintenance tasks and requires addressing the type and scale of technical support to be provided at the community level.

Human resources in the sector are highly dependent upon funding to engage private contractors and NGOs. As funding fluctuates, so does HR capacity. Experience built up in the WASH sector is easily lost as funding and staff move to other sectors, it is important to make the sector more attractive for employees. In addition, if capacity for operation and maintenance (and community management) is not established, benefits related to coverage improvements to achieve the MDG targets will be short lived and coverage rates will drop back rapidly as infrastructure falls into disrepair.

There are a number of WASH programmes supported by various donors. Due to the problems of recruitment and the time it takes to train technicians, projects are predominantly driven by international expertise and it is expected that foreign expertise will continue to be an important element in Timor Leste’s response to meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) targets for water and sanitation.

WASH-related skills can be acquired at four universities; two of which focus on civil engineering and the other two are public health oriented. Although there are theoretically enough graduates each year to meet the shortfall, graduate engineers typically lack WASH knowledge and are therefore not

Free primary education in Kenya


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considered to be employable. Whilst the engineering schools offer some broader WASH-related training on their curricula, not all content required to train WASH engineers is covered and the courses provide low levels of practical training. As a consequence, one major donor-funded programme has arranged for senior government staff in the National Directorate for Water and Sanitation to upgrade their formal WASH training at an Indonesian university. Another approach promoted in Timor-Leste is to promote the mentoring of junior nationals by foreign expatriates working on projects funded by international development organisations.

If the MDG targets for water and sanitation are to be met there is a substantial shortage of WASH personnel in all four categories—engineers, professionals, technicians and skilled workers. At the current rate of human resources (HR) supply, shortages will slowly decrease in all categories but remain down throughout the period within which the MDG targets are to be met. The predicted HR shortage is particularly significant for engineers and other specialist professionals, where training and establishing experience requires at least five years.

ZambiaIn relation to current coverage and the MDG targets related to water and sanitation, Zambia’s main challenge lies with achieving the rural sector targets, where 4.6 million and 4.9 million need to gain access to water and sanitation respectively (these are national figures rather than JMP data). In 2008, the Ministry of Local Government and Housing approved a new approach for delivery of water and sanitation services that shifts the emphasis away from national line agencies to building local authority capacities. However, the decentralization of responsibilities for

rural water supply and sanitation has been delayed due to capacity constraints in terms of staff and funding.

The District Councils’ total current capacity is estimated to comprise 49 engineers, 657 associated professionals, 146 technicians and 852 skilled workers. But there is difficulty in attracting and retaining qualified staff due to lack of funding, unattractive work conditions, remoteness of the areas and the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS which has a significant impact on organisational productivity due to the large numbers of sick and absent staff. The loss of key staff can seriously undermine efforts to develop capacity.

The Ministry of Community Development and Social Services (MCDSS) has a total of 881 staff out of which the majority (95%) are categorized as associated professionals, including community development workers, social scientists and health staff. NGO staff account for 61 engineers; 122 financial managers, administrative staff and HR staff; 105 social/health staff; 16 technicians and 16 skilled workers. An additional 1357 public workers from the Ministry of Health and the Department of Health Education and Promotion are mainly responsible for the hygiene promotion.Out of the 2732 employees in the ten water and sewerage companies responsible for provision of urban water supply and sanitation, only 448 are qualified with a degree or diploma. The private sector is estimated to have a further 626 engineers and technicians, and 233 associated professionals. In general, there is good participation of women in the workforce, with 40-45% in the public sector and 34% in the NGO sector. But there is greatest inequality in private sector where only 9% of the workforce in consulting companies is women.

Other sectors are generally more attractive to the graduates who could potentially work in the WASH sector. In particular, the mining industry attracts the few hydro-geologists that qualify each year; the construction industry attracts higher calibre graduate candidates for civil engineering positions; whilst social scientists tend to prefer other subject areas such as child welfare, HIV-AIDS, or education. Additionally, the sector faces severe competition from neighbouring and European countries for staff trained in health and hygiene promotion, leading to a shortage of staff at health centres.

Bureaucratic recruitment problems surrounding the centralised recruitment processes of the line ministries affect recruitment and better pay and opportunities in other sectors attract the best qualified. In particular, the districts and smaller Water and Sewerage Companies face difficulty in attracting employees due to lack of financial resources to pay for salaries, and the unattractive working environment with respect to lack of transport, material and other resources.

Short-term training activities exist in the rural water supply and sanitation sub-sector (e.g. the training of area pump minders, well-diggers, latrine builders, etc.) and are conducted by project staff supported by the inputs of short-term consultants

Theoretically, Zambia would have sufficient diploma engineers and social scientists in 2015 to cover the shortage at district level, but these graduates are mainly located in the Lusaka and Copperbelt province and not in the other seven provinces. As a result, there is a shortage of staff with the required qualifications at the district level.


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Most of the case studies indicate that the throughput of competent people from institutions entering the workforce is insufficient for several reasons. These can be summarised as being related to the following issues:

Inappropriate training and ill-equipped training institutionsThe problem of increasing access to water and sanitation is not just associated with the total number of workers but the quality of the training. Problems can be linked to schooling where pupils are not studying subjects that give them a good grounding for professions relevant to the WASH sector (in particular in mathematics and others sciences).

Both school teachers and lecturers in establishments of higher education also tend to be poorly paid and the training institutions are generally under-resourced with low staff: student ratios. In addition, for the students themselves, there is insufficient financial support in the form of bursary schemes.

But not all problems are related to lack of funding. Curricula are outdated or inappropriate and the often low quality of teaching is exacerbated by the lack of quality assurance systems for education and training. Few traditional higher education establishments tailor their courses to teach students about aspects related to WASH other than the more conventional engineering aspects.

Lack of opportunities for practical WASH related work experienceIn nearly all of the case studies, the lack of opportunities for graduates to get practical WASH-related experience was observed to be a significant problem. The lack of experience and general lack of support with the transition from academia to the work environment means that graduates are often not considered to be suitably employable.

In addition, the lack of mentors for younger workers in the sector reduces the opportunities for them to learn from others with more experience.

5 Key constraints for human resource development

School children at work in Ghana (Credit: WaterAid)


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Gender inequalities – low number of women working in the sectorIn all the case studies it was found that women’s employment in the water and sanitation sector is low – particularly in technical and managerial positions – and enrolment and graduation of women at university for technically orientated courses is still lower than for men.

This can be linked to a general failure to promote WASH as a career to all students, but particularly to girls. This situation arises because institutionally, there are few policy incentives and preferences for the recruitment of women and, apart from the NGOs, most water and sanitation sector agencies are not seen to be adequately aware of or sensitive to the gender imbalance in their workforce. For women to play a more significant role in meeting the predicted future demand for WASH sector workers, more girls should be encouraged to gain technical qualifications and employers’ preferences should be reshaped to ensure that women participate in the labour market on more equal terms.

Community contributions Although not quantified as part of the methodology, the case studies point towards the critical importance of the human resources from household contributions and community involvement in the implementation of water supply and sanitation projects. The numbers of volunteers contributing their labour to water and sanitation systems is unknown but is expected to be highly significant. It is therefore recommended that future assessments take this into consideration in conjunction with the human resource requirements for supporting and managing these inputs.

Training of semi-skilled/unskilled techniciansWASH services are often provided by

semi-skilled or unskilled plumbers and mechanics, who are either self-employed or employed by local small-scale private firms. But these workers often have low levels of literacy and learn their practical skills informally as apprentices or from family members.

Staff recruitment and retention All countries face problems related to the lack of incentives to work for public sector agencies on WASH. These institutions have a poor public image relating to low standard of services and job insecurity. In addition, most of the case studies point to poor pay and working conditions as the biggest deterrents for undergraduates to follow a career in the WASH sector. This particularly affects the recruitment and retention of staff in more remote locations, where offices and equipment are poorly resourced. Incentives to work in remote areas are essential. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that other sectors are generally more attractive to graduates, which means

that some countries have considerable numbers of trained workers choosing to work in other sectors.

The case studies show that the private sector, NGO and donor agencies generally attract the most skilled labour with the highest degrees of education. NGOs working in the sector offer better human resource management conditions, but work on a project basis in which they hire technicians or engineers for the project time from the private sector and only have associated professionals, such as hygiene promoters, working full time. Ineffective deployment

Whilst many countries face challenges regarding the supply of workers into the sector, in all five countries, there are also equally serious challenges of deployment. There may be qualified workers in urban areas that are unemployed, while there are unfilled posts in rural areas.

Caption?


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Strengthening the capacity of training institutionsThere is a need to improve standards of teaching as part of continuing education of WASH professionals. Additional funding is needed for universities, colleges and other training institutions to enable them to upgrade the quality of their educational and research activities. This has implications for capital and recurrent expenditures and should therefore be part of a comprehensive national strategy to achieve priorities. This should include support to develop relevant curricula, and the accreditation and regulation of public and private training institutions.

Improve the employability of studentsIn some of the case study countries, vacant positions exist even when there are apparently qualified graduates seeking work and available to fill these positions. This situation is partially due to their lack of practical experience which makes them less attractive to employees. There is therefore a need for more work placements in the sector and for employers and educational institutes/training institutes to communicate with one another more coherently regarding sector needs.

Fast-track programmes to train larger numbers of people As it will take considerable time to train the next generation of WASH sector professionals through conventional academic based training, there is a need for a range of ‘quick win’ training initiatives to develop essential skills/competencies in areas that can produce rapid results e.g. community-based sanitation and hygiene promotion. Provided there are the right incentives to learn, the expertise of households,

communities, operators and fieldworkers can be increased quite rapidly without the need for extensive or expensive training.

Greater emphasis on shorter vocational coursesThere is a need for a more structured and strategic approach for the organisation and delivery of short-term courses which need to be better institutionalised within existing training institutions. These institutions may require institutional support particularly in situations where there is rapid change in the sector and requirements for training to provide new skills to WASH staff. On-the-job vocational training is required and staff who have received training should be encouraged to share their new knowledge with their peers as part of in-house vocational training.

Focus more attention on skills for operation and maintenanceOne area that is seen as increasingly important relates to the operation and maintenance of existing facilities. The MDG targets have provided the political incentive to invest in new facilities rather but attention is needed to improve skills for operation and maintenance to improve asset management and reduce the risk of failure of service in the future due to system breakdown.

Greater incentives to work in the WASH sector / Increase incentives and allowancesThe WASH sector will need to offer more competitive employment packages and opportunities for career development. In addition, there is a need to attract professionals with a broader base of skills and attract specialists from the social sciences to work in the WASH sector for a more balanced HR composition. To attract and retain staff, it

is essential that public servants, district council staff, university lecturers etc. receive more attractive and competitive remuneration packages. But, the studies found that organisational change is required to enable this to be introduced in combination with a system of rewards to incentivise workers and monitor their performance.

The role of the private sector (national and international)The study also found a distinction between ways to increase HR capacity in the water sector – where target groups are more likely to municipal or city utility staff – and that of sanitation, which more typically involves stimulating independent providers. There is a need therefore to encourage governments to identify different schemes for the two, rather than just concentrating on water.

Better deployment of staff to rural areasWays should be found to speed up the decentralisation process, with transfer of additional functions – and funds – to local authorities. Decentralisation increases managerial responsibility and the allocation of financial resources to the district level. Greater numbers of WASH-related staff should therefore be positioned at the district level to serve rural communities. This implies a need to move away from the predominance of the highest qualified staff based in the capitals and other larger cities. A key part is to be played by creating incentives to recruit good people where they are needed so there should be incentives for staff to work in remote areas (or disincentives not to such as a bar on promotion unless they do).

The role of donors Donors may also consider training

6 Recommendations for supply of trained individuals


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(Credit: DFID)

of sector professionals: for instance the International Development Select Committee inquiry on Sanitation and Water (2006) recommended that DFID should consider “support national water professionals without the need to fund individuals: by negotiating a quota of funds from budget support or other form of assistance that is ringfenced for water professionals’ training and salaries,

DFID could simultaneously support training and help to mitigate the ‘brain drain’ of professionals from developing to developed countries”.

Another possibility may include strengthening the capacity at professional and technician level, by offering more support to local resource centres in Africa and Asia to assist

regional, national and sub-national level officials in knowledge transfer, develop appropriate training courses, provide policy advice and encourage the development of locally appropriate solutions to sanitation and water. Centres should be established in a way that is sustainable and allows them to attract business and function as financially viable entities.


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Improved monitoring on human resource capacity More work is needed to better understand the relationship between the number of organisations working in the national WASH sector, the levels of capacity available and how this aligns with national HR priorities, policies and strategies. A major finding from all the case study countries is that robust and reliable numbers of people working in the sector are extremely difficult to obtain. There are no national databases (such as national registers or employment figures) that properly account for the number of workers in service and their qualifications, and what information that is available is often incomplete and generally unreliable.

The lack of data has implications, not only for attempts to calculate the skills shortages, but also for efforts to accurately project demands for new skills. Moreover, insufficient information is collected on the gender, ethnicity, or socioeconomic groups within the work force. This is important because certain groups may face particular challenges in entering the sector.

One way to make this information more useful would be to collate the existing information in an electronic database that would act as a register for the sector. A knowledge and resource centre in each country should play the lead in data collation. A core data set would support the development of national human resource strategies, Possible indicators include: i. Number and skills of service

providers (disaggregated by qualification, age, gender, location);

ii. The numbers of people entering and exiting the workforce (newly

trained/graduated students, attrition, numbers of sector workers that migrate);

iii. Education capacity (school leavers, graduates, training institutions, costs of training etc);

iv. Effectiveness of workers (i.e. absenteeism) and performance (service outputs);

v. Number of trained staff available in comparison with advertised vacancies;

vi. Salary and incentives in private, public and non-governmental organisations.

Develop a comprehensive human resource strategy The challenges in addressing human resource issues should be addressed as part of a comprehensive national level sector plan designed to secure the necessary leadership, resources (human and financial) to deliver essential services. A costed, comprehensive human resource strategy developed jointly with state and non-state stakeholders and integrated into national health, education and public sector plans is an urgent requirement.

Use financial resources strategicallyAn increase in funds is required to support the development and implementation of national water and sanitation human resource strategies. These strategies will need to focus on the recruitment and deployment of more WASH workers at the district and ministry levels, but also to invest in education and training infrastructure (facilities, materials and faculty), which are frequently insufficient. However, for government to allocate national budgets to increased HR in the sector,

there needs to be a strong, clearly articulated arguments as to why HR for drinking water and sanitation is a better investment than, say, investments to health. For instance $1 invested in every $1 invested in water and sanitation would yield an economic return of between $3 to $34, depending on the region.

Policy development and improved governance The numbers and qualifications of the WASH workforce in the public sector are determined by wider policies related to recruitment and retention, macroeconomic conditions and fiscal policies. The case studies highlight broader governance issues and support the argument to focus more on cross-sectoral planning There are possible benefits to engaging with civil service reform where this is on the agenda of government, although it is not likely to be possible for the water sector to instigate such reform on its own.

There is potential for donors to support HR capacity in the water and sanitation sectors: for instance through: Sector Wide Approaches (e.g. Zambia, South Africa and Bangladesh), Multi-Stakeholder Forums (Bangladesh, Mali, South Africa, Zambia and East Timor).

Institutional strengtheningThe case studies indicate that there are typically a number of organisations working in the sector. There is a need for increased clarity between national level water and sanitation agencies about each of their institutional roles and a need for a single agency with a clear mandate to provide the strategic lead and co-ordinate activities within the sector.

7 Strengthening the enabling environment for human resource development


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Newly increased roles and responsibilities at the decentralized level require new sets of skills and working practices. In some countries the transfer has been successful in the water sector, but for sanitation it remains limited. The greatest challenges lie in rural areas where the move to devolve responsibility for water and sanitation systems from central to local government level is often not accompanied by the necessary transfer of human and financial resources.

Improving organisational capacitiesThe case studies point to a number of organisational issues that impact on the delivery of water and sanitation services. The inability of public sector agencies to offer the necessary job security and environments to attract and retain suitably qualified and competent staff points to a deeper organisational weakness. Training courses that create personal capacity should also

be matched by growing organisational capacity otherwise there is a risk that newly trained individuals may choose to work for other organizations.

A long-term solution to the capacity shortages and gaps in the water and sanitation sector is dependent on the organisational capacity of service providers. The case studies highlight that the effectiveness of individuals is highly dependent upon how the skills and capabilities of the workers are utilized and whether they have the right equipment and supplies to carry out their task effectively (e.g. the lack of transport and equipment for district level public sector institutions). Specific attention is required to deploy and retain the workforce to ensure access to and provision of services across the country on an equitable basis.

Linking with Global Processes The UN-Water Global Annual

Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking-Water (GLAAS) provides key information on sanitation and drinking-water in the developing world: specifically, the GLAAS 2010 report found that most countries responding to their survey have addressed human resources in national plans or annual reviews of sanitation and drinking-water, but inadequate budget to hire and retain staff is cited as the main factor affecting human resource levels in both rural sanitation and rural drinking-water.

There is also a role for donors, perhaps through Sanitation and Water for All to pool resources and actions for enhancing HR capacity. This is a global partnership between developing countries, donors, multi-lateral agencies, civil society and other development partners working together to achieve universal and sustainable access to sanitation and drinking water.

(Credit: WaterAid)


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Water and Sanitation Team – Department for International Development 1 Palace Street, London SW1E 5HE, United KingdomWebsite: www.dfid.gov.uk/

This document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) for the benefit of low income countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFID

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