MELJUN CORTES MANUAL Information Technology Hardware Software CCIT02

8/13/2019 MELJUN CORTES MANUAL Information Technology Hardware Software CCIT02

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CCIT02 Information Technology Hardware & Software

The Computer System Concept

What is a Computer?

Computers are not very intelligent devices, but they handle instructions flawlessly and fast. They must follow explicit directions from both the usecomputer programmer. Computers are really nothing more than a very powerful calculator with some great accessories. Applications like word proceand games are just a very complex math problem.

Software and Hardware

If you use a player piano as an analogy, the piano can be thought of as the hardware and the roll of music as the software.

The software a series of very simple computer instructions carefully organied to complete complex tasks. These instructions are written in programlanguages !like "A#IC, $A#CA%, C...& to help simplify the development of applications.

The hardware is what sits on your desk and executes the software instructions. The player piano is useless unless the roll of music has been wcorrectly.

Hardware Components

Input e!ices'' ()ow to tell it what to do(' A keyboard and mouse are the standard way to interact with the computer. *ther devices include joysticks and game pads used primarily for games

"utput e!ices'' ()ow it shows you what it is doing(' The monitor !the screen& is how the computer sends information back to you, whether it be surfing the web or writing a memo. A printer is also an odevice.

Storage e!ices'' ()ow it saves data and programs(' )ard disk drives are an internal, higher capacity drive which also stores the operating system which runs when you power on the computer.

' (+loppy( disk drives allow you to save work on small disks and take the data with you.

#emory '' ()ow the processor stores and uses immediate data(' hen you use a program, the computer loads a portion of the program from the hard drive to the much faster memory !-A&. hen you (savework or /uit the program, the data gets written back to the hard drive.

#icroprocessors'' (The brain of the computer(' $Cs primarily use microprocessors !sometimes called the chip& manufactured by Intel. The older Intel versions include the 012, 312 and now the $e

line.

' acintoshes use $ower$C processors by otorola.

' egahert !)& is the internal processor speed in which computer instructions are performed. The ) speed does not always indicate the powthe microprocessor. 4ewer processors can execute more instructions at the same or slower ). +or example, an Intel 312 5677) is less powthan a $entium 589 ) !but the ) is (faster(&.

The C$%

Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The C$: is the brains of the computer. #ometimes referred to simply aprocessor or central processor, the C$: is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power, the C$: is the most important elemencomputer system.*n large machines, C$:s re/uire one or more printed circuit boards. *n personal computers and small workstations, the C$: is housed in a singlecalled a microprocessor.

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Two Typical Components of a C$% are'

The arithmetic logic unit )*+%,-which performs arithmetic and logical operations.The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the A%: when necessary.

Hardware *ccessories

#odems

' odems allow you to communicate with other computers using a phone line. odem speeds are in bits per second !63.3, ;1.1 and 92 thousand bitsecond are standard&.

C./"# ri!es' A C


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Components a of computer system monitor ' now with flat screen

keyboard, cordless or traditional

chassis !contains central processing unit !CPU&&

mouse ' also available as cordless, I-

:#" !:niversal #erial "us& )ubs, devices ' hot swappable

Additional external devices that are becoming standard are a printer, scanner, film recorder !for generating 09mm slides&, a ip drive, :#" )ubdevices,


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*dditional System Hardware Components include the following'

Scanners' Allows the scanning of text, graphics, or slides into a format that may be imported into many of your applications.

$lotter' used with various graphics applications including CA


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o 0.9 inch diskette

o 9.;9 inch (floppy( disk !no longer common&

)ard disk or )ard drive !same thing& !This picture shows what they look like inside.& K)ard drive courtesy of #eagateLM

o Available in several sies !6 >b, ; >b, 3 >b, 697>", 077>" etc.&

o $ermanently enclosed in their drive mechanism

C


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Computer mouse

Two wireless computer mice, with scroll wheelsA mouse is a handheld pointing device for computers,involving a small object fitted with one or more buttonshaped to sit naturally under the hand. The underside of the mouse houses a device that detects the momotion relative to the flat surface on which it sits. The mouseBs ;< motion is typically translated into the motacursor on the display.It is called a mouse primarily because the cord on early models resembled the rodentBs tail, and also becausmotion of the pointer on the screen can be mouse like. In popular usage, the plural can be either mice or mou

Touchpad

A touchpad is an input device commonly used in laptop computers.They are used to move the cursor,using motions of the userBs finger. They subsfor acomputer mouse. Touch pads vary in sie but are rarely made larger than 97 cmP !about 1 inP&Touch pads commonly operate by sensing the capacitance of a finger. Capacitive sensors are laid out along the horiontal and vertical axis otouchpad. The location of the finger is determined from the pattern of capacitance from these sensors. This is why they will not sense the tip of a peneven a finger in a glove.

Tracall

%ogitech arble ouse TrackballA trackball is apointing deviceconsisting of a ball housed in a socket containing sensors to detect rotation of the ball two axes ' like an upside'down mouse,but with the ball sticking out more. The user rolls the ball with their thumb, finor the palm of theirhand to move a cursor.Tracker balls are common on CA


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Touch screen

A touch screen is ainput devicethat allows the user to interact with thecomputerby touching the display screen.arly screens used beams of infrared lightprojected across the screen surface. Interrupting the beams generated an electronic signal identifyinlocation of the screen, which was relayed to software.odern touch screens use a thin, durable, transparent plastic sheet overlayed onto the glass screen. The location of a touch is calculated fromcapacitance for the = and axes,which varies based upon where the sheet is touched.

$ointing stic

Trackpoint and TouchpadThe pointing stick !trademarked by I"as the Track$oint& is a pointing device for laptops invented by resscientistTed #elker and e/uips I"Bs line ofThink$ad laptops.The pointing stick has a replaceable red'tip which is often referred to as the cap. The stick is embedded oQ-T keyboard between the B>B, B)B and B"B keys, and the mouse buttons are placed just below the #paceThe pointing stick operates by sensing applied force !hence it is also known as an isometric joystick&, typicameasuring theresistanceof a material. The velocity of thecursoris then proportional to the applied force.

+ight pen

A lightpen is a device similar to a touch screen, but is facilitated by use of a speciallight sensitive pen instead of the finger. The advantage of using

is more accurate screen input than possible with a touch screen, also a light pen needs no special screen but can work with any C-T'based mo)owever, light pens cannot work with%C< screens, projectors etc.

$en.ased computing

Interacting with computers using a pen, as opposed to a keyboard or mouse is a $en'"ased Computing A pen allows fluid handwriting, gesturessketching that are difficult with many other input devices, thus enabling a more expressive form of input. $en'based interfaces are popular in $because of the portability and convenience of a pen. #troke recognition allows the computer to interpret handwriting and gestures in terms of texcommands.

8oice recognition and responseSpeech /ecognition

#peech recognition programs have now reached over N9R accuracy, and are capable of transcribing over 627 words per minute. #peech recogprograms have improved rapidly as the power of computers has improved. #peech recognition makes use of specific AI !artificial intelligence& ruldetermine what words the speaker is speaking. Although early speech recognition attempts re/uire many manual corrections, current $C'based sprecognition is able to transcribe very accurately, and with minimal user correction needed. #peech recognition will continue to improve, but it is alreadlevel in which a casual user can see great productivity enhancement through the improved speed of speaking vs. typing. #peech recognition is availabhome and business users from a variety of software vendors.

"ptical scanning

"ptical Scanning Systems

An optical scanning device combines specialied computer hardware and software. The hardware devices capture an image and software converimage to computer'readable data.

There are four main types of optical scanning technologiesF

*ptical ark -eading !*-&

*ptical Character -ecognition !*C-&

Intelligent Character -ecognition !IC-&

Imaging Technology


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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptophttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ted_Selker&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTYhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_screenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_sensitive&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_lighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointing_devicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptophttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ted_Selker&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThinkPadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QWERTYhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_resistancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cursorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_screenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Light_sensitive&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display


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"ptical #ar /eading )"#/, Scanning Systems

*- typically involves a scanner reading particular kinds of marks in a defined set of locations on a page. The computer software used by the scanner is programmed to recognie the meaning of the various marks, and to convert scanned images into computer'readable data using the locatthose marks.

ost machine readable !optical scanning& voting systems use *- technology

*- technology has been widely used since the 6N87s for a variety of uses, including school and university tests, censuses, surveys and lotteries, aas for voting. It is also used in barcode readers, which are in widespread use in retailing, stock taking, libraries and schools.

Apart from voting systems, there are other potential applications for *- technology. In Australia, for example, *- systems are used to scan elerolls marked in polling places to indicate the names of electors who have voted. This permits Australian electoral authorities to automate the enforceof AustraliaBs compulsory voting system, as well as identify any instances of multiple voting.

*- barcode systems are also used extensively for mailing applications. any postal authorities place barcodes on mail to automate the delivery pro#ome countries have mail systems that allow users to print address barcodes on mail, so that postal authorities can process the mail without having tobarcodes in their mail'rooms, thereby creating a discount for the user.

*- technology is very useful for and efficient at gathering relatively simple, pre'determined data. )owever, it is not very good at gathering comvariable data, such as large amounts of text. *C- and IC- systems are more suited to this purpose.

"ptical Character /ecognition )"C/, Scanning Systems

*C- scanning systems take scanned images and use computer software to recognie the shapes of printed or handwritten characters such as numand letters, and store them as computer'readable data. *C- is typically used to convert printed text into computer'readable text.

This capability has many potential applications in the electoral field. +or example, in the early 6N17s, the Australian lectoral Commission produceextensive set of procedures manuals. #ome years later, when the manuals were due to be revised, the original computer files containing the manualsnot able to be used by the CommissionBs upgraded computer software. -ather than retype the original manuals, *C- software was used to conveprinted manuals into computer files suitable for editing and revision.

Another important use of *C- is for data capture of information printed on forms. -ather than manually typing information contained on forms, *C-be used to automatically convert information from forms into computer'readable data.

*C- works by BtrainingB the scanning software to recognie particular shapes as letters and numbers. As different print fonts are different shapes, systems have to be trained to recognie that a particular letter or number can take several different forms. >iven the regularity of printed fonts, this

relatively straight forward process. *C- systems can also be trained to recognie hand writing. )owever, given the infinite variety in hand writing sthis is a much more difficult task.

arly *C- systems had a relatively high error rate when converting printed text to computer'readable data, particularly hand written text. This re/uhigh level of human intervention to proof'read and corrects the converted data. As optical scanning hardware and software improved towards the ethe 6NN7s, the error rates dropped. )owever, the next generation of scanning systems, IC- systems, went even further in increasing scanning accrates.

Intelligent Character /ecognition )IC/, Scanning Systems

IC- takes *C- systems one step further by using computer software to apply intelligent logic tests to scanned characters so as to more reliably convethem into computer'readable data.

IC- systems apply rules of spelling, grammar and context to scanned text in order to make BintelligentB assessments as to the correct interpretation of

data. This enables much more accurate conversion of scanned text than does the more simple *C- system, particularly with hand writing.

IC- software re/uires fast, powerful computers to perform efficiently. -eliable IC- systems only became available in the mid to late 6NN7s with thedevelopment of cheap, powerful computer products.

As IC- systems become more reliable, their use for electoral applications will increase. They are particularly suitable for capturing data from forms. ICsystems are also being examined for their suitability to capture hand written numbers from ballots used for more complex electoral systems, such asalternative vote and single transferable vote systems. To date, automatic data capture systems have not been used for these electoral systems owingthe complexity of the task.


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Imaging Technology

In addition to capturing images for conversion into data, scanners can also capture images to be stored as computer'readable images. $hotographs,drawings and images of text can be stored and reused in computer'readable form.

Computeried images have many electoral applications. Images can be used on websites and printed in publications. #taff photographs can be placedan electoral authorityBs Bho we areB internet page and in its Annual -eport. $hotographs of polling stations can included on websites and instructionmanuals. xamples of completed forms can be scanned as images and printed in training manuals.

$aper'based forms can be imaged and stored in electronic form. Copies of the images can then be downloaded over a computer network without the to access the original paper copies. The Australian lectoral Commission is currently engaged in imaging all of its millions of voter registration forms aplacing them on a computer network accessible from any of its offices nationwide. This system will be used to check signatures or any other detailsincluded on the forms by accessing the imaged forms on demand.

Corporate logos can be stored electronically as images and printed on a range of corporate publications. here an organiation may once have usedexpensive pre'printed stationery containing the corporate logo, stationery can now be printed from the desktop with professional letterhead using blanpaper, a color printer and a digitied image of the logo.

Imaging technology can also be used for identity verification purposes. $hotographs can be digitied and placed on identity cards. Images of finger prior facial features can be digitied and stored on smart cards. #oftware identity systems can be used to compare the image of the person presenting asmart card with the image of the person encoded on the card to determine whether it is the same person.

"utput technologies and trends"utput e!ices*utput devices are used to provide usable output for us, as well as status about the operation of the $C.

The video display, printer and speaker are examples of output devices.

8ideo isplay

The video display uses data that the C$: puts into a section of memory called video memory. This data is continuously updated and sent to the displathe right rate and in the right order, so that the screen displays images we can read or interpret.

$rinter

ost of you have probably used a printer. The $C sends data that you select such as a file or picture to the printer, usually through either a :#" or paport on the $C.

Speaers

ost $Cs come standard with external speakers that plug into the sound card. These speakers play back any audio source that your $C can send to tsuch as music, voice and status information !beeps&, such as those made during start up.

Input>"utput )I>",

There are some ports on the $C that are used to move data out of as well as back into the $C. They are called ID* ports.

Serial $ort' The serial portis an ID* port. It connects to external devices that need to communicate with the $C. #canners and digital came

are examples of devices that can connect to the serial port. It is called the serial port because only one bit of information passes across it dueach transfer.

$arallel $ort' Theparallel portis also an ID* port that is almost always used for output. ore often than not a printer connected to it. ItBs ca

parallel port because it moves a byte !1 bits& of data in parallel during each data transfer.

%ni!ersal Serial us' The Universal Serial us!:#"& is a newer higher speed serial ID* port that will eventually replace the serial and par

ports. It has been appearing in $Cs for a relatively short time. any printers and other external devices are already e/uipped with :#" portThe :#" port on a $C can connect directly to any device with a :#" port. It can also connect to a :#" Controller which in turn can connecmany devices that have :#" ports.


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#emory

/andom access memory!-A& is the best known form of computer memory.-A is considered (random access( because you can access any mecell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.

The opposite of -A is serial access memory!#A&. #A stores data as a series of memory cells that can only be accessed se/uentially !like acassette tape&. If the data is not in the current location, each memory cell is checked until the needed data is found. #A works very well for memoryuffers, where the data is normally stored in the order in which it will be used !a good example is the texture buffer memory on a video card&. -A daon the other hand, can be accessed in any order.

Common /*# Types

S/*#

Static random access memoryuses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each memory cell but doesnBt have a capacitor in each cell. It is useprimarily for cache.

/*#ynamic random access memoryhas memory cells with a paired transistor and capacitor re/uiring constant refreshing.

1$# /*#1ast page mode dynamic random access memorywas the original form of


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C#"S /*#C*# -A is a term for the small amount of memory used by your computer and some other devices to remember things like hard disksettings '' sehy does my computer need a batterySfor details. This memory uses a small battery to provide it with the power it needs to maintain the memorycontents.

8/*#8ideo/*#, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory!$ermany, based on the invention of the mawire by Ealdemar $oulsen in 61N1.

It was not used to record data until 6N96 on the auchly'ckert :4IEAC I. The recording medium was a 6D;wide thin band of nickel'plated brone. -ecording density was 6;1 characters per inch on eight tracks at a speed of 677 ips, yielding a data rate of 6;,177 characters per second. aking allowance for the empty space be

tape blocks, the actual transfer rate was around 8,;77 characters per second.I" computers from the 6N97s used oxide'coated tape similar to that used in audio recording, and I"Bs technsoon became the de facto industry standard. agnetic tape was half an inch wide and wound on removable reelsinches in diameter.


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nd :ser Applications are software that is specific to the solution of a category of application problems. +or example, spreadsheet programword processor, database management, slides presentation etc. nd :ser applications are sometimes called application program.

ifference etween a program and software'

$rogram is a set of instructions that is stored in a microchip or chipset called firmware.#oftware is an application towards to the solution of a category of a particular problem.

*pplication software for end.users

xamples of Application #oftwareF

6. ord $rocessoricrosoft ord, Adobe Acrobat, ordstar, 4otepad

;. #preadsheets %otus 6;0, icrosoft xcel

0.


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A collection of software products bundled together into a single package and sold at a price that is less than the sum of the prices of the

individual components.

A software suite is a package that contains several different software applications. *ffice BN8 is an example of a #oftware #uite because it h

least four applications that come with the package

Purpose: %inking different applications together for better work!integrated software& #implifying things for new users

%a&or 'dvantage: Costs less than a set of similar stand alone applications bought separately

%a&or (isadvantage: !integrated software& %acks many features of the stand'alone versions of the same software.!suites& ou may not need all the parts or the advanced features in the collection.

We rowser and #ore$rograms that lets you view eb pages on the orld ide eb. $opular eb browsers are icrosoftBs Internet xplorer and 4etscapeBs 4avigator

* rowser@s performance depends upon'

6. The speed and efficiency of the userOs computer,;. The type of modem being used, and0. The bandwidth of the data'transmission medium !the amount of information that can be transmitted per second&. %ow bandwidth results in slow

movement of data between source and recipient, leading to longer transmission times for documents.3. "rowsers may also have difficulty reaching a site during times of heavy traffic on the network or because of high use of the site.

4amples of We rowsers

#osaic )AstWe rowser,

There was just one problem with the eb system nobody could easily use the system effectively. In order for the system to work, otwo things had to happen. ither everyone would have to re'write, reformat, and re'save everything that was on the Internet so it pointed to everyelse, or the programs that read this new eb format would have to be smart enough to deal with places on the Internet that the eb didnOt yet dipoint to. Clearly, more breakthroughs were needed.

The first breakthrough came from a bunch of computer science students and :niversity of IllinoisO 4ational Center for #upercomputing. created a program called #osaicthat took these eb files, complete with links, and displayed them in a graphical window. It had the amaing abformat the information in an appealing fashion that resembled professionally typeset text, and could display graphics along with the text.

:nfortunately, osaic was not without some serious problems. +or starters, it was a nightmare to set up and configure, had several serious bugs, andso slow that it wasnOt practical unless the computer it was running on was directly wired to the Internet. Also, it only worked well when dealing with

information on the ebF regular Internet services and information that hadnOt been converted over the eb format did not always look so good or workproperly.

4etscape 4avigator and Communicator

=etscape Communications Corporation, #oftware Company based in ountain Eiew, California. 4etscape makes software that enpeople to exchange information over the Internet and other computer networks. The companyOs best'known software product, 4avigator, allows comusers to browse the orld ide eb through a graphical user interface.

The company was founded in 6NN3 by ?ames ). Clark, who started #ilicon >raphics Inc. in 6N1;, and arc Andreessen, a ;;'year'old computerprogrammer.

*ther enhanced features include

6. )igh performance, even over a 63.3 modem, with simultaneous image and text loading and the ability to view and interacinformation as it is retrieved.

;. Inline ?$> support.

0. asy bookmark menu creation, with sub'menus and importDexport capabilities.

3. #upport of :senet newsgroups within the 4etscape window.

9. A configurable graphical interface and options to make the best use a small or large monitor.

#SI4 )#icrosoft Internet 4plorer,


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icrosoft Internet xplorer !#I& is the graphical orld ide eb browser or user interface that is provided with the icrosoft indows N9 operatinsystem. The #I browser is an alternative to the most popular eb browser, 4etscape 4avigator. !As of early ?anuary 6NN1, 99R were using a 4etsbrowser and 37R were using Internet xplorer.&

+yn

%ynx is a keyboard'oriented text'only eb browser that was developed at the :niversity of Gansas primarily for students who used :4I= workstationsUUUUnd of xampleUUUUU

4lectronic mail )4.#ail,A system whereby a computer user can exchange messages with other computer users !or groups of users& via a communications network. lectroniis one of the most popular uses of the Internet.

Typical e.mail components

6. To' $rimary recipients of your message.;. 1rom +rom where the message came from.0. Su(ect The #ubject of the mail the user is sending.3. CC' Carbon Copy, for secondary recipients.9. CC' "lind Carbon Copy, for secondary recipients not identified to the other recipients, including those in the CC list.

2. *ttachment *ther files attached to the mail.8. 7roup or iscussion' $osting to a discussion group.1. Tet *rea here the user typically writes the message heDshe wants to send.

Word processing and destop pulishingThis is the process of composing a textual document. It involves not only typing in the words, but also checking the spelling and grammar of the text aarranging it on the page correctly. A variety of different typefaces !fonts& are available, for a variety of effects. It is possible to include e/uations, picturgraphs, charts and many other things within the text of the document.

These basic functions includeF

typing

saving documents

opening documents

printing

checking spelling

4lectronic SpreadsheetsAn lectronic #preadsheets lets you to make a regular worksheet with fully automatic computing.

#ome features of lectronic #preadsheets

formula bars

sorting

basic or complex mathematical operations

tables and cells

linking of fields to rows or vice versa in terms of a given conditions or arguments

ataase #anagementAll responsibilities related to creating, operating, and protecting an organiationBs database resources. using systems to store and delete, organie, search, retrieve, and manage access to data in a database

$resentation 7raphics and #ultimedia:sed for an effective delivery of a particular report or to convey a message to a person or a group of people.Components that can be found on presentations areF

#ound

Texts

Eideo

Animation


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$ictures

>raphics

$ersonal Information #anagersAddress "ook"asic fields that can be found on $ersonal Information anagers areF4ame, Address, Telephone or Cellular $hone 4umber, "irthday, mails, tc.

7roupware>roupware is sometimes seen as a contraction of group working software. ssentially it is networked computer software that lets different peoplecoordinate their work activities. *riginally applied almost exclusively to computer conferencing !where users add their own VconversationalO notes to toof shared interest&, the term has been extended to apply to other areas like workflow software and desktop videoconferencing

*synchronous 7roupware )=on /eal.Time 7roupware,

6. mail;. 4ewsgroups0. +orums3. )ypertexts !eb $ages&9. >roup Calendars or #chedulers !+aculty %oading #ystem&

Synchronous 7roupware )/eal.Time 7roupware,6. Eideo Communications;. Chat #ystems0. ulti'$layer >ames

System Software "!er!iew

The software that controls the operations of a computer system. The operating system controls the hardware in the computer and peripherals, managmemory and files, and multi'tasking functions, and is the interface between applications programs and the computer. :tilities programs format, check defragment disks.

"perating Systems

An operating system !sometimes abbreviated as *#& is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer, manages all the other program

computer. The other programs are called applications or application programs. Today, most users interact with the operating system through a graphicuser interface !>:I&.

It is the bridge between the user and the users.

rief History of "perating System

7th>eneration 4o operating system at, all machine is controlled hard'wired

- !$unched card&

4o existence of operating system only encoding

#ncoding

- $rogramming techni/ues that binary digit is presented through voltages

6st>eneration !6N97Os& #imple operating system were developed that allowed programs to be submitted in se/uence and stored.

"atch $rocessing D "atch *riented $rocessing

;nd>eneration !6N27Os& ulti'using

6. to store several programs in memory simultaneously;. sharing of computer resources

0rd>eneration !mid 6N27Os&


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ultiprocessing, ultiprogramming, Time #haring, -eal'time processing W Eirtual memory were introduced.

)irtual memory

- It is the ability of *perating #ystem to expanding the memory of the computer system

-

3th>eneration The period of 4etworking #ystem W


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%inear "us

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with aterminatorat each end !#ee fig. 6&. Allnodes!file server, workstations, and peripherals& arconnected to the linear cable. thernetand %ocalTalknetworks use a linear bus topology.

+ig.6 %inear "us topology

*d!antages of a +inear us Topology

asy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

-e/uires less cable length than a star topology.

isad!antages of a +inear us Topology

ntire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

Terminators are re/uired at both ends of the backbone cable.


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+ig.; #tar topology

*d!antages of a Star Topology asy to install and wire.

4o disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.

asy to detect faults and to remove parts.

isad!antages of a Star Topology

-e/uires more cable length than a linear topology.

If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

ore expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

The protocols used with star configurations are usuallythernetor%ocalTalk.Token -ing uses a similar topology, called the star'wired ring.

Toen /ing

Allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring !#ee fig. 0&. The Token -ingprotocol uses a star'wired ring topology.

Tree

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star'configured workstations connected to a linear bbackbone cable !#ee fig. 3&. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their n


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+ig.3 Tree topology

*d!antages of a Tree Topology

$oint'to'point wiring for individual segments.

#upported by several hardware and software venders.

isad!antages of a Tree Topology

*verall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

ore difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

ataase management systems

A


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$/"7/*##I=7 +*=7%*74 Is a notation for expressing instruction to be carried out by a computer

Is a communication between the human and the machine and often between one human being and another.

/4*S"= WH: ST%: $/"7/*##I=7 +*=7%*74

6. To be able to study a new language;. To increase program vocabulary

0. To have a better understanding of the language you are using3. To make it easier to design a new language.9. #uit the needs of the system

$/"7/*##I=7 #:"$I*.Is characteried by dependence on the particular programming language

TH4 S"+%TI"=

In order to step beyond language, we must first of all have at least rudimentary understanding of many different kinds of languages and

different ways of programming solution. e must understand and generalie the vast conceptual commonalities in programming langurather than emphasie the artificial syntactic differences.

#achine language !s *ssemler languages !s High.le!el languages

#achine +anguage

It is the native language of the computer. In order for a program to run, it must be presented to the computer as binary'coded machine instructions thaspecific to that C$: model or family. achine language is created by assemblers and compilers, which convert the lines of programming code a humawrites into the machine language the computer understands.

*ssemle +anguageA symbolic programming language in which the set of instructions includes the instructions of the machine and whose data structures correspond direto the storage and registers of the machine.

High.+e!el +anguageA programming language that is closer to the nglish language in which each instruction is the e/uivalent of many machine language instructions.

Bth generation languages*ften abbreviated +*,fourth'generation languages areprogramming languagescloser to humanlanguagesthan typicalhigh'level programminglanguages. ost 3>%sare used toaccessdatabases.+or example, a typical 3>% commandis

+I4< A%% -C*-


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A network'oriented programming language invented by #un icrosystems that is specifically designed for writing programs that can be safely downloto your computer through the Internet and immediately run without fear of viruses or other harm to our computer or files. :sing small ?ava programs !(Applets(&, eb pages can include functions such as animations, calculators, and other fancy tricks. e can expect to see a huge variety of feaadded to the eb using ?ava, since you can write a ?ava program to do almost anything a regular computer program can do, and then include thatprogram in a eb page.

The usiness 8alue of Communications

The !alue of communication

6. Talk to your employees. The more communication you have with your staff, the more you will learn how to improve workflow. If you creclosed'door policy because (everyone should be working,( then you are cutting off any chance you have of learning how to make things b+or instance, if one of your employees is afraid to suggest that a process they use is inefficient, then they are going to continue witinefficiency, therefore sacrificing company time and money. A simple conversation once a week could avert this situation.

;. )ave your employees talk to each other. Telling employees to just head to their desks is not the policy you want to enforce right now. Chaare your upper management has been meeting to figure out how to cut expenses and are getting tapped out of ideas. If you encourageemployees to talk amongst themselves about ways to improve processes or cut costs, then you are helping them feel part of the corpculture. Also, they will report back to you with their suggestions and you can help promote your department to upper management as concerned about the companyBs bottom line. Together you can brainstorm to make things better and again, youBll learn more about your teefforts.

0. :se your peers as a sounding board.


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6N37 "ell %abs teletypewriter6N91 Communications satellite6N20 >eosynchronous satellites6N20 Touch tone phones, modems6N83 #4A, I" system network architecture6N89 T%4T, commercial packet switched network6N16 +A= standard6110 Cellular phones6N19 +irst wide area fiber optic communications

6NN; AT in %A4, %ocal area network6NN0 first eb "rowser6NN9 AT in A4, ide area network6NN8 Cable odems6NN8


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CLIENT/SERVER APPLICATIONS

Some of the most popular applications on the Internet follow the client/server esi!n"

mail clients

+T$ !+ile transfer& clients

eb browsers

ach of these programs presents a user interface !either graphic' or text'based& in a client process that allows the user to connect to servers. In the caof email and +T$, the user enters a computer name !or sometimes an I$ address& into the interface to set up future connections to the server process

1oundation ata Concepts

Character' A letter, digit, or other symbol, that is a part of the organiation, control, or representation of data used in computer systems.

1ield' In a database table, individual elements of information are contained in fields. ach field must have a name, and each field must havdata type !text, numeric, date, etc.& The data type is established when the data table is created. In a telephone book database, a record iseverything the telephone book knows about one individual. *ne field contains names, another contains addresses, and still another field cotelephone numbers. In a database table, selections, sorts, etc. are carried out on fields. xpressions that carry out calculations are created ufield names. In a database table, rows are analogous to records, and columns are analogous to fields.

/ecord' A set of fields that contain related informationJ in database type systems, groups of similar records are stored in files. A record isgenerally divided into various fields, each of which represents a type of information that describes or identifies that item.

1ile' A collection of digital information or records that is given a name and stored permanently in a storage media such as optical disks or

magnetic disks. An application program, a set of data referenced by a program, or a user'created document are all examples of files.

ataase' A collection of related information about a subject organied in a useful manner that provides a base or foundation for proceduresuch as retrieving information, drawing conclusions, and making decisions.

Theataase #anagement *pproachis a database program for in which databases are structured, and how data is accessed and manipulated.xample programs are # Access.

Types of ataases

"perational ataase it is a database containing up'to'date and modifiable data. The database'of'record, containing data that continually change updates are made and that reflect the current value of the last transaction.

*nalytical dataase' hen your business has large amounts of data that must be accessed by large numbers of eb users'customers, distributors

resellers, suppliers, partners're/uesting a great variety of /ueries, you need a high'powered analytical database. If you have one, you need to know htune it and maintain it for peak performance.

ata warehouse' A collection of databases, data tables, and mechanisms to access the data on a single subject.

Documents

MELJUN CORTES MANUAL Information Technology Hardware Software CCIT02