MemoryMemory

Chapter 8Chapter 8

MemoryMemory

Memory: the process by which we Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve informationencode, store, and retrieve information Encoding: initial recording of informationEncoding: initial recording of information Storage: information saved for future useStorage: information saved for future use Retrieval: recovery of stored informationRetrieval: recovery of stored information

Three-System Memory Three-System Memory TheoryTheory

Proposes the existence of 3 different Proposes the existence of 3 different memory storesmemory stores Sensory Memory: the initial, momentary Sensory Memory: the initial, momentary

storage of information, lasting only an instant storage of information, lasting only an instant (sight, sound, etc)(sight, sound, etc)

Short Term Memory: Memory that holds Short Term Memory: Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 secondsinformation for 15 to 25 seconds

Long Term Memory: Memory that stores Long Term Memory: Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrievealthough it may be difficult to retrieve

Sensory MemorySensory Memory

A momentary flash of lighting, the snapping A momentary flash of lighting, the snapping of a twig—they all give us information of a twig—they all give us information which is forgotten right awaywhich is forgotten right away

Iconic memory: memory from the visual Iconic memory: memory from the visual systemsystem

Echoic memory: stores auditory information Echoic memory: stores auditory information Sensory memory is stored for a VERY Sensory memory is stored for a VERY

short time. If it does not pass to short term short time. If it does not pass to short term memory it is lost forevermemory it is lost forever

SperlingSperling

FF TYTYCKDNLYWBMCKDNLYWBM

SperlingSperling

When exposed to just the letters for 1/20When exposed to just the letters for 1/20 thth of a of a second, people could only remember 4 or 5 letters second, people could only remember 4 or 5 letters accuratelyaccurately

He did the experiment again, but sounded a low, He did the experiment again, but sounded a low, high, or medium tone after exposing the people to high, or medium tone after exposing the people to the lettersthe letters If the tone was high, they were told to look at the first line, if the If the tone was high, they were told to look at the first line, if the

tone was medium they looked at the middle, and if the tone was tone was medium they looked at the middle, and if the tone was low they were told to look at the last linelow they were told to look at the last line

People were able to accurately write the letters. Therefore, they People were able to accurately write the letters. Therefore, they had been storing them all along. He determined that recalling had been storing them all along. He determined that recalling the letters was possible as long as they were shown the letters the letters was possible as long as they were shown the letters for over one second. for over one second.

Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory

To retain information it must be stored in To retain information it must be stored in short tem memoryshort tem memory

Short term memory is the first form of Short term memory is the first form of memory in which information has memory in which information has meaning. However, it is only stored for a meaning. However, it is only stored for a short period of time.short period of time.

It is not clear how things are transformed It is not clear how things are transformed into short term memoryinto short term memory

Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory

Most that you can store is seven itemsMost that you can store is seven items Chunks: a meaningful grouping of stimuli Chunks: a meaningful grouping of stimuli

that can be stored as a unit in short term that can be stored as a unit in short term memorymemory

Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory

PP BB SS FF OO XX CC NNN AN A BB CC CC BB SS MM V V N B CN B C

Short Term MemoryShort Term Memory

PBSPBS FOXFOX CNNCNN ABC CBS MTV NBC ABC CBS MTV NBC

RehearsalRehearsal

The repetition of information that has The repetition of information that has entered short term memoryentered short term memory

As long as information is repeated you As long as information is repeated you can store it in your short term memorycan store it in your short term memory

Type of rehearsal influences whether Type of rehearsal influences whether information is stored in long term or short information is stored in long term or short termterm Elaborative rehearsalElaborative rehearsal Mnemonic deviceMnemonic device

Working MemoryWorking Memory

A set of temporary memory stores that A set of temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse actively manipulate and rehearse informationinformation

Contains a central executive processing Contains a central executive processing that is involved in reasoning and decision that is involved in reasoning and decision making.making. The central executive coordinates the The central executive coordinates the

following:following: The visual store, verbal store, and episodic bufferThe visual store, verbal store, and episodic buffer

Working MemoryWorking Memory

Permits us to keep information in an Permits us to keep information in an active state briefly so that we can do active state briefly so that we can do something with the information.something with the information. Example: when we are totaling a billExample: when we are totaling a bill

Long Term MemoryLong Term Memory

Material that enters from short term to Material that enters from short term to long term memory enters a storage long term memory enters a storage house of almost unlimited capacity.house of almost unlimited capacity.

What does this mean? We have an What does this mean? We have an immense storage capacityimmense storage capacity

Certain kinds of brain damageCertain kinds of brain damageno long no long term memoryterm memory

Long Term Memory Long Term Memory ModulesModules

Declarative Memory: Memory for factual Declarative Memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like.information: names, faces, dates, and the like.

Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits, Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, such as riding a bike or hitting a baseball, sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory.sometimes referred to as nondeclarative memory.

Semantic Memory: Memory for general Semantic Memory: Memory for general knowledge and facts about the world, as well as knowledge and facts about the world, as well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other factsdeduce other facts

Episodic Memory: Memory for events that occur Episodic Memory: Memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or contextin a particular time, place, or context

Semantic NetworksSemantic Networks

Semantic Networks: mental Semantic Networks: mental representations of clusters of representations of clusters of interconnected informationinterconnected information Example: think of everything you can think of Example: think of everything you can think of

that is red…or think of fruits…If you think of that is red…or think of fruits…If you think of an apple on the first task, you are more likely an apple on the first task, you are more likely to think of an apple on the second task.to think of an apple on the second task.

Tip of the Tongue Tip of the Tongue PhenomenonPhenomenon

The inability to recall information that one The inability to recall information that one realizes one knows-a result of the realizes one knows-a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memorylong-term memory

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Who can name the seven dwarfs from Who can name the seven dwarfs from Snow White?Snow White? This is a difficult task because it involves This is a difficult task because it involves

recallrecall

Recall: Memory task in which specific Recall: Memory task in which specific information must be retrievedinformation must be retrieved Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows us to Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows us to

recall more easily information that is in long recall more easily information that is in long term memory term memory

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

Examples:Examples: WordsWords EmotionsEmotions SoundsSounds

Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

When the retrieval cue is present the When the retrieval cue is present the memory will come to mindmemory will come to mind For example: the smell of roasting turkey For example: the smell of roasting turkey

may evoke memories of thanksgivingmay evoke memories of thanksgiving

Levels of ProcessingLevels of Processing

Levels of Processing: the theory of Levels of Processing: the theory of memory that emphasizes the degree in memory that emphasizes the degree in which new material is mentally analyzedwhich new material is mentally analyzed The more we process information the more The more we process information the more

likely we are to remember itlikely we are to remember it

Explicit MemoryExplicit Memory

Intentional or conscious recollection of Intentional or conscious recollection of informationinformation Example: when we try to remember a dateExample: when we try to remember a date

Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory

Memories of which most people are not Memories of which most people are not consciously aware, but which can affect consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behaviorsubsequent performance and behavior Example: skills that operate unconsciously Example: skills that operate unconsciously

such as jumping out of the way of a carsuch as jumping out of the way of a car

PrimingPriming

A phenomenon in which exposure to a A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information, even when recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of the there is no conscious memory of the word or conceptword or concept You forget something, but then you see You forget something, but then you see

something that triggers itsomething that triggers it

Flash Bulb MemoriesFlash Bulb Memories

Memories centered on a specific, Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event that are so important, or surprising event that are so vivid it is as if they represented a vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the eventsnapshot of the event Example: a car accident (something specific Example: a car accident (something specific

you remember vividly), the world trade you remember vividly), the world trade center attack center attack

Constructive Processes In Constructive Processes In Memory: Rebuilding the PastMemory: Rebuilding the Past

Constructive Processes: processes in Constructive Processes: processes in which memories are influenced by the which memories are influenced by the meaning we give to eventsmeaning we give to events

Schemas: organized bodies of Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalledstored, and recalled

Memory in the Court Memory in the Court RoomRoom

Eye witnesses are prone to memory Eye witnesses are prone to memory related errorsrelated errors

When children are witnesses there may When children are witnesses there may be increased errorsbe increased errors Children’s memory may be highly Children’s memory may be highly

susceptible to error when emotional content susceptible to error when emotional content or stress is involvedor stress is involved

Repressed and False Repressed and False MemoriesMemories

Controversy as to whether there is such Controversy as to whether there is such a thing as a “repressed memory”a thing as a “repressed memory”

Repressed Memory: recollections of Repressed Memory: recollections of events that are initially so shocking that events that are initially so shocking that the mind responds by pushing them into the mind responds by pushing them into the unconscious the unconscious

Some supporters suggest that such Some supporters suggest that such memories may remain hidden possibly memories may remain hidden possibly throughout a person’s life timethroughout a person’s life time

False MemoryFalse Memory

Develop when people are unable to recall the source of Develop when people are unable to recall the source of a memory of a particular event about which they have a memory of a particular event about which they have only vague recollectiononly vague recollection

When the source of memory becomes unclear, people When the source of memory becomes unclear, people may become confused about whether they actually may become confused about whether they actually experienced the event or whether it was imagined. experienced the event or whether it was imagined. Ultimately, people come to believe that the event Ultimately, people come to believe that the event occurred.occurred.

Such memories can be so vivid that they produce Such memories can be so vivid that they produce emotional reaction even though they are falseemotional reaction even though they are false

Autobiographical MemoryAutobiographical Memory

Our recollections of circumstances and Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lifeepisodes from our own life Encompass episodic memories about Encompass episodic memories about

ourselvesourselves Example: we tend to forget information Example: we tend to forget information

about our past that is incompatible with the about our past that is incompatible with the way in which we currently see ourselves way in which we currently see ourselves (college students forget their bad grades but (college students forget their bad grades but remember their good ones)remember their good ones)

ForgettingForgetting

Why do we forget?Why do we forget? We did not pay attention to the material in the first We did not pay attention to the material in the first

place (encoding failure)place (encoding failure) Decay: the loss of information in memory due to it Decay: the loss of information in memory due to it

not being usednot being used Interference: the phenomenon by which information Interference: the phenomenon by which information

in memory disrupts the recall of other informationin memory disrupts the recall of other information Cue dependent forgetting: forgetting that occurs Cue dependent forgetting: forgetting that occurs

when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memoryinformation that is in memory

Memory DysfunctionsMemory Dysfunctions

Alzheimer’s Disease: an illness Alzheimer’s Disease: an illness characterized by severe memory characterized by severe memory problemsproblems