MEMORY &

STR

ATEGIC

USE OF

THE S

YSTE

M

NEIL H. S

CHWART

Z, PH.D

.

DEPART

MENT OF P

SYCHOLO

GY

ELABORATION

Elaboration is the generation of Elaboration is the generation of representations that add on to, or representations that add on to, or associate several related things with associate several related things with what needs to be remembered.what needs to be remembered.

Elaboration can be done semantically, Elaboration can be done semantically, or it can be done with imagery. Either or it can be done with imagery. Either way, it is a very effective encoding way, it is a very effective encoding strategystrategy.

Children do not tend to spontaneously Children do not tend to spontaneously use elaboration until adolescence.use elaboration until adolescence.

METHOD OF LOCI (OR LOCATIONAL MEMORY)

People remember things better when People remember things better when they can associate it with a locationthey can associate it with a location.

Research investigations have looked at Research investigations have looked at children as young as age 3, and found children as young as age 3, and found them to be just as good at remembering them to be just as good at remembering locations of things as adults-- sometimes locations of things as adults-- sometimes slightly better.slightly better.

Children do just as well as adults when Children do just as well as adults when encoding information by location.encoding information by location.

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT CHILDREN'S MEMORY ENCODING…

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN STRATEGY USE

There are reliable gender effects on the There are reliable gender effects on the performance outcomes of encoding performance outcomes of encoding strategiesstrategies.

Most encoding strategies are verbal in Most encoding strategies are verbal in nature, with the exception of imagery.nature, with the exception of imagery.

Females generally excel on verbal tasks Females generally excel on verbal tasks relative to males.relative to males.

Females generally show performance Females generally show performance advantages over males using advantages over males using organization and elaboration.organization and elaboration.

GENERALIZATIONS FROM THE DEVELOPMENTAL ENCODING LITERATURE

When children are very knowledgeable When children are very knowledgeable about a particular domain, they encode about a particular domain, they encode information from that domain very information from that domain very rapidly.rapidly.

When children have an elaborated When children have an elaborated knowledge base, the knowledge allows knowledge base, the knowledge allows them to use their memory strategies them to use their memory strategies much more efficiently.much more efficiently.

Having a knowledge base makes the use Having a knowledge base makes the use of some parts of strategies of some parts of strategies automaticautomatic even in young children.even in young children.

When children get older a more When children get older a more sophisticated knowledge base, plus sophisticated knowledge base, plus experience, can make the use of one or experience, can make the use of one or more encoding strategies automatic for more encoding strategies automatic for entire problem-solving routines.entire problem-solving routines.

Knowledge base is the best single Knowledge base is the best single predictor of memory performance than predictor of memory performance than any other factor-- even more than age. any other factor-- even more than age. For example, consider the following For example, consider the following knowledge areas: dinosaurs, horses, knowledge areas: dinosaurs, horses, Barbie's, fighter planes, boys, etc.Barbie's, fighter planes, boys, etc.

THE ROLE OF METAMEMORY

Metamemory is knowing about your Metamemory is knowing about your memory-- knowing what strategies to memory-- knowing what strategies to execute, and monitoring the success of execute, and monitoring the success of strategy use. strategy use.

((Thinking about how well you are comprehending while you are reading, and the things you could do to comprehend more are examples of your metamemory.)

Metamemory skills increase with age.Metamemory skills increase with age.

METAMEMORY CONTINUED

Metamemory knowledge is apparent in Metamemory knowledge is apparent in very young children-- as young as 4 years very young children-- as young as 4 years old, but the extent of that knowledge is old, but the extent of that knowledge is very limited-- perhaps obvious, like:very limited-- perhaps obvious, like:

more items are more difficult to more items are more difficult to remember than less;remember than less;

relearning some things is faster relearning some things is faster than learning something for the 1st timethan learning something for the 1st time.

METAMEMORY CONTINUED

By 3rd grade, children will generalize By 3rd grade, children will generalize the use of encoding strategies if they the use of encoding strategies if they get feedback that a strategy is get feedback that a strategy is effective in remembering something.effective in remembering something.

Metamemory knowledge ---> memory Metamemory knowledge ---> memory behavior; and, memory behavior ---> behavior; and, memory behavior ---> metamemory knowledge.metamemory knowledge.

GETTING THINGS OUT OF MEMORY: RETRIEVAL

There are two different ways to There are two different ways to retrieve information from memory: retrieve information from memory: recognition and recall.recognition and recall.

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT RECOGNITION

Recognition is determining if we have Recognition is determining if we have something in memory by deciding whether something in memory by deciding whether some item or cue matches something we some item or cue matches something we have already seen, heard, or done.have already seen, heard, or done.

Adult recognition memory is excellent, Adult recognition memory is excellent, with as muchwith as much as 90% accuracy for a as 90% accuracy for a large number of things large number of things seenseen for as long as for as long as a week.a week.

For progressively smaller sets of stimuli For progressively smaller sets of stimuli (e.g. fewer numbers of pictures), younger (e.g. fewer numbers of pictures), younger children as young as 1 1/2 years to 3 years children as young as 1 1/2 years to 3 years old recognize as well as adults.old recognize as well as adults.

RECOGNITION CONTINUED

What differentiates children's What differentiates children's recognition ability by age is:recognition ability by age is:

1.1. the the complexitycomplexity of the material of the material

2. 2. prior knowledgeprior knowledge with the with the material material

3. 3. ability to apply strategiesability to apply strategies during during encoding encoding

WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT RECALL

Recall is the retrieval of a representation Recall is the retrieval of a representation without the benefit of an external stimulus.without the benefit of an external stimulus.

Recall is much harder as a retrieval method Recall is much harder as a retrieval method than recognitionthan recognition.

Cued recall is easier than free recall.Cued recall is easier than free recall. Recall ability increases developmentally, with Recall ability increases developmentally, with

children requiring fewer prompts to mediate children requiring fewer prompts to mediate successful memory performance as they get successful memory performance as they get older. older.

THE ROLE OF MOTIVATION IN MEMORY

Motivation does have a role in children's Motivation does have a role in children's memory, and seems to be involved by memory, and seems to be involved by way of way of beliefs.beliefs. That is, That is,

A child will actively engage operations to A child will actively engage operations to remember if s/he expects there is utility remember if s/he expects there is utility in doing so.in doing so.

This notion is referred to as: This notion is referred to as: subjective expected subjective expected utility.utility.

Even children as young as 4 years old Even children as young as 4 years old can be motivated to use their memory to can be motivated to use their memory to encode information, encode information, butbut….….

while incentives will cause them to while incentives will cause them to try to try to useuse::

(a) more (a) more sophisticated strategiessophisticated strategies, , andand

(b) allocate (b) allocate more attentionmore attention

it does it does notnot yield better yield better

memory performance!memory performance!

MOTIVATION CONTINUED

If children have higher levels of mastery If children have higher levels of mastery motivation, they show higher levels of motivation, they show higher levels of memory as measured by recall.memory as measured by recall.

Mastery motivation is a child's tendency to Mastery motivation is a child's tendency to be independent, self-directed, spontaneously be independent, self-directed, spontaneously active, and interested in success.active, and interested in success.