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Paper on Messiah in the Psalms (Psalm 22), submitted as partial fulfillment of requirements for Old Testament Biblical Theology course at Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary. May 2010.
Citation preview
Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary
MESSIAH IN THE PSALMS
- WHAT DOES PSALM 22 TELL US ABOUT A COMING ANOINTED ONE?
Submitted to Dr. Gary Yates
in partial fulfillment of requirements for THEO 695
by
Elke B. Speliopoulos
Downingtown, PA
May 4, 2010
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1
THE DIFFICULTY OF THE CONCEPT “MESSIAH”.................................................................2
BACKGROUND OF PSALM 22....................................................................................................5
A LAMENT PSALM – AND A PRAISE TO GOD.......................................................................7
MESSIANIC HOPE........................................................................................................................8
MESSIANIC FULFILLMENT – OR IS IT?.................................................................................11
USE OF PSALM 22 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.....................................................................16
CONCLUSION..............................................................................................................................19
BIBLIOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................................21
ii
1
INTRODUCTION
Much has been written about messianic prophecies in the Hebrew Scriptures, and even
more has been argued for how or whether Jesus fulfilled these prophetic statements and to which
degree of competition. Yet when taking a look at the Old Testament without applying the filter
of a post-cross New Testament influence, it becomes much more difficult to understand what
specifically Jewish sages believed to be predictions about a future Messianic figure.
Equally important is a review of how Jesus himself saw his role. As Christopher J.H.
Wright points out, it is
striking that scholars who have studied Jesus’ use of the ‘messianic’ scriptures most closely observe that, of all the figures and titles in the Old Testament relating to the coming eschatological deliverer of Israel, the one that Jesus used least was that of the Davidic, kingly, Messiah. Indeed although it was used about him, he never used it of himself in his teaching.1
Finally, the New Testament writers seem to have identified many fulfillments of Hebrew
Scripture, as is apparent by the frequent use of Old Testament passages within the pages of the
New Testament.
So what to do about the passages most everyone has become so familiar with and that are
cited by the New Testament writers as clear evidence that Jesus is this expected Messiah of
Israel? In this paper, Psalm 22 will be reviewed as an exemplary psalm. It is a psalm, which has
been defined by most scholars as a messianic psalm pointing toward Christ. As this paper will
propose, the complex history of the Israelites and their expectations toward a prophetic
fulfillment, especially during the intertestamental period, will lead to the conclusion that the New
Testament writers saw Jesus’ life and death as a clear fulfillment of the Scriptures. This is also
indicated by Christ’s own words and confirmed in the books of the New Testament.
1. Christopher J.H. Wright, Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 1992), 145.
2
THE DIFFICULTY OF THE CONCEPT “MESSIAH”
The term “Messiah”, or the English Christ, as adopted from the Greek Χριστός
(Christos), does not automatically carry with it what most Christians today understand by it.
Rather, it refers to “the anointed” or משיח (māšıTaḥ). In Old Testament thinking, this term simply
means conferring legitimacy to a king or a high priest. In Isaiah 45:1, Cyrus, the Persian king is
titled by God “his anointed”. As such, the association from Old Testament descriptions of an
“anointed one” cannot be automatically, or rather exclusively, translated to apply to Jesus.
Bird expands the application of the anointing to three offices in ancient Israel: king, priest
and prophet. Very importantly, it is imperative to note that the word משיח is not used of
eschatological figures in the pages of the Hebrew Scriptures with the possible exception of
Daniel 9:24-27.0 This is affirmed by Marinus de Jonge whom Bird quotes: “One should realize
that in the OT the term ‘anointed’ is never used of a future savior/redeemer, and that in later
Jewish writings of the period between 200 BC and AD 100 the term is used only infrequently in
connection with agents of divine deliverance expected in the future.”0
Belcher, coming from a more Christian reading of Messiah, writes that the “use of the
Old Testament term ‘anointed’ or ‘messiah’ lays a foundation for the importance of prophet,
priest and king in relationship to Jesus.”0 However, Wright points out the problem of seeking for
prophecies around the Messiah by observing that “we are so used to calling Jesus ‘Christ’ (which
is simply the Greek form of the Hebrew ‘messiah’) that it comes as something of a shock to
realize that the word itself as a title is actually hardly ever found in the Old Testament.”0
0. Michael F. Bird, Are You the One Who Is to Come?: The Historical Jesus and the Messianic Question (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), 34.
0. Ibid.
0. Richard P. Belcher, The Messiah and the Psalms: Preaching Christ from All the Psalms (Fearn, UK: Mentor, 2006), 34.
0. Wright, Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament, 143.145.
3
As Waltke explains, the allegorical method’s imposing of images of Christ as the
Messiah on virtually “every verse of every psalm”0 was balanced by the precritical or noncritical
approach (Hengstenberg, Gaebelein, Payne, etc.) that limited the number of messianic psalms. It
is today countered by critical scholars who accuse non-critical scholars of actually discrediting
Jesus’ claims by “prooftexting”. Yet even here is a difference between literary-historical critics
who deny that any of the psalms hold prophetic predictions and those who believe that there is
both a direct historical fulfillment and predictions that serve as “prefigurements of Christ.”0
Selman writes that the concept of a Messiah evolved through a long process within
Israel’s history from a contemporary leader into an “eschatological deliverer”0. Originally, the
messianic figures in the Old Testament were typically “earthly, human and time-bound”0 Yet,
this concept shifted as Israel experienced political and military crises, ultimately culminating in
exile, the gap perceived between the idealistic depiction of God’s type of leader and the reality of
its human leaders, and then – post Old Testament writings – the experience of the Maccabean
revolt. While Moses and David served as historical figures who modeled some of these
messianic functions, the expectation arose of a future figure that would fulfill these functions to a
much higher and more perfect degree. 0
One critical issue in considering prophetic passages that may reference a coming Messiah
in the Old Testament is the understanding with which a reader approaches them. Belcher points
0. Bruce K. Waltke, “A Canonical Process Approach to the Psalms,” in Tradition & Testament: Essays in Honor of Charles Lee Feinberg, ed. John S. Feinberg and Paul D. Feinberg (Chicago: Moody Press, 1981), 4.
0. Ibid., 5.
0. Martin J. Selman, “Messianic Mysteries,” in The Lord's Annointed: Interpretation of Old Testament Messianic Texts, ed. Philip E. Satterthwaite, Richard S. Hess, and Gordon F. Wenham (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995), 300.
0. Ibid., 301.
0. Ibid.
4
out, “Christ can be preached from all the psalms.”0 However, Gren elaborates on the difficulty in
Christian vs. Jewish expectation and explanations from some passages:
Understandings, Jewish and Christian, have changed over the centuries. When Jesus lived on earth, the Jews believed that the Messiah would be a conqueror who would remove the yoke of the hated Roman oppressor. After his death, Christians pointed to many OT passages, notably Psalm 22, Psalm 69, and Isaiah 52–53, where God's Servant was made to suffer intensely and even die. Today, many Jews understand themselves as a people being God's Suffering Servant in these and other passages. However, following a hermeneutic Jesus applied to himself, Christians see these passages as applying to Jesus' death, achieving salvation.0
Gren describes very succinctly why modern scholars have to be extremely careful to
differentiate between Jewish and Christian interpretations of Old Testament passages.
As Hirschberg writes, when early believers in Jesus proclaimed him as the Messiah,
Jewish minds saw several problems with this messiahship: Jesus had died a rather undignified
death on a cross, and he was born in the Galilee in their minds - not in Bethlehem as their
prophets had foretold. In addition, the awareness of his ancestry and Jesus’ failure to prevent
Judas’ betrayal, as well as his apparent lack of scholarly education and the perceived non-
observance of the Torah made Jesus a non-candidate for Messiah in many Jewish eyes.0 This
then is the background against which Psalm 22 can be investigated.
Maybe most important in the understanding of the term “Messiah” is that when the
Scriptures speak of an “anointed one”, they refer to someone who has been set apart and
empowered by God for service. This is a description that in all use cases can be applied, but in
particular to Jesus Christ.0
0. Belcher, The Messiah and the Psalms, 40.
0. Conrad R. Gren, “Piercing the Ambiguities of Psalm 22:16 and the Messiah's Mission,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol. 48 (2005): 281.
0. Peter Hirschberg, “Jewish Believers in Asia Minor According to Revelation and the Gospel of John,” in Jewish Believers in Jesus, ed. Oskar Skarsaune and Reidar Hvalvik (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers,, 2007), 233.
0. Belcher, The Messiah and the Psalms: Preaching Christ from All the Psalms, 34.
5
BACKGROUND OF PSALM 22
While the psalm itself is described as a psalm of David, the dating of Psalm 22 varies.
While most conservative scholars believe it to be written by King David himself, others believe
that it was written during the final years of the kingdom of Judah, at a point in time between the
battle of Megiddo and the exile of the tribes of Benjamin and Judah to Babylon0.
Heinemann writes that “the craftsmanship of its poetry, the boldness of its images, and
the sweep of its historical scope” 0 contribute to the extraordinary nature of Psalm 22, yet all of
these striking characteristics are paled by its messianic character. Yet the psalm seems to hold a
message both for the original readers and for those who read it today.0
Likewise, Kaiser asks whether the innocent suffering depicted here can be ascribed to
David or whether what is described far exceeds any of David’s recorded experiences. In
particular, he questions when David was ever as rejected as described, when his hands were
pierced (if correctly translated) or his garments divided by his enemies.0 As such, it appears that
this psalm speaks of more than just David’s experience.
Yet whether it truly is David’s experience may be questionable, based on textual
considerations. As already mentioned, the dating of the psalms is difficult as it is a collection of
writings, not a single text. These appear to not have been written during one time, but rather over
a rather long period. Some psalms are attributed to Moses, others to Levitical singers; all of these
amounting to as long of a possible time period as around one thousand years.0
0. Samuel Terrien, The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2003), 235.
0. Mark H. Heinemann, “An Eposition of Psalm 22,” in Bibliotheca Sacra Volume 147, 587 (Dallas, TX: Dallas Theological Seminary, 1990), 285.
0. Ibid.
0. Walter C. Kaiser Jr., The Messiah of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1995), 111-12.
0. Tremper Longman III and Raymond P. Dillard, “Psalms,” in An Introduction to the Old Testament, second ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1994, 2006), 239.
6
In addition, the authorship of the psalms is sometimes questionable. In the case of the
psalms attributed to David, authorship has been ascribed seventy-three times in the
superscriptions preceding the psalm. However, these superscriptions are now suspected by some
scholars to be late additions. David’s authorship, e.g., as already mentioned, in the Hebrew
textual tradition occurs seventy-three times, yet in the Greek and Latin versions of the Old
Testament this number increases greatly.0
The assignment of David to some psalms also is dependent on the use of Semitic
propositions, which can be translated “by David”, “of David”, “about David”, and “for David”.
This leaves interpretive space as to who the author may have been. Finally, some scholars reject
authorship of some of the psalms by David as they do not believe that Israel could “produce such
an elevated expression of piety as early as the reign of David” and that this type of pious worship
could only have happened during the post-exilic period.0
Yet despite all the scholarly doubt regarding the authorship of David, the historical books
seem to strongly favor a Davidic authorship. He is shown as displaying a great deal of interest in
participating in formal worship. His background as a musician, e.g. playing the harp for King
Saul, suggests that his heart was that of a worshiper of the Lord. David also organized the
musicians for the temple to be built after his death.0 In addition, the experiences of David,
especially as he is persecuted by Saul, but also later after his sin with Bathsheba and the resulting
strife in his kingdom through the actions of some of his sons, all contribute to a rich background
from which to draw both lament and praise. All these speak strongly in favor of an active
participation of David in Israel’s worship and his direct authorship of some of the psalms.
0. Ibid.
0. Ibid., 239-240.
0. Ibid., 240.
7
A LAMENT PSALM – AND A PRAISE TO GOD
Patterson believes that Psalm 22 is written as a two-part structure, a view also supported
by scholars such as Anderson, Auffret, Kidner, Leupold, Perowne, Tostengard, and Westermann.
The first portion is delivered in the form of a lament, while the second portion of the psalm has
an extensive element of thanksgiving and praise. 0 The lament portion contains several features
typical of lament psalms found in the Hebrew Scriptures: it begins with an introductory address
(vv.1-10), continues with a petition (vv 11-21), and ends in praise (vv. 22-31). The praise and
thanksgiving portion provides elements such as a call to praise the Lord (vv. 22-23), a list of
reasons to give thanks (vv. 24, 26), a confirmation of the psalmist’s resolve to praise God (v. 25)
and an invitation for other to join in (vv. 27-31).0
Terrien disagrees with the two-part view of Psalm 22 and rather sees a ternary
architecture of it. He sees a structure of three strophes (vv. 4-12, vv. 13-23 and vv. 23-32) that
“broadens itself with the perspective of a more distant horizon, in spatiality and temporality.”0
Walton points out that some of the language of this psalm features elements that are
reminiscent of lament language both in the psalms and in Mesopotamian laments.0 Jesus also
would have been well aware of the laments of the Hebrew Scriptures. As Heinemann reminds his
readers that Jesus at the age of 12 already had an astounding knowledge of the Scriptures and so
would have read this psalm many times. It may thus be a logical conclusion that Jesus would
repeat the first line of Psalm 22 “to express his agony and to emphasize the prophetic connection
between Himself and the psalm.”0
0. Richard D. Patterson, “Psalm 22: From Trial to Triumph,” in Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Volume 47, 2 (Lynchburg, VA: Evangelical Theological Society, 2004), 216.
0. Ibid.
0. Terrien, The Psalms, 228.
0. John H. Walton, ed., Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary, vol. 5 of The Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 373.
0. Heinemann, “An Eposition of Psalm 22,” in Bibliotheca Sacra Volume, 288-89.
8
VanGemeren makes the observation that the psalmist “views God in contrastive terms to his situation:
his God has “forsaken” him (v. 1a)Israel’s God is “enthroned” (v.3a)
his God is “far…from saving” (v.1b)Israel’s God is “holy” or the “Holy One” (v. 3b)
his God is unresponsive to his “groaning” (v.1c)Israel’s God receives the “praise of Israel” (v.3c) 0
He concludes that this understanding that allows the reader to find deep appreciation for
Jesus’ cry on the cross, “Eloi ,Eloi, lama sabachthani?”. It shows the forsakenness and
alienation from God the Father and the cutting off from any act of deliverance at the hand of
God.0
House views Psalm 22 as ultimately powerfully optimistic. He writes,
This believer desires deliverance to result in witness and an ever-expanding kingdom of God. Thus for this psalmist, suffering becomes redemptive as others marvel at how God cares for the faithful. Lament is transformed into praise born of a specific confession of faith as David’s pain is relieved.0
MESSIANIC HOPE
The origins of the Jewish doctrine of a Messiah is found in the belief that King David
was the anointed one of God, and that he and his descendants would rule over Israel until the end
of this age. This included his rule over other nations.0 When studying the Old Testament history
of Israel, it quickly becomes clear that whatever the people’s concept of an idealized Davidic
ruler was, it had not been met in the rulers of Israel and Judah. As such, it was equally apparent
to them that this ruler had not come. This ideal of kingship caused frustration: king after king had
disappointed them. However, with the fall of the kingdom in 586 BC, this expectation was
forced to be transformed into an eschatological hope that the house of David would be restored
0. VanGemeren, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, 201.
0. Ibid., 199.
0. Paul R. House, Old Testament Theology (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998), 410.
0. Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (New York, NY: Harper Perennial, 1987), 124.
9
miraculously by God. This was coupled with the expectation, based on Isaiah’s prophecies, that
this messianic ruler would also be a dispenser of justice.0 As Chisholm explains, the rulers after
David, despite a few notable exceptions in the house of Judah, fell short of the Davidic ideal of a
king, and thus “the ideal of a just king who would bring the nation lasting peace and prosperity
remained just that, an unfulfilled ideal.”0
As VanGemeren describes, a prophetic silence of four hundred years had caused many
Jews to conclude that Yahweh may have forgotten them, yet certainly others’ hope had not died.0
Yet out of this “hope grew that one day a king would come who would live up”0
to the high expectations of an ideal king. After the last prophecies delivered by Malachi, the
intertestamental period finds Israel focusing on the study of the law, or the torah, yet this period
also features a noticeable societal upsurge in apocalyptic, messianic hope.0 This had been caused
by three major impacts in Israel’s experience that shaped and drove towards this anticipation of a
messianic leader for Israel: one was the rise of Hellenism after the conquest of Alexander the
Great. The second was the rise of the Ptolemies, in particular Antiochus Epiphanes IV. When he
erected a statue of Zeus in the Temple in Jerusalem in 167 B.C., Judas Maccabeus and his
supporters took up arms and successfully achieved freedom. Finally, after a period of more or
less self-rule under the Hasmoneans, the Roman Empire replaced that of Greece, entering their
land in 63 B.C., and once again, the Jews found themselves under a foreign rule.0 All these
0. Ibid.
0. Robert B. Chisholm Jr., “A Theology of the Psalms,” in A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, ed. Roy B. Zuck, Eugene H. Merrill, and Darrell L. Bock (Chicago: Moody Press, 1991), 288.
0. Willem VanGemeren, The Progress of Redemption: The Story of Salvation from Creation to the New Jerusalem (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1988), 125.
0. Ernest C. Lucas, Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Psalms & Wisdom Literature (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003), 64.
0. Zuck, A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, 25-26.268.
0. Wright, Knowing Jesus Through the Old Testament, 24-25.
10
factors led to the rise of a Messianic hope, which undoubtedly prepared the Jewish world for the
arrival of a savior.
Yet this expectation differed from the Christian understanding of Messiah after the cross.
As Elwell describes, “Confusion arises when specifically Christian ideas about the Messiah
invade the OT data. Jesus’ concept of his messianic mission did not accord with contemporary
popular Jewish expectation.”0
Adding another angle to the Messianic considerations, Fruchtenbaum provides insights
into Jewish thinking on this topic. He offers that the Old Testament prophets provided a dual
image of the coming Messiah. One would be a Messiah who would experience terrible
humiliation, physical harm and ultimately would die in a violent manner. This death is even
depicted as being substitutionary for the sins of the Jewish people. Yet there would also be
another Messiah, who would come as a conquering king and would destroy all enemies of Israel
and inaugurate a messianic kingdom, which would be characterized by peace and prosperity.0
While the Old Testament never expressly names two Messiahs, the Jewish sages
developed names for the two lines of messianic prophecy: the Messiah who would come to
suffer and die was named “Messiah, the Son of Joseph”, or Mashiach ben Yoseph. The Messiah
who would follow and inaugurate the Messianic kingdom on earth was termed “Messiah, the Son
of David”, or Mashiach ben David.0
While this interpretation remained strong for centuries in the Jewish mind, during the
Talmudic time, the focus was placed more and more on “Messiah, the Son of David” to the point
0. Walter A. Elwell, “Messiah,” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, second ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1984, 2001), 764.
0. Arnold G. Fruchtenbaum, Messianic Christology: A Study of Old Testament Prophecy Concerning the First Coming of the Messiah (Tustin, CA: Ariel Ministries, 1998), 123.
0.Ibid.
11
that in modern collective Jewish thinking the only remaining Messiah is the conquering Messiah.
“Messiah, the Son of Joseph” became a fallback to explain difficult text passages.0
Needless to say, this provides an interesting explanation into what Christians know as
ultimate truth: Jesus Christ came first as the suffering Messiah who came to give his life as a
substitutionary payment for the sin of the people, and he will come a second time, this time as a
conquering King.
MESSIANIC FULFILLMENT – OR IS IT?
Psalm 22 is quoted in various parts of the New Testament, both in the gospels and in
several letters. There are many parallels that can be drawn between this psalm and the depiction
of Jesus’ life and, in particular, his crucifixion. To a Christian reader, this psalm unmistakably
reads like a prophecy spoken before Christ’s time and describing his horrific death.
Psalm 22:1 is quoted by both Matthew (Matthew 27:46) and Mark (Mark 15:34). While
the MT translates this as “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”, the Septuagint, while
translating literally, here offers “you protected me” after the invocation.0 The second part of v.1
as well as v.24, referring to groaning or crying out, appears to be reflected in Hebrews 5:7,
however this is not entirely clear. Strobel suggested that the basis for this may be Psalm 116.0
The theme of shame in v.5 shows up in Romans 9:33, which also may point back to
language found in Isaiah 28:160. V.7 is found revisited in Matthew 27:39–43, Mark 15:29–32,
and Luke 23:35, 36. Likewise, the first part of v.8 finds parallels in the crucifixion description,
while the second half has similarities to God’s audible and visible approval of his Son at Jesus’
0. Ibid.
0. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson, eds., Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 99.
0. Ibid., 962.
0. Ibid., 650.
12
baptism depicted in Matthew 3:17, Mark 1:11, and Luke 3:22. V.10 shows similarities to
Galatians 1:150. V.15 appears to be a parallel to John 19:28, where Jesus thirsts. According to the
Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, John’s description of the
crucifixion of Jesus “may be viewed in many ways as a midrash on Psa. 22:15-18…, which
features the sufferer’s thirst (v. 15), his ‘pierced…hands and feet’(v.16), and the perseveration of
all his bones (v.17). This may be intended to develop further the Synoptic reference to Jesus’
recitation of (the opening lines of) Ps. 22.”0
V. 16 and v. 20 use terminology (dogs) that seems to be used in a similar context in
Philippians 3:2 and Revelation. 22:15. Needless to say, the imagery of v.16 of “piercing” is
found in Matthew 27:35, Mark 15:24, Luke 23:33 and 24:40, and in John 19:23, 37 and 20:25.
This will be discussed in greater detail below. V.17’s staring and gloating is reflected in Luke
23:35, while v. 18’s dividing of the garment by lot is found in John 19:24, Matthew 27:35, and
Luke 23:34. V.22, the sharing of God’s name, is found again in Hebrews 2:12 and John 17:6.
Belcher writes on Psalm 22:22 that it “is used in Hebrews to stress the solidarity of Jesus with
those he came to save”.0
V.26 sounds like a precursor to John 6:51, where Jesus calls himself the living bread.
V.29, with its imagery of bowing down, is found also in Philippians 2:10.
It is clear from these examples that there is an abundance of similarities between the
poetic writing of Psalm 22 and the verses found in the New Testament that depict Christ. Yet is
this really who is meant by this? Interestingly, Tkacz found that the early exegesis by the
Christian community seems to have prompted a Jewish response by the Amoraic period (third to
0. Based on a textual link provided by the ESV interlinear (Logos version).
0. Beale and Carson, Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, 502.
0. Belcher, The Messiah and the Psalms, 37.
13
fifth century after Christ). In the Jewish Midrash on Psalms, or Midrash Tehillim0, written
about500 years post-Christ, an application of Psalm 22 either to King Hezekiah during the threat
by Sennacherib or to Queen Esther can be found when the Jews were threatened by Haman.
Through the following centuries, this imagery centered exclusively on Queen Esther, and
ultimately every verse of Psalm 22 was ascribed to her. 0 What could have triggered such a
response by the Jewish sages? It appears this was a very direct attempt to counter the association
of this psalm with Jesus Christ. Augustine, Justin Martyr and Jerome are early examples of
church fathers who preached Christ from Psalm 22.0 This practice of associating Psalm 22 until
today with Esther is affirmed by a comment in the Jewish Study Bible, which points out that this
psalm is read customarily on the Jewish holiday of Purim.0
To a Christian, Psalm 22:16-18 contain the seemingly most recognizable elements to
Christ’s crucifixion of the entire psalm. Mills contends that “this Scripture is the only biblical
record of the crucifixion from the perspective of the Sacrificial Victim. It describes the agonies
of crucifixion graphically, yet man had not even conceived of crucifixion in David’s time.”0
Likewise, commenting on the phrase “they have pierced my hands and feet”, Heinemann
writes: “This is striking prefiguring of what happened to Jesus when He was crucified.”0
However, this is clearly an assessment from a post-cross perspective. Heinemann explains that to
0. Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology.
0. Catherine Brown Tkacz, “Esther, Jesus, and Psalm 22,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly, no. 4 (October 2008). ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed May 2, 2010).
0. Ibid.
0. Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, eds., “Psalm 22,” in The Jewish Study Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 1305.
0. M.S. Mills, Five Messianic Psalms (Psalms 22, 23, 24, 16, 110): An Exegetical Study Guide (Dallas: 3E Ministries, 1999).
0. Heinemann, “An Eposition of Psalm 22,” in Bibliotheca Sacra Volume 147, 587, 296-97.
14
the pre-Christ reader of this portion of the Hebrew Scriptures, this passage may have appeared as
“an obscure figurative expression, which they perhaps attributed to poetic license.”0
Fruchtenbaum makes a point to explain that Hebrew terminology is of importance here.
The word for piercing used in Psalm 22:17 is a different one from the one used in Zechariah
12:10. The term used there means “to thrust through”. It would be more in line with a Roman
soldier’s piercing Jesus’ side with a spear after his death. The term typically translated as
“piercing” in Psalm 22:17 is seen by Fruchtenbaum as a word which might be used for, e.g., the
piercing of an ear. It would thus be consistent with nails driving through Jesus’ hands and feet on
the cross.0
Yet other scholars struggle to see such a seemingly obvious reading of the text. In the
Septuagint, the term used is ὤρυξαν (ōruxan), typically translated as “dig, dig up, bury”0, which
is difficult to apply in this context. Likewise, the Hebrew phrase י f gר iא klכ (kä’árî) in the MSS has
caused much interpretive consternation. Based on the Hebrew text, VanGemeren sees the
imagery of dogs biting into the hands and feet of their victim.0 Walton offers the background
information that documented evidence of dog domestication exists during the time of David’s
psalm. According to him, dogs were used in hunting and shepherding, but a pack of stray dogs
could potentially be a “vicious danger”0, accounting for such fierce imagery.
The NET translates Psalm 22:16b “like a lion they pin my hands and feet” and offers
similar translation notes that would contest a crucifixion reading of v.16b.0 The MSS literally
0. Ibid., 297.
0. Fruchtenbaum, Messianic Christology, 162.
0. Horst Robert Balz and Gerhard Schneider, Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1990-), 534.
0. VanGemeren, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, 201.
0. Walton, Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary, 373.
0. New English Translation (n.p.: Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C., 2005), 930.
15
reads “like a lion, my hands and my feet”. This may be due to the panic the psalmist is trying to
describe. It cites as evidence for this reading that, while Jesus cited something very close to this
psalm while on the cross, the New Testament never cites Psalm 22:16b as describing the death of
Jesus.0 Johnston adds that “enemies abound in the psalms” and are “often portrayed as animals,
particularly lions.”0 In Psalm 22, oxen, lions and dogs are used in a chiastic pattern0, underlining
the depiction of many enemies surrounding the psalmist.
Tkacz, on the other hand, postulates that the Hebrew text appears to have been altered in
the early Christian era. She cites Aus who supports this view by saying that “the original Hebrew
certainly is reflected in the LXX, Syriac, [Origen] and Jerome, who have: ‘they have pierced’ my
hands and feet.”0 Estes sheds further light on the issues:
Working with the text in various ways has led different scholars to a wide range of renderings, including “my hands and my feet were exhausted”…, “they have bound my hands and feet”..., and “like a lion my hands and feet have shriveled”…, and no one has been able to adduce a convincing solution to this exegetical puzzle.0
In light of all these conflicting views on the exact wording and interpretation on this
passage, it may be best to stay with Patterson who calls it a “notable crux” and suggests that the
final determination should be withheld as to the exact reading of the original text, since it is
elusive. He concludes, “the text remains an exegetical problem”.0
0. Ibid, tn 29.
0. David Firth and Philip S. Johnston, eds., Interpreting the Psalms: Issues and Approaches (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2005), 68-69.
0. Ibid, Tn 29, 69.
0. Catherine Brown Tkacz, “Esther, Jesus, and Psalm 22, 724.
0. Daniel J. Estes, Handbook on the Wisdom Books and Psalms, Job (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005), 183.
0. Patterson, “Psalm 22: From Trial to Triumph,” in Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Volume, 223.
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Amazingly, the psalmist after depicting all the horror of his experiences ends the psalm in
a great praise to God and wants to tell “everyone within hearing of God’s goodness and
greatness”.0
USE OF PSALM 22 IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
But what then speaks for the Messianic character of Psalm 22?
It appears that Psalm 22 is used and quoted so frequently in the New Testament because
it serves as an intense and vivid description of the suffering, desperation and ultimately death of
Jesus Christ.0 One commentary proposes that thought rather than exact quote should take priority
in the readers’ consideration of the psalm: “It is remarkable that our Lord’s quotation of this
passage does not follow exactly either the Hebrew or the Chaldee paraphrase—the Hebrew
having ’azabthani for sabacthani, and the Chaldee paraphrase metul ma for lama. May we not
conclude that it is the thought, and not its verbal expression by the sacred writers, that is
inspired?”0
Yet it appears that it is not quite as simple to understand the use of Old Testament quote
in the New Testament. Bird describes that the last hundred years have provided much critical
scholarship driven by William Wrede’s and Rudolf Bultmann’s work. The consensus of this
scholarly investigation is that the historical Jesus never thought of himself as the Messiah.0 Yet,
as he points out, Jesus did accept the title of “Messiah” from others, such as the Samaritan
0. Chisholm, A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, 300.
0. Robert G. Bratcher and William David Reyburn, A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Psalms, Helps for translators (New York: United Bible Societies, 1991), 213.
0. The Pulpit Commentary: Psalms Vol. I, ed. H. D. M. Spence-Jones (Bellingham, WA: Logos Research Systems,, 2004), 152.
0. Bird, Are You the One Who Is to Come?, 25.
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woman at the well in John 4, or in Mark 14, where Jesus answers affirmatively when asked by
the high priest whether he is the Messiah.0
Whether or not scholars are willing to affirm Jesus’ acceptance of the designation of
Messiah, it is imperative to look at how the New Testament writers dealt with Old Testament
text passages to support Jesus’ role. It is clear that the experience expressed by the psalmist
contains hyberbolic or ideal language, and thus exceeds what the actual experience may have
been. However, from the New Testament writings, it becomes evident that there was a person
who experienced the complete brunt of the depicted experience: Jesus Christ at his crucifixion.0
To quote VanGemeren,
In applying the psalm to human suffering, it is most appropriate for the Christian to be moved to tears when reflecting that Jesus the Messiah has so entered the human condition that he suffered in his humanity, being rejected by God and man. Whereas David’s suffering was for himself, Jesus’ suffering was on behalf of sinners.0
While Jesus only uttered the first verse on the cross, according to Tkacz, it is indicative of
a common Jewish practice, which would have been understood by Jews: its partial use indicated
that its entirety was meant.0 Belcher agrees here that Jesus’ “use of this verse invites the reader to
look at the whole psalm in light of his work and there are many connections between Psalm 22
and Christ.”0
As already mentioned, all gospel accounts are unanimous in their use of Psalm 22:18 to
depict a portion of Christ’s crucifixion. The depiction of Christ’s garments being divided by
casting lots is a clear example of the transcending nature of portions of Psalm 22.0 This seems to
0. Ibid., 26.
0. Estes, Handbook on the Wisdom Books and Psalms, 179.
0. VanGemeren, The Expositor's Bible Commentary, 199.
0. Catherine Brown Tkacz, “Esther, Jesus, and Psalm 22.”
0. Belcher, The Messiah and the Psalms, 167.
0. Firth and Johnston, Interpreting the Psalms, 264.
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confirm what Smith described as a fulfillment that could not have been imagined: the deliverance
from death serving as the driving force behind the conversion of the world. This type of hope
would have to come through a future Redeemer. As such, David, under the Holy Spirit’s
guidance, saw a future descendant transcending his own experience of suffering, yet bringing
through it the deliverance of all.0
Jesus was the person to “fuse the three great eschatological representations of the OT –
Messiah, suffering servant, and Son of Man – into one messianic person”.0 It is only through this
that the disciples were able to understand why Jesus had to suffer and die – and this only after his
resurrection. J. Clinton McCann Jr. explains God’s purpose in describing Jesus’ suffering when
he writes, “Not coincidentally, Pss. 22, 31, and 69 are the three longest and most intense prayers
in the Psalter. The canonical effect is to portray Jesus’ passion as the fullest expression of one
whose suffering communicates not divine punishment, but rather oneness with God.”0
When it comes to considering Psalm 22, a middle course that holds true for many other
Old Testament passages (not just those authored by David) may be advisable: “The interpreter
must accept the witness of the New Testament that these refer to Jesus the Messiah, but one
should explain these messianic psalms on the basis of what was revealed to David, not what was
revealed hundreds of years later when the Gospels were written.”0
0. James E. Smith cited in Kaiser, The Messiah of the Old Testament, 113.
0. Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 764.
0. J. Clinton McCann Jr., “Psalms,” in Theological Interpretation of the Old Testament: A Book-by-Book Survey, ed. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005, 2008), 167.
0. Samuel J. Schultz and Gary V. Smith, Exploring the Old Testament (Wheaton, Ill.: Crossway Books, 2001), 125.
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CONCLUSION
As one writer points out, “It is natural for a Christian to see more in the Psalter’s
statements of confidence than the psalmist intended.”0 Likewise, it is natural for a Christian to
see more of his Savior Jesus Christ in the psalms than the original authors may have intended.
Yet, as with all of the Scriptures, the reader has to be careful to not discount two elements: the
ultimate guidance in their writing by God himself and the layered fulfillment of biblical
prophecy.
As such, while critical scholarship can rightfully question the original contextual intent
within the original languages, it cannot be denied that the pages of the Old Testament were not
written for its original readers only. The transcending nature of Psalm 22 far exceeds the
experience of David alone. It thus leaves a Christian reader both reassured and moved that David
through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit wrote words that found their ultimate fulfillment in
Jesus Christ.
Jesus’ death, burial and resurrection can thus be taken as a continued pattern of how Jesus
explained himself and his role in salvation, e.g. to the disciples on the road to Emmaus after his
resurrection, and how the apostles and disciples continued to explain him to others: that
beginning with Moses and all the prophets, all the Scriptures point to him. As such, to quote
Wright, “the proper way for disciples of the crucified and risen Jesus to read their Scriptures, is
messianically and missionally.”0
As for the Jewish response, the messianic figure that involves the offices of king and high
priest is still hidden to them, as they see “an absence of a new world order and everlasting peace
0. Zuck, A Biblical Theology of the Old Testament, 288.
0. Christopher J.H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible's Grand Narrative (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2006), 30.
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– components of the messianic reign that remain largely unaccounted for.”0 It appears it is up to
the followers of Christ to explain to God’s chosen people not only who their Messiah is, but to
introduce them to their grafted-in brothers and sisters. Fruchtenbaum’s explanation of the two
Messiahs depicted in early Jewish thought may give a basis on which to build an explanation to a
Jew about the dual nature of the Messiah, not split across two people, but united in one person,
Jesus Christ, who came to this earth as God incarnate 2,000 years ago to suffer, die and be raised
again to life and serve as the sacrifice to atone for man’s sin, and who will come again in the
form or a conquering king: the King of kings and Lord of lords.
0. Steven L. Bridge, Getting the Old Testament: What It Meant to Them, What It Means for Us (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009), 98.
21
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