MetaphysicsMetaphysics

““After or next to After or next to Physics”Physics”

Created by Aristotle (because it was Created by Aristotle (because it was written after his physics!)written after his physics!)

What is What is Metaphysics?Metaphysics?

“ “To reach beyond nature (To reach beyond nature (physisphysis) as we ) as we perceive it, and to discover the "true perceive it, and to discover the "true nature" of things, their ultimate essence nature" of things, their ultimate essence and the reason for being.”and the reason for being.”

Metaphysics is the study of the basic structures and categories of what exists, or of reality.

The big question: how to work out a logical The big question: how to work out a logical account of everything that we know or account of everything that we know or believe about existencebelieve about existence

Concerned not only with the nature of Concerned not only with the nature of things that exist in space and time, but also things that exist in space and time, but also with the nature of things that might not. with the nature of things that might not.

Also known as…Also known as… OntologyOntology a branch of a branch of

metaphysics metaphysics relating to the relating to the nature and relations nature and relations of being of being

a particular theory about the nature of being or the kinds of existence

Bell Ringer Bell Ringer Review…Review…

Define Metaphysics Define Metaphysics and Ontologyand Ontology

Agenda and Agenda and Objectives:Objectives:

Though notes and Though notes and discussion students discussion students with identify with identify metaphysical metaphysical theories and its theories and its criticscritics

Permanence and ChangePermanence and Change(Answer Questions below)(Answer Questions below)

Are you the same person now as you were when you were born? Why/why not?

Are you the same person now as you were yesterday? Why/why not?

If you had been to a different school, would you be the same person?

If you had your limbs amputated and replaced with synthetic ones, would you still be you?

If you lost your fingerprints would you still be you?

If you changed brains would you still be you? What are the essential factors that make up

you?

Permanence and Permanence and ChangeChange

questions to think questions to think about:about:

What makes What makes something the same something the same thing over a period thing over a period of time? of time?

What kinds of What kinds of changes in a thing changes in a thing would make it a would make it a different thing? different thing?

So, If everything So, If everything changes, is anything changes, is anything permanent?permanent?

And, If something is And, If something is permanent, how can permanent, how can it be part of a it be part of a system that system that changes?changes?

Identity over timeIdentity over time

• We tend to consider ourselves and other people to be single identities who exist through time..

• Even though many of our characteristics Even though many of our characteristics may change, we are known personally may change, we are known personally and legally as the same person at and legally as the same person at different points in time.different points in time.

• Many theories out there to support this.Many theories out there to support this.

First theory…First theory…Same Body Theory

• Justification: The importance to be able to trace the existence of one body through a continuous spatio-temporal path.

• continuous path through continuous path through space and time will space and time will connect your current connect your current body to the body you will body to the body you will have in forty years’ time. have in forty years’ time.

• also point to the factor also point to the factor of of causal continuitycausal continuity, , (that what happens to (that what happens to the earlier body will the earlier body will have effects on the later have effects on the later body. )body. )

someone’s personality someone’s personality can change radically, can change radically, depending on their depending on their experiences and experiences and circumstances, but circumstances, but they remain the same they remain the same person person because they because they inhabit the same inhabit the same physical self. physical self.

But, how can we say But, how can we say that the body of a that the body of a baby is the same body baby is the same body as that of a teenager, as that of a teenager, and then of a 60-year and then of a 60-year old?old?

Challenges to this Challenges to this theorytheory

Cosmetic surgeryCosmetic surgery

Organ transplantsOrgan transplants

Facial TransplantsFacial Transplants

Brain Transplants???Brain Transplants???

Multiple Personality theoriesMultiple Personality theories

““Am I the same person if I carry the kidney, liver Am I the same person if I carry the kidney, liver or heart that used to belong to someone else?or heart that used to belong to someone else? “ “

Would you still be “you” with a totally different Would you still be “you” with a totally different face?face?

Isabelle Dinoire Isabelle Dinoire

Before

After

2006

Left to right: Isabelle Dinoire before the dog attack, one year after the transplantation with makeup; and 18 months after the transplant without makeup.

Second Theory… Second Theory… Same Brain Theory

Critics-- Are “you” Are “you” nothing more than nothing more than the electrical the electrical impulses and impulses and chemical activity of chemical activity of your brain? your brain?

Do you think that Do you think that there is some kind of there is some kind of soul, or essence of soul, or essence of “you”, that could not “you”, that could not be captured and be captured and transplanted transplanted physically? physically?

being the same person over time is a matter of having the same brain.

argues that if the brain in one body were switched with the brain in another body (i.e. a double transplant), the person or identity would follow the brain.

Third Theory Third Theory Same Mind/Soul Same Mind/Soul TheoryTheory

Critics: Neuroscientists are producing more evidence all the time that everything we associate with the mind has a physical explanation - i.e. can be located and accounted for within the brain.

Ex. brain damage can Ex. brain damage can radically alter radically alter someone’s someone’s personality, personality, removing some traits removing some traits and capacities and and capacities and adding others adding others

What gives someone What gives someone identity over time is identity over time is their possession of their possession of the same mind.the same mind.

Believe that the mind or soul is a different substance to any material thing – i.e. it is not physical like the brain and the body.

Basis for the theory of Basis for the theory of reincarnation.reincarnation.

seems no logical seems no logical reason why the death reason why the death of the body should of the body should harm the person – i.e. harm the person – i.e. their mind – in any their mind – in any way. way.

Phineas Gage (1848)Phineas Gage Information

Fourth Theory Fourth Theory Mental Connections Theory

(memory Theory) Critic: Unable to Unable to

remember remember something-something-are we are we not that person not that person who had those who had those experiences of experiences of which we have no which we have no recollection? recollection?

Would you still be Would you still be you if you had you if you had your memories your memories erased?erased?

argues that personal identity over time is a matter of being able to trace coherent connections and psychological characteristics over time (memories and experiences aka casual connections)

Some questions Some questions to think about…to think about…

Decide if you have Decide if you have direct or indirect direct or indirect memories of the memories of the following events in following events in your life.your life.

Your 16Your 16thth B-day B-day

Name of your best Name of your best friend when you were friend when you were 8.8.

The name of the lead The name of the lead singer of your favorite singer of your favorite bandband

Title of the first book Title of the first book you ever readyou ever read

Name of your favorite Name of your favorite elementary school elementary school teacherteacher

Podcast…Podcast…As you listen…As you listen… What illness caused What illness caused

Clive to have Clive to have amnesia?amnesia?

What seemed to help What seemed to help can some of his can some of his memory back?memory back?

Is Clive the same Is Clive the same person before his person before his amnesia?amnesia?

Review!Review!What are the four What are the four theories dealing with theories dealing with identity over time?identity over time?

Same bodySame body

Same brainSame brain

Same mind/soulSame mind/soul

Memory theoryMemory theory

PhrenologyPhrenology once considered a once considered a

science, by which the science, by which the personality traits of a personality traits of a person were person were determined by determined by "reading" bumps and "reading" bumps and fissures in the skull. fissures in the skull.

based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind.

believed that the mind has a set of different mental faculties, with each particular faculty represented in a different area of the brain.

Question…Question…What makes a human being the same What makes a human being the same person over time, given after only a few person over time, given after only a few months your body changes most of its months your body changes most of its cells?cells?

The Problem of The Problem of the Ship of the Ship of

TheseusTheseus

The Ship of Theseus is a grand, old, wooden battle ship. After sailing out to war, she returns damaged. Various small parts of the ship are replaced. This happens after all her ventures, and eventually large beams and other major structural features are replaced. Ultimately, over a period of many years, every part of the Ship of Theseus has been replaced.

Is it the same ship after all of this?

And now here is a twist. At the port where the ship was repaired, there is a shed in which an old man has been storing all the screws, nails, planks, beams and other parts that were removed from the ship and replaced over many years. One day, the old man decides that he will put all the parts back together to make a ship. And this is the result: we now have a very battered worn ship, just built, docked at the same port. Interestingly, although it has been newly put together, it looks much older than the other, and in fact every one of its parts is older.

So which ship should be called the original ship? Which shall we call the Ship of Theseus?  

Can you make a case for both?  

Now, what if one of them was destroyed - would that make any difference?

With your group try to categorize With your group try to categorize the following items… (Body, the following items… (Body, Mind, or Both)Mind, or Both)

DreamsDreams

BeliefsBeliefs

PainsPains

ThoughtsThoughts

FeelingsFeelings

Adrenalin RushAdrenalin Rush

EarsEars

TongueTongue

HeartHeart

TouchTouch

Heart acheHeart ache

WishesWishes

DesiresDesires

Heart burnHeart burn

AnxietyAnxiety

Lust,Lust,

AnticipationAnticipation

MindMind

BodyBody

EyesEyes

SightSight

HearingHearing

TasteTaste

MemoriesMemories

IllusionsIllusions

BraveryBravery

Central Nervous SystemCentral Nervous System

AnxietyAnxiety

AngerAnger

Mind/Body Mind/Body ProblemProblem

Philosophy of mind is branch of is branch of philosophy that philosophy that studies the concept studies the concept of the mind, mental of the mind, mental events, functions, events, functions, properties and properties and consciousness.consciousness.

Mind-Body Problem concerns the concerns the relationship of the relationship of the mind to the body.mind to the body.

Two major schools of Two major schools of thought that thought that attempt to resolve attempt to resolve this mind-body this mind-body problem is problem is Dualism and Monism.

MonismMonism belief that ultimate belief that ultimate

reality is entirely of reality is entirely of one substanceone substance

Two types…

To describe the view To describe the view that only matter, or that only matter, or the physical body, the physical body, exist. exist. (materialism)(materialism)

To describe the view To describe the view that only mind, or that only mind, or spirit, exist. spirit, exist. (idealism)(idealism)

DualismDualismDualism claims that claims that mind and matter mind and matter are two separate are two separate categories. categories.

The mind is a The mind is a nonphysical nonphysical substance.substance.

Substance (Cartesian) Dualism--view that view that the universe the universe contains two contains two fundamental types fundamental types of entity: mental of entity: mental and physical and physical

Led by Led by Descartes who who was the first to identify was the first to identify the mind with the mind with consciousness and self-consciousness and self-awareness and to awareness and to distinguish this from distinguish this from the brain, which was the brain, which was the basis of the basis of intelligence. intelligence. (minds and bodies are different kinds of entities.)

the mental is private, the mental is private, that though each of us that though each of us has access to our own has access to our own mind through mind through introspection, no one introspection, no one can directly observe can directly observe anyone else’s mind anyone else’s mind

Part IIPart IIThe Mind/Body ProblemThe Mind/Body ProblemAnd are we truly free?And are we truly free?

Are we always responsible for what we do?Are we always responsible for what we do?

Agenda and Objectives: Agenda and Objectives: Through Through questionnaire and notes students will questionnaire and notes students will

identify the differences between Free Will identify the differences between Free Will and Determinismand Determinism

The Mind/Body ProblemThe Mind/Body Problem

The mind allows us The mind allows us to engage in a wide to engage in a wide range of activities.range of activities.

To have self-To have self-awarenessawareness

To have dreams and To have dreams and hopeshopes

To reason about the To reason about the worldworld

To communicateTo communicate

To feel emotionsTo feel emotions

To perceive, smell, and To perceive, smell, and touch the world.touch the world.

Free will vs. Free will vs. DeterminismDeterminism

(Am I really Free?)(Am I really Free?)

True or False? 

All events are caused.

We are responsible for all our actions.

In some situations people perform actions, but they are not responsible for what they do.

In each and every situation in my life, I could have acted otherwise than I in fact acted.

If we were to roll back time to the year 1950, history would unfold in the same way as it actually did (i.e., JFK would be shot in 1963, Obama would be elected in 2008, etc.).

God knows what will happen in the future. He knows especially what will happen in my life later on; that is, he knows when I will die and what I will have for dinner tomorrow night, etc.

Nobody (not even God) can know what will happen in the future because the future has not yet happened.

True or False?True or False?If I had experienced a different childhood, then I would make different decisions right now.

Even if one has a terrible childhood, one still can pull oneself together and make free and responsible choices about one’s life.

Some people have no choice when it comes to drinking alcohol. They are bound to become alcoholics.

We sometimes act on desires that are not our own, but which are implanted in us by advertising or peer pressure.

Bell Ringer: Responsible or Bell Ringer: Responsible or Not?Not?

A very drunk person decided that he can still drive home.A very drunk person decided that he can still drive home.

A student who has been told by everybody that he is bad at A student who has been told by everybody that he is bad at Math fails another math exam.Math fails another math exam.

A person who had a back injury is told to take painkillers, A person who had a back injury is told to take painkillers, then he becomes addicted.then he becomes addicted.

A 15 yr old girl who has been told all her life by her mother A 15 yr old girl who has been told all her life by her mother that she is too ‘fat’ becomes anorexicthat she is too ‘fat’ becomes anorexic

A 15 yr old boy who grows up in a violent neighborhood drops A 15 yr old boy who grows up in a violent neighborhood drops out of school and starts selling drugs.out of school and starts selling drugs.

A person who is chronically depressed and with out health A person who is chronically depressed and with out health insurance, and therefore without medical treatment for the insurance, and therefore without medical treatment for the depression, commits suicide.depression, commits suicide.

A 55 yr old man takes his first Viagra pill. The pill has a very A 55 yr old man takes his first Viagra pill. The pill has a very strong effect. He subsequently decides to spend about $1000 strong effect. He subsequently decides to spend about $1000 on a sex hotline.on a sex hotline.

A question to A question to ask…ask…

What is What is Freedom?Freedom?

“surface freedom”

Being able to ‘do Being able to ‘do what you want’what you want’Being free to Being free to act, and choose, act, and choose, as you willas you will

BUT: what if BUT: what if ‘what you will’ is ‘what you will’ is not under your not under your control?control?

Another Another question…question…

Why is Why is freedom freedom important?important?

We ‘feel’ that We ‘feel’ that we are free; we are free; that we are the that we are the originators of originators of our own actionsour own actions

We need to be We need to be free in order to free in order to be responsible be responsible for our actionsfor our actions

Welcome BackWelcome Back

Bell Bell ringer….What ringer….What is free will?is free will?

Agenda and Agenda and objectives: objectives: Through Through notes/discussion notes/discussion students will students will identify the identify the various theories various theories of Free Willof Free Will

Free WillFree WillThe freedom of personal choice

Being an agent capable of influencing Being an agent capable of influencing the worldthe world

Source of ones own actionsSource of ones own actions

Actions and choices are “up-to-us”Actions and choices are “up-to-us”

The main Philosophical problem is to The main Philosophical problem is to explain how the past is connected with explain how the past is connected with the future and what impact this the future and what impact this connection has on our ability to make connection has on our ability to make free choices.free choices.

Against free willAgainst free will--DeterminismDeterminism(Freedom is an illusion!)(Freedom is an illusion!)

The assertion that every event in the universe has a cause, and, since human acts are events, they also have causes.

Furthermore, if every event/action has a Furthermore, if every event/action has a cause, then every event/action is cause, then every event/action is predictable.predictable.

Theory that the future is fixed by the Theory that the future is fixed by the past.past.

Argument against Free Will

((for Determinismfor Determinism))1 – All events have causes.1 – All events have causes.

2 – Our actions are events.2 – Our actions are events.

3 – All caused events are determined by the past.3 – All caused events are determined by the past.

C1 –Therefore, our actions are determined by the past.C1 –Therefore, our actions are determined by the past.

4 – If our actions are determined by the past, then we 4 – If our actions are determined by the past, then we have no power to act other than we do indeed act.have no power to act other than we do indeed act.

5 – If we have no power to act other than how we do act, 5 – If we have no power to act other than how we do act, then we have no free will.then we have no free will.

C2 – Therefore, we have no free will.C2 – Therefore, we have no free will.

Could we be mistaken aboutCould we be mistaken about‘feeling free’?‘feeling free’?

“Let us imagine a man who, while standing on the street, would say to himself: ‘It is six o’clock in the evening, the working day is over. Now I can go for a walk, or I can go to the club; I can also climb up the tower to see the sun set; I can go to the theatre; I can visit this friend or that one; indeed, I also can run out of the gate, into the wide world and never return.

“All this is strictly up to me; in this I have complete freedom. But still, I shall do none of these things now, but with just as free a will I shall go home to my wife.’ This is exactly as if water spoke to itself: ‘I can make high waves (yes! in the sea during a storm), I can rush down hill (yes! in the river bed), I can plunge down foaming and gushing (yes! in the fountain) I can, finally, boil away and disappear (yes! at certain temperature); but I am doing none of these things now, and am voluntarily remaining quiet and clear in the reflecting pond.”

19th Century, Arthur Schopenhauer

The point of Schopenhauer?

is that we do not lose our is that we do not lose our sense of freedom even if our sense of freedom even if our future is already determined.future is already determined.

You have the ability to think You have the ability to think about all your choices, but about all your choices, but given your past, you will given your past, you will choose the one most logical.choose the one most logical.

Limitations to Limitations to Free WillFree Will

Constraints- one is one is constrained constrained from acting as from acting as he or she he or she would would normally act normally act given a choice.given a choice.

Obstacles- - prevents an prevents an actionaction

Going Further-Hard Determinism

The past completely The past completely determines the futuredetermines the future

The belief that free will The belief that free will is an illusion is an illusion

People are not morally People are not morally responsible for their responsible for their actions actions

The key is The key is Causality, that the past causes that the past causes the future. Causality is the future. Causality is the link which the link which determines how the determines how the future will look like future will look like (relationship between (relationship between events.)events.)

Objections…Objections…cannot predict how people will choose or cannot predict how people will choose or act act when they have had a chance to think when they have had a chance to think through their decision.  through their decision. 

Furthermore, Furthermore, it cannot account for our it cannot account for our ability to challenge and change ability to challenge and change the the attitudes and desires that we have attitudes and desires that we have learned. learned.

Determinism assumes that there is only Determinism assumes that there is only one way to explain behavior (causes), one way to explain behavior (causes), when in fact there is when in fact there is another way of another way of explaining behavior (reasons)explaining behavior (reasons) which is just which is just as good. as good.

Argument against Argument against DeterminismDeterminism

1 – If hard determinism is true, then we 1 – If hard determinism is true, then we have no free will.have no free will.

2 – If we have no free will, then we are 2 – If we have no free will, then we are not responsible for our actions.not responsible for our actions.

3 – We are responsible for our actions!3 – We are responsible for our actions!

C1 – Therefore, hard determinism is C1 – Therefore, hard determinism is false.false.

IndeterminismIndeterminismSome events are not caused by anything

they are pure chance events; they they simply happen, having nothing to do simply happen, having nothing to do with the person doing it.with the person doing it.

Example: Tourette’s syndrome.Example: Tourette’s syndrome.

Problems…Problems…

If choices and actions are not If choices and actions are not determined even by one's determined even by one's personality or character, personality or character, then a so-called "free" act would be one that occurs spontaneously and unpredictably thus no one could justifiably be held responsible for for doing an action which not even doing an action which not even he/she could have predicted would he/she could have predicted would occur! occur!

Soft Determinism (aka Compatibilism)

Combining Causality and free will

We ourselves are the causes of actions, We ourselves are the causes of actions, therefore our actions are free.  therefore our actions are free. 

What we want (as expressed by What we want (as expressed by personality or character) is determined personality or character) is determined by external events (i.e. genetics, by external events (i.e. genetics, culture, upbringing), but as long as we culture, upbringing), but as long as we are able to act consistent with our are able to act consistent with our choices, we are free choices, we are free

Welcome BackWelcome Back

Bell Bell ringer….What ringer….What are limitations are limitations to free will?to free will?

Agenda and Agenda and objectives: objectives: Through Through notes/discussion notes/discussion students will students will identify the identify the various theories various theories of Free Willof Free Will

LibertarianismLibertarianism(Free will exists!)(Free will exists!)

Doctrine that human beings are causal agents; they can initiate (cause) events on their own account and thus are free to shape the future.

Most intuitive theory of Most intuitive theory of free willfree will

Argues that determinism Argues that determinism applies to physical events applies to physical events (event causation), but not (event causation), but not to causal agents to causal agents (humans).(humans).

When humans act, they cause something to happen (agent causation).

 

• Problem-external -external casual factors play a casual factors play a role in limiting are role in limiting are freedom.freedom.

• theory fails to explain theory fails to explain “why a person makes “why a person makes the choice he or she the choice he or she does - any explanation does - any explanation of the choice (beyond of the choice (beyond the probabilistic one) the probabilistic one) would seem to make it would seem to make it determined” determined”

My Lai MassacreMy Lai Massacre

Free Will, Free Will, Determinism and Determinism and

CrimeCrimeOn March 16 1968, C Company under the On March 16 1968, C Company under the command of Lt. William Calley assaulted the command of Lt. William Calley assaulted the Vietnamese Village of My Lai. 300-500 Vietnamese Village of My Lai. 300-500 civilians were massacred. The ensuing civilians were massacred. The ensuing investigation took a year and half. In the end, investigation took a year and half. In the end, charges of war crimes were prepared against charges of war crimes were prepared against 14 US soldiers; four were actually tried. On 14 US soldiers; four were actually tried. On March 29, 1971 Lt. Calley was found guilty of March 29, 1971 Lt. Calley was found guilty of murdering 22 Vietnamese citizens. He was murdering 22 Vietnamese citizens. He was sentence to prison for 20 years; his sentence sentence to prison for 20 years; his sentence was later reduced to 10 yrs. On Novemebr 9, was later reduced to 10 yrs. On Novemebr 9, 1974. William Calley was released in parole 1974. William Calley was released in parole and is currently living in Georgia.and is currently living in Georgia.

Match them up!- Match them up!- How would each theory How would each theory view the My Lai Massacre and Lt. Calley’s view the My Lai Massacre and Lt. Calley’s

responsibility?responsibility?

(Soft Determinism, Liberalism, Hard (Soft Determinism, Liberalism, Hard determinism)determinism)

1. He must assume total responsibility!1. He must assume total responsibility!

2. He is not responsible for the crime 2. He is not responsible for the crime because there was no other possible because there was no other possible outcome.outcome.

3. It depends! If outside influences or 3. It depends! If outside influences or constraints would force him to act, then constraints would force him to act, then is he not responsible. If his actions were is he not responsible. If his actions were a result of his own internal will, then he a result of his own internal will, then he is to blame.is to blame.

Answers…Answers…1. Libertarianism1. Libertarianism

2. Hard determinism2. Hard determinism

3. Soft determinism3. Soft determinism

Welcome Back!Welcome Back!Bell Ringer…Bell Ringer…

Agenda and Objective: Agenda and Objective: Through Through notes/discussion notes/discussion students will understand students will understand the difference between the difference between Monism and Dualism as Monism and Dualism as well as the definitions of well as the definitions of free will and free will and determinismdeterminism

Review sheet!Review sheet!

Welcome Back!Welcome Back!What is the definition of Free Will?What is the definition of Free Will?

What is the definition of Determinism?What is the definition of Determinism?

Agenda and Objective: Finish notes. Agenda and Objective: Finish notes. Quiz on TuesdayQuiz on Tuesday