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Catedra de Limba si Literatura englez ELT Methodology 2011

PUPILS, TEACHER AND SCHOOL Establishing a productive learning environment is a big challenge for teachers. For

beginning teachers, it may be the primary concern. Studies show that nearly half of the teachers who leave the profession during the first three years do so because of problems with managing pupils and their learning.

This unit and the next will help you establish and maintain a productive and orderly learning environment, i.e. a classroom that is safe, orderly and focussed on learning. Such an environment will enable your pupils to feel safe and to learn as much as possible. Their shared classroom routines, values, expectations, learning experiences, rules and procedures will increase their engagement and their sense of autonomy, and will enhance the use of the instructional time. All this will result in their improved achievement and motivation and in your job satisfaction.

After you have completed the study of this unit, you should be able to:

explain how you can enable your pupils to learn English more happily and effectively describe how the class atmosphere can assist language learning identify the qualities of a good learner of English identify essential teaching skills that help promote learning identify the talents and skills of a good teacher of English explain how creating and teaching rules can eliminate management problems

Key Concepts: productive and orderly learning environment, formal classroom learning, teaching vs. learning, characteristics of classroom activities, motivation, good English learner profile, building a good atmosphere, means for including all pupils in the activities, types of knowledge and skills needed by the teacher, types of classroom time, essential teaching skills, language ability, practical classroom skills, factors affecting learning, guidelines for beginning the school year, establishing classroom rules.

1 Learning English inside and outside the classroom Many people think that school and learning only mean a teacher standing at the

front of the class teaching and the pupils sitting in rows listening and learning. This kind of perception is based on several assumptions. One assumption is that most of the learning takes place in the classroom. Another assumption is that the teacher is the knower and has the task of passing over this knowledge to the pupils. This is sometimes characterised as jug and mug the knowledge being poured from one receptacle into another empty one. There seems to be yet another assumption here: having something explained or demonstrated will automatically lead to learning. After the explanations, the pupils will do practice exercises to test whether they have understood what they have been told. Throughout the lesson the teacher keeps control of the subject matter, makes decisions about the work that needs to be done and orchestrates what the students do. In such a classroom, the teacher does most of the talking and is the most active person.

In many circumstances teacher lecture or explanation may be an efficient method of informing the pupils about a topic. However, when the teacher is teaching, it is unclear how much learning is taking place. In fact, teaching and learning need to be clearly

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distinguished. It is quite possible for a teacher to put great effort in to his/her teaching and for no learning to take place; similarly, a teacher could apparently be doing nothing, but the students be learning a great deal.

Actually, what happens is that each pupil will receive his/her own lesson: Im not involved at all Im tired of sitting on this chair I havent said anything for hours. Long explanations are so dull I just turn off. I dont understand and now shes talking about something else. Id rather do something different. Shes going too fast. Its not an interesting subject. Im not doing anything myself.

Teaching is only one factor in what is learned. As a teacher, one cannot learn for her/his students. Only they can do that. What the teacher can do is to help create the conditions in which they might be able to learn. This means involving the students, enabling them to work at their own speed, by not giving long explanations, by encouraging them to participate, talk, interact, etc. And yet, formal classroom learning may suit better some kinds of learners. These prefer that the responsibility of learning be taken away from them. In the classroom, frequency, pace and order of exposure to English is determined by a syllabus and/or a coursebook, and the teacher determines the learning activities. The control by the teacher of the organization of the classroom provides support to the learners lacking in motivation or confidence. Nevertheless, the same control may be a source of frustration to other learners, who know both what and how they want to learn.

However, throughout the world, the majority of English language learning takes place outside the classroom. Learners are exposed to English in the course of their everyday life: they interact with other English speakers, listen to the radio and TV, read newspapers, write letters, socialize, etc., in a word, they do things with English. This process of learning often involves five steps: (1) doing something; (2) recalling what happened; (3) reflecting on that; (4) drawing conclusions; (5) using those conclusions to inform and prepare for future practical experience:

The experiential learning circle It is important to distinguish between learning and teaching. Information, guidance

and support from other people may come in at any of the five steps of the cycle (the experiential learning cycle), but the essential learning experience is in doing the thing yourself.

As an English teacher, you must bear in mind that you are responsible for the learning of all pupils within the classroom. You must also train them in good strategies to enable them to continue learning outside the classroom. You must develop in your pupils habits of independence and autonomy, preparing them to organise their own learning and to exploit other sources of language outside the classroom.

do

prepare recall

conclude reflect

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2 The classroom: a complex environment Classroom activities have characteristics that make them complex and demanding:

o Several activities and tasks occur at the same time. When you teach a classroom, you need to maintain order, attract and keep your pupils attention, and keep them involved in a learning activity (individual, whole class, small groups, pairs). You may also have to deal with discipline problems.

o Events occur rapidly. Things happen quickly and you need to make many of the decisions right now. This need to make quick decisions can be almost overwhelming, particularly for beginning teachers.

o Events often take unexpected turns. You must always plan your classroom activity, and try to anticipate as much as you can of what will happen. And yet it is impossible to plan for all of your pupils responses. Pupils and classroom activity are often unpredictable, but experienced teachers get used to expecting the unexpected. The unpredictable nature of classrooms increases their complexity and challenge.

o You teach in front of people. In a sense, you are on a stage and your successes and mistakes occur in the public space. The pupils (and possibly other observers) perceptions of your actions can have unintended consequences.

Moreover, few classrooms are ideal. They may be too small or too large, too dim or too bright, storage space may be limited, maps may cover the board, etc. Rearranging desks is sometimes impossible, but if it is possible, try to experiment with different arrangements to see what works best for you. (Do not forget to consider the room arrangement in your planning.)

In most cases, you have to accept the room(s) you are allocated for your work. In the schools where there are fixed rooms for English or language labs, you will have the opportunity to create an appropriate environment (with wall-charts, posters photos, pupils work, and the like) so that everyone coming in knows immediately that English is the focus of attention there. But if you must move from class to class, you can still do quite a lot to ensure that the environment in which your classes are held is as encouraging as possible.

How would you describe the ideal room in which you would love to teach?

Remember also that are contexts in which pupils/students learn English only for the purposes of listening and reading, without any need to interact in speech or writing. On the other hand, when you need to give your pupils opportunities to talk, there may be constraints such as large, multilevel classes with fixed furniture, traditions of learning, an examination-oriented curriculum, and difficulty in accessing resouces. Managing with scarce resources is a challenge, but rather than abandoning the idea of using resources, teachers often find ways around the problems.

Before planning rules and activities, you must consider both the characteristics of your pupils and the physical environment of your classrooms. The relationship among these factors is illustrated below.

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(after Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak. 2004. Educational Psychology, Pearson) 2.1 Getting to know your pupils and your context To plan a learning activity or a sequence means to be able to predict as much of

the unpredictable as possible: you need to know your pupils and to build up a wide repertoire of skills and techniques. All these will enable you to develop useful structures and a personal style of teaching. You will then maximize both your pupils potential and your own in the limited time and with the limited resources of the school.

In an ideal classroom, class management is invisible. The atmosphere is calm, movement and interaction are comfortable, and pupils work quietly. The teacher gives few directions and reprimands pupils infrequently. However, in the real world, some classes are tough to manage. And yet, in most instances, a teacher can create an orderly classroom. Doing so requires good knowledge of the pupils and careful planning. It also requires the existence of a clearly understood and consistently monitored set of rules and procedures that prevents management problems before they occur.

The complexity of a teachers activity is especially apparent in the large classes of the primary and secondary schools, where the number of pupils and their immaturity combine to put to constant test the teachers classroom managerial skills. In such a context, knowing your pupils and knowing how to approach them is crucial.

You know that pupils think, act and feel differently at different stages of development. What are the general characteristics affecting classroom management of the primary school pupils (grades 2 to 4) compared to those of the lower secondary school pupils (grades 5 to 8)?

Whether you teach younger or older children, your way of approaching them, especially in the early stages of the classroom activity, will be a major factor that affects your pupils confidence. Learners of all ages should be treated with care and respect. Knowing your pupils by name, knowing their backgrounds and interests, knowing about their previous language-learning experiences and their attitudes to English will enable you to help them learn more happily and effectively.

Before you start teaching a new group, you will want to find out what your pupils have already learnt.

Being able to address your pupils by name has considerable advantages both for you and for them. It avoids confusion which might arise in identifying which pupil should be responding. Also, it is the natural way to attract somebodys attention; it speeds up the organising of pair and group work; it generates a friendly relationship with the pupils and among them, and it produces a secure atmosphere.

Pupil

characteristics

Planning for effective

management

The physical environment

Procedures and rules

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What can you do if you have large classes and you are not good at remembering pupils names?

A language class gives you more opportunities to discover details about your

pupils lives than most other classes. Very often you may find yourself wondering what you can ask and what is better to be left unasked. A good principle is never to ask your pupils anything that you yourself would not wish to be asked.

Your pupils will find their English lessons more stimulating if some of their work is concerned with things that interest them. You will want then to find out what these things are. Almost any hobby which a pupil has can be incorporated into an English lesson.

Think First!

Before continuing to read this text, think where you can find information about your pupils previous experience of learning English.

There is always an official syllabus (programa) of what needs to be taught at

each level, which you can consult. You can also ask your pupils to bring you the coursebook(s) and notebook(s) they used. Sometimes, you can talk to the previous teacher(s). This kind of discussion is very important as you may be able to find out what your pupils strengths and weaknesses are. Both the pupils and the previous teacher may also tell you what kinds of learning experience they had.

Sometimes, however, you will find that the class is different from what you would have expected. This may simply mean that the class, or individual pupils within it, have changed.

Think First!

Before continuing to read this lecture, think of what you can do to find out what your pupils really know.

The best way to establish what your pupils already know is to start with a

diagnostic test to discover what they can and cannot do. However, when you give them such a test, you must make sure that your pupils understand that the test is given only to help you decide what gaps they have in their knowledge, so that you can help them to fill these gaps.

In most cases, the young pupils attitude to English is more influenced by you than by their wants or needs. Your enthusiasm and skills have an enormous effect on the attitude of your pupils. However, positive attitudes to learning English need to be fostered constantly, as pupils almost always reach a stage when they feel that they are not making any progress. At this point you need to find new ways of motivating them and making their study seem worthwhile by seizing every opportunity to make their learning meaningful.

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Remember that no matter what facilities the school offers, it is the lively, purposeful class atmosphere with plenty to do, which you create, which will maintain your pupils positive attitudes. The most important factor in keeping your pupils motivated is your own skill and enthusiasm.

2.3 The good learners of English Recent approaches in EFL have acknowledged the importance of the whole

person in the learner (as opposed to only their mental processes such as thinking, remembering, analysing, etc.) The pupils bring to the classroom a range of less visible things such as their needs, their wishes, their life experience, their home background, their memories, their worries, their dreams, their anger, their toothache, their fears, their moods, etc. Given the opportunities, they will make decisions for themselves and their learning and they will move forward.

New learning is constructed over the foundations of earlier learning. The pupils will make use of whatever knowledge and experience they already have in order to help them learn and understand new things. Thus the message taken away from one lesson is quite different for different pupils.

Drawing on your experience as learners of English, you could draw the profile of the good learners of English. Consider these features:

Perceptual skills: they can perceive new sounds. Analytical skills: they can formulate hypotheses, memorise language items, monitor

their own speech and that of others. Motivation: they have a high motivation. Strategy: they concentrate on meaning rather than on form when practising; they

look for cues in the context. Study: they can organise their studies and study independently (e.g. they make

vocabulary lists and use them). Experiment: they try out their language knowledge and are uninhibited about making

mistakes. Sociability: they mix well and work well in groups. They can transfer from Romanian

to English communication strategies such as paraphrasing, circumlocution, checking that listeners have understood, etc.

Exposure: they seek out every opportunity to come into contact with English, (watching films and TV programmes, reading books and newspapers, etc.)

Cultural openess: they are open-minded and open hearted with regard to foreign cultures and individuals.

Age: young children do not make good learners of grammar. Adaptability: they learn well despite the method, the teacher, and the school.

Think First!

What fundamental skill is hidden behind most of the features listed above?

It would be difficult to imagine that all your pupils show all the above mentioned features and are all good learners of English. However, you should be able to show your pupils how to be good, which clearly involves helping them to become independent. Independence is a quality which seems to cut across most of the features listed above, and is the result of having acquired learning strategies.

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Learning strategies

Rebecca Oxford (1990) differentiates learning strategies into the following categories:

Affective. These strategies serve to regulate emotions, attitudes, and motivation. They include anxiety reduction through laughter and meditation, self-encouragement through affirmations, and self-reward through praise.

Social. These refer to actions learners take to interact with users of the language. They include asking questions, cooperating with native speakers of language, and becoming culturally aware.

Metacognitive. This type of strategies deal with the planning, monitoring, and evaluation of language learning activities. They include paying attention, consciously searching for practice opportunities, planning for language tasks, self-evaluating progress, and monitoring errors.

Memory-related. These strategies include grouping, imagery, rhyming, analysing, moving physically, and structured reviewing.

General cognitive. These involve reasoning, analysing, summarising and practising with the result of identification, retention, and retrieval of language elements.

Compensatory. These strategies make up for limited knowledge. They include guessing meaning from context, using synonyms and gestures to convey meaning. All these strategies should be trained and form an integral part of the classroom

events. Moreover, pupils should be taught how to identify and analyse their preferred learning strategies.

2.4 Class atmosphere

The general atmosphere in the class can assist learning. Both your behaviour and language and those of the pupils can contribute to this atmosphere.

Think First!

What factors are the most important, in your opinion, for building a good atmosphere in your classes? Put in order the following suggestions according to how important they are for you and the pupils you are teaching.

addressing pupils by name encouraging the whole class to use first names always being polite to your pupils expecting your pupils to be polite to each other as well as to you always being punctual to classes encouraging your pupils to arrive to classes on time encouraging pupils to apologise for late coming making sure you do not show favouritism towards any particular

pupil planning clearly what you are going to do in each lesson allowing valid questions and interruptions telling your pupils from the beginning what you want to achieve in

the lesson saying, at the end of the lesson, how successful you think it has

been including, if possible, every pupil in some way during each lesson not letting one or two pupils monopolise the class

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providing opportunities for the pupils to talk and listen to each other reducing communication between you and your pupils to an

optimum amount saying what you mean and meaning what you say: being firm in

approving or disapproving doing the things which you have told your pupils you will do treating all your pupils alike.

2.4.1 Motivating students

Language classrooms depend more than other classes on the climate; in its turn this is influenced by the national and cultural influences on the language being learned, the education system and the immediate classroom environment (M. Lewis in Richards, J. C. and Renandya Willy A., 2002: 40). If the education system or the national curriculum, and the status of the foreign language being learned cannot be influenced by the teacher, the latter can influence the students feel about learning English. Teachers can influence the classroom environment where learning takes place by motivating unmotivated pupils.

Unmotivated pupils can be recognised when they fail to take part by sitting in silence, they distract other pupils by talking off the topic, or they provide nonlanguage entertainment. All of these call for teachers management skills.

A future English teacher needs to know that teaching a foreign language involves more than her pupils interest, for language is a skill that needs to be applied/used, not just stored in the head.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation Teachers encourage language use through both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Some students have strong intrinsic motivation as they are already aware of the benefits of learning English. Others need to be reminded of the benefits: standing better chances of getting a good job, making travelling more rewarding and enjoyable, access to literature of all kinds in the original, etc. Extrinsic motivation can come through rewards. Some of the activities done in class can be presented as rewards to the pupils: supplying additional reading materials, showing a video, inviting guest speakers, organising games, etc.

An ongoing aspect of motivation is dealing with the behaviour of particular students. Teachers build a scale of responses to off-task behaviour, which helps them decide whether to ignore or attend to the problem. Here are a few typical cases of off-task behaviour and possible teacher responses (from M. Lewis, idem: 42 43)

1. The back-row distractor: the pupil who always sits at the back and distracts others: Use eye contact while continuing to speak. Stop mid-sentence and stare until the pupil stops. Talk with the pupil after class to investigate the cause.

2. The nonparticipants: several pupils are not taking part in the assigned activity. Ignore them if they are not distracting others. Walk past their desks and ask if there is a problem. Ask other teachers how the same pupils participate in other classes.

3. The overexuberant pupil: one outgoing student dominates answering most questions, making most comments and filling most of the student talking time. This calls for tact, because such a pupil is often a good language model for the rest of the class.

Interrupt with Thanks for that and call on someone else to continue.

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Remind the student that there will be more talking time soon in groups. Talk to the student individually later.

In brief, making quick decisions on what to do about a problem depends on answers to questions like:

Does the behaviour hinder other students learning? Is this just a single occurrence not worth wasting time on? Is it a whole-class problem or a specific to one or two people?

Remember that if large number of pupils are failing to attend to the lesson, there could be a problem with the lesson itself. The task may be too difficult, or an activity may have continued for too long, or the content may be boring. On the other hand, the problem may not be within the class: a forthcoming event such as a match or even unusual weather can change the mood of the class and signal to the teacher the need for a change of activity.

2.4.2 Involving all the pupils You should seize every opportunity to give encouragement to those pupils who are

making a real effort and not just to those who are being successful. This can be done briefly and frequently, without interrupting the flow of the lesson, by the use of Yes, Good, Thats right and even by a simple nod of the head.

Avoid comparing one pupils performance with that of other pupils. It is always more constructive to compare a pupils work with his/her own previous performance as this gives the pupil a sense of ones own progress.

Ensure that all the pupils are included in the class activity. In large classes in particular, it is very easy to miss some pupils out. Often teachers tend to focus on one particular section of the class the area where the very good pupils sit, the front of the class, or the area by the window , without realising it.

Think First!

Before you read the rest of this section, write down the means you can think of used for including all the pupils in the class activity.

Here are some ways of making sure that you involve all the pupils.

Use the class register list. Your pupils will know if you are calling on them in the order of the class register list. To avoid this, use every second or third name, or some other pattern, so that they may not realise what order you are using. Avoid looking down at the list (by putting it where you can see it easily). Also, to prevent the switching off of pupils who have just responded, ask one or two for a second response.

Think of your class as a set of lines or rows of pupils and address a question to a pupil from each line or row in turn.

Set rules. If your pupils tend to shout out the answers before the others have time to try, make a rule that the pupil who has responded once must miss the next three questions before s/he can answer again. This keeps the pupils busy counting, while waiting to join in again.

Invite the pupil who answers to name the one who will answer next. If the pupils get used to this system, it can move quite briskly and be successful. However, it can become unpleasant if the pupils see it as a way of victimising their slower classmates

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Repeat the question and/or prompt. If the pupil you nominated is unable to respond, help him/her by repeating or prompting, while insisting that the rest of the class remains quiet. Sometimes, however, you may wish to pass a factual question to another pupil, or the class in general.

Extra-Curricular Activities. Activities conducted outside lesson times can make an important contribution to maintaining a good atmosphere in the classroom. If their knowledge of English opens the way to other interesting activities, the pupils will take a more positive attitude to their studies.

By organising a class library or an English club you can provide your pupils with the possibility of extending their knowledge and interests outside the classroom as well as giving them an opportunity for genuine communication. Try to help your pupils set these up and then give them assistance in running them.

What advantages or disadvantages can you see in your pupils attending the activity of an English club?

2.4.3 Discipline

Discipline is an important matter. As a teacher, you should be able to solve a number of questions, referring to maintaining order, the amount of noise you can tolerate, what you consider unacceptable behaviour and how you can punish misbehavers.

How much freedom do you think you have in dealing with discipline problems?

It is important to try to be fair, and not to punish misbehaviour severely on one

occasion while ignoring it on another. It is always better to avoid situations that may lead to misbehaviour. If you keep your pupils busy and if they believe that what they are doing is worthwhile, they will be less likely to become disruptive. Also, if you are well organized, you are less likely to have problems with discipline.

3 The effective teacher The experiential learning cycle suggests a number of conclusions for English

teachers:

The jug and mug approach may be inappropriate if it dominates classroom time. Giving your pupils time to do things themselves may be much more important.

You may be a better teacher if you tried to make the enabling of learning your main concern.

You need to ensure your pupils practical experience in doing things using language rather than simply listening to explanations about language)

Being an over-helpful teacher could get in the way of your pupils learning. The more you do things in the classroom, the less space there will be for the learners to do things.

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It may be useful to help pupils become more aware of how they are learning. To reflect on this and to explore what procedures, materials, techniques or approaches would help them learn more effectively.

It is OK for pupils to make mistakes, to try things out and get things wrong and learn form that.

Here are a number of factors in a teacher that might positively affect the learning atmosphere in the classroom. The effective teacher:

really listens to her pupils shows respect gives clear, positive feedback has a good sense of humour is patient knows her subject inspires confidence trusts pupils empathises with pupils problems is well-organised paces lessons well does not complicate things unnecessarily is enthusiastic and inspired enthusiasm can be authoritative without being distant is honest is approachable.

Carl Rogers, an American psychologist, suggested that there are three core teacher characteristics that help create an effective learning environment: respect (a positive and non-judgemental regards for another person), empathy (being able to see things from another persons perspective, as if looking through their eyes) and authenticity (being oneself without hiding behind job titles, roles or masks). When a teacher has these three qualities, the relationship within the classroom are likely to be stronger and deeper and communication between people much more open and honest. The climate becomes positive, forward-looking and supportive. The pupils are able to learn with less fear of taking risks or facing challenges. In doing these they increase their own self-esteem and self-understanding, gradually taking more and more of the responsibility for their own learning themselves rather than assuming that it is someone elses job.

In order to improve the quality of the relationship teacher pupils, one does not need to learn new techniques but to look closely at what they really want for their pupils, how they really feel about themselves.

3.1. Essential teaching skills What kind of knowledge does a teacher need to help the pupils learn as much as

possible?

Knowledge of content. You should know not only English but also be familiar with the concepts used in the lessons.

Pedagogical content knowledge. You should be able to illustrate the concepts used (with examples, drawings, charts, etc.)

General pedagogical knowledge. You should know how to organise orderly classrooms and use questioning skills that involve your pupils and lead to thorough understanding.

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Knowledge of learners and learning. You should be able to understand when your pupils need concrete examples and what kind of tasks increase motivation and learning.

Positive teacher attitudes are also fundamental to effective teaching as personal teaching efficacy, energy, enthusiasm, caring and high expectations promote pupil motivation. For instance, if you are an elementary school teacher, you can communicate your personal efficacy and caring by calling a pupils parents and soliciting their help as soon as the pupil fails to turn in an assignment or receives an unsatisfactory grade.

Besides all the types of knowledge and attitudes, there are basic abilities that all teachers should have to promote order and learning in the classroom.

Think first!

Before reading the following section, make a list of the skills that are essential, in your opinion, for any teacher.

Classroom time You should know how to increase learning by using time efficiently. Different types

of classroom time influence learning in different ways:

Type of classroom time

Description

Allocated time The amount of time a teacher uses for a content area or topic Instructional time The amount of time left for teaching after routine management

and administrative tasks are completed Engaged time The amount of time pupils are actively involved in learning

activities Academic learning time

The amount of time pupils are actively involved in learning activities during which they are successful.

As you move from allocated time to academic learning time, the correlation with learning becomes stronger. Unfortunately, teachers do not always use time effectively. Some teachers seem unaware of the importance of time, viewing it as something to be filled or even killed. In order to increase learning, you should increase instructional, engaged, and academic learning time to make as much use of the allocated time as possible.

Organisation determines how efficiently time is used. It includes starting on time, preparing materials in advance, establishing routines, etc. Routines reduce the load of your working effort and memory, save your energy, and create a sense of order and equilibrium in your classroom.

Effective communication There is a strong link between effective communication, pupil achievement and

pupil satisfaction. The way you interact with pupils influences their motivation and attitudes toward school in general and English in particular. Four aspects of effective communication are especially important: precise terminology, connected discourse, transition signals and emphasis.

Precise terminology is language without vague terms, which would leave the pupils with a sense of uncertainty and detract them from learning.

Connected discourse is talk that leads to a point. If the point of a lesson is not clear,

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if your talk is sequenced inappropriately, if incidental information is included, discourse becomes disconnected. Keep your lessons on track, minimising time spent on matters unrelated to the topic.

Transition signals indicate that one idea or activity is ending and another is beginning (e.g. All right, now well turn to). They alert the pupils that the lesson is making a shift and allow them to adjust and get prepared.

Emphasis consists of verbal (e.g. Listen carefully now) and vocal cues (such as raising the voice) and repetition, which alert pupils to important information in a lesson.

What practical implications may terminology, connected discourse, transition signals, and emphasis have for teachers?

Introductory focus attracts pupils attention and provides a framework for the lesson. In addition, it can increase motivation by arousing curiosity. In an English lesson you can use concrete objects, pictures, models, materials displayed around the room, information written on the board all meant to maintain pupils attention during learning activities. Use objects, photos, maps, charts, etc. to provide introductory and sensory focus during your lessons.

Using questions, you can guide learning rather than simply deliver information. By questioning you can assess pupil background knowledge, cause pupils to rethink their ideas, help them form relationships. You can also involve shy pupils, recapture pupils wandering attention, promote success, and enhance self-esteem. Questioning can also maintain the pace and momentum of a lesson.

Effective questioning is frequent is equitably distributed uses prompting allows adequate wait-time

The information pupils receive about the accuracy or appropriateness of their responses and work is crucial in promoting learning. Feedback gives pupils information about the validity of their knowledge or skills. It also helps them to elaborate on their existing understanding. Feedback is also important for motivation because it provides pupils with information about their increasing competence.

Effective feedback has four essential characteristics: it is immediate or given soon after a pupil response it is specific it provides corrective information for the learner it has a positive emotional tone

The teacher needs to provide feedback throughout all learning experiences.

Look at the following teacher pupil dialogue. Which of the characteristics of feedback listed above is not illustrated by this dialogue:

Mr. B: What kind of an animal is shown in the picture, Jill? Jill: A panther. Mr. B: Not quite. Help her out, Betty?

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Lessons are more coherent when review and closure are used to summarise and pull ideas together. Review is a summary that helps pupils link what they have already learned to what will follow in the next activity. It emphasizes important points and encourages elaboration. It can occur at any point in a lesson, although it is common at the beginning and end. Closure is a form of review that occurs at the end of a lesson. It pulls content together and signals the end of the lesson.

Begin and end each class with a short review. Guide the review with questioning. For instance, say We studied present perfect yesterday. Give me an example that illustrates this, and explain why your example is correct.

These skills are interdependent as none is effective alone, but only in combination with the others. Their interaction and integration are crucial.

Besides knowledge, attitudes and essential teaching skills that are common to teachers of all subjects, the teachers of English can use successfully a variety of other abilities, skills and talents. Moreover, as a teacher you should be aware of the factors affecting learning. This awareness will help you to enhance your pupils learning. Also, you should be aware of what makes a good learner in order to try to make your pupils good learners. Moreover, you should be aware of what motivates your pupils to learn English and try to bring about factors which increase your pupils motivation.

However, some of the factors that affect your pupils leaning either cannot be changed or are difficult to change.

What factors cannot be changed and what factors can you influence or change in making your pupils good learners of English?

To check on your organisation and communication skills, you can ask another

teacher to visit your class and observe your language and nonverbal communication or to see how many minutes you spend before actually beginning instruction. You can also ask your colleague to see whether you clearly emphasise the important points in the lesson, sequence the presentation logically, communicate changes in topics or the way you give feedback.

3.2 Teachers language ability Fluency and accuracy in English do not make anyone automatically into a

successful teacher of English. Many good teachers of English have a limited command of English. However, these teachers may have the advantage of understanding better their pupils difficulties. The secret lies in being confident about your English without being embarrassed about your lack of greater knowledge. When your pupils will ask you Whats the English for .? and you do not know the answer, it is better to say I dont know, but Ill find out for you rather than to try to avoid answering the question. Do not feel embarrassed that you dont know every word of English. Think how many words of Romanian you dont know! We all continue to learn throughout our lives. What is important is to work on improving the quality of the English you use and want to teach your pupils. And there are lots of ways in which you can develop your language skills.

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Think First!

Before reading the following section, answer this question: What ways of improving your classroom English can you think of now?

Here are a few solutions: Make sure that you are familiar with the language in the lesson. The day before the

class, prepare the lesson by speaking out the words, phrases, and sentences, so that you can hear how they sound. See if there are words which you have difficulty in pronouncing, and try to get them right. If there is a cassette to be used with the book, listen to the recording too, as this can help with pronunciation.

If you can, have regular meetings with other teachers of English to help each other with the preparation of classes, and share with them your difficulties and your successes. You may soon discover that each of you can gain something from the experience of the others. There are also teachers clubs (cercuri) or teachers centres (CCDs) where you may check up on anything you are unsure of by asking colleagues or experts.

How big an advantage is, in your opinion, the knowledge of an English-speaking country? Explain why you think this is so.

3.3 Teacher skills and talents

A clear voice, good presentation skills, self-confidence are all big advantages. Or, perhaps, you are good at singing or playing an instrument. If you cannot play or sing well, you can still have a song in your class by playing a tape or a record and singing along with the recording. If you cannot lead the singing yourself, just join in and encourage the pupils to sing.

Drawings are often used as a way of presenting new language and explaining new vocabulary. You do not have to be an artist: just make sure that you keep the drawing simple and you draw it big enough to be seen by every pupil in the classroom. Always try it out or prepare it in advance.

Use your acting skills if you decide to read out a dialogue or organise a role play activity. You will sound more convincing if you use different voices to indicate changes of speaker. Even if you only change the loudness or speed or pitch of your voice, you will still make the contrast between speakers clear. This will show your pupils what you expect of them and will encourage them to take part in the activity. Otherwise, it is unreasonable to expect your pupils to do things that you are not willing to do yourself. It is always acceptable to say Im not very good at this, but Ill try.

Practical classroom skills Your good performance in the classroom will have a significant effect on the way in

which the pupils see you and, consequently, on their behaviour.

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Think First!

Before reading the next section, think of the practical skills that a good teacher needs.

Here are some necessary practical skills: In the classroom, you should read clearly and loudly, without stumbling over

difficult words, with a good intonation and sounding as if you care about what you are reading. Always practise any piece you want to use in the next lesson.

Organise your board work well, write legibly and quickly on the board. Write your lines right, and your letters clear and big, so that they can be read easily from the sides and back of the class). Clean the board before you start writing on it.

It is important for you to master the equipment. You need to know how to use an overhead projector or a video player. The best way to learn is by hands on experience: have someone explain it and demonstrate it, and then go through the various steps a number of times yourself. Read carefully the instruction manual, if it is available. If you cannot handle the equipment, you will get angry and frustrated, and you may lose the respect of your pupils.

3.5 Teacher and methodology Jim Scrivener considers that there are three categories of teachers: the

explainer, the involver and the enabler. The explainer has limited knowledge of teaching methodology and relies mainly

on explaining or lecturing as a way of conveying information to the students. Done with style and enthusiasm, with wit and imagination the lessons can be entertaining, interesting and informative. The pupils are listening, occasionally answering questions and perhaps making notes, but are mostly not being personally involved or challenged. The pupils often receive practice by doing individual exercises after one phase of the presentation has finished.

The involver knows well the subject matter (the English language and how it works). However, she is also familiar with teaching methodology; she is able to use appropriate teaching and organizational procedures and techniques to help her students learn about the subject matter. Teacher explanations may be one of these techniques, one option among many that she has at her disposal. She tries to involve the pupils actively and puts effort into finding appropriate and interesting activities that will do this, while still retaining clear control over the classroom and what happens in it.

The enabler knows about the subject matter and about methodology, but also has an awareness of how pupils and groups are thinking and feeling within her class. She actively responds to this in her planning and working methods and in building effective working relationships and a good classroom atmosphere. Her own personality and attitude are an active encouragement to learning.

This kind of teacher is confident enough to share control with the learners, or to hand it over entirely to them. Decisions in her classroom are often shared or negotiated. She sees herself as someone whose job is to create the conditions that enable the pupils to learn for themselves. Sometimes this will involve her in less traditional teaching; she may become a guide or a counsellor or a resource of information when needed. When autonomous learning is going on, such a teacher may be hardly visible.

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The three descriptions are very broadly painted. There is no way to categorise teaching under three headings. However, this simple categorisation may help you reflect on what kind of teaching you have mostly experienced in your life and may also help you to clarify what kind of teacher you see yourself as being in the future.

As a teacher you should be aware of the factors affecting learning. This awareness will help you to enhance your pupils learning. Also, you should be aware of what makes a good learner in order to try to make your pupils good learners. Moreover, you should be aware of what motivates your pupils to learn English and try to bring about factors which increase your pupils motivation.

Opportunities for self development By thinking critically about yourself, you may have identified aspects of your

professional performance which you want to improve. Opportunities for self-development may be offered by attending refresher courses, classes in art, music or drama, by joining a local library, arranging to work with teacher colleagues, finding out what local organisations exist and asking what they can do to help, reading books about teaching, etc.

6 The school 6.1 Getting a new job No two schools are alike. Schools may range from very formal, with strict

discipline to very casual, where discipline is not considered important. School principals also range from authoritarian to permissive. It is important for you to realise what type of school you are in and to adjust your own behaviour accordingly. While you are new, keep your teaching style rather formal until you learn more about how the other teachers work. It is always easier to become more relaxed with your pupils as time goes on rather than to become more formal with them.

It is important to respect the norms of the school in which you are working and not to impose your own system from the beginning. Once you have become accepted by the other members of the staff, you may perhaps suggest ideas which they can consider and possibly adopt.

In the beginning, you need to be careful about how much noise your classes make. You may need to try to convince the other teachers and the school principal that in order to learn to speak English and understand the spoken language, your pupils will need to make some noise, that group and pair work cause some noise.

School responsibilities are relevant for teachers of all subjects. They are important aspects of school life and affect the status of English in the school. This in turn affects what you can achieve. Understanding the system can save you a lot of time and trouble and leave you to devote more energy to the actual teaching - learning process.

6.2 School routines

The first few days of the school year are crucial to classroom management, because they create lasting impressions and patterns of behaviour for the year are established in these first days. Spend a little time at the beginning of the year explaining how you intend the class to operate, and making it clear what you consider to be acceptable behaviour. This should be done in a friendly but firm manner, without sounding threatening.

Your life will be made easier and your class more successful if you establish rules for your lessons which everybody understands and accepts. Here are a few examples of teachers rules:

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Primary school Lower secondary Upper secondary We raise our hands before speaking We leave our seats only when given permission by the teacher

Be in your seat and quiet when the bell rings Raise your hand for permission to speak or to leave your seat

Be in your seat before the bell rings Give your full attention to others in discussion, and wait your turn to speak

What rules would you like to add to the lists in the table above?

Such rules can be worked out together with the pupils. Although involving pupils in rule making does not solve all management problems, it is an important step in gaining their cooperation. Once established, rules create a sense of ownership, and contribute to the development of responsibility and self-regulation in your pupils.

Try to find out what the norms there are in your school, and comply with them. For instance, the pupils may be expected to stand (or not) when you come into the room. Homework may be collected by a pupil rather than by you. The board may be always cleaned by the pupil sitting nearest to it or by a pupil on duty. If there are no norms, it is wise for you to establish some of your own.

Asking your pupils to put up hands is not always appropriate in a class where everybody must speak. Sometimes you need responses from pupils who do not know them, or who do, but do not put up their hands. Make sure you first ask the question and then name a pupil to answer. Ask a second or a third pupil if the first pupil is unable to answer.

Get your pupils to put up their hands before they want to ask a question. This helps to prevent noisy interruptions. However, do not insist on your pupils always raising their hand before asking, as one of the skills they must acquire is that of being able to interrupt and seek clarification.

When would you insist on your pupils raising their hands?

Your pupils need to know in advance of the lesson what will need to bring to class. You have to plan this and ask them to bring only what they will use. Then you should be firm in reprimanding those who fail to bring what is needed to the first few lessons, so that it becomes second nature for your pupils to bring the right things. On the other hand, if you ask them to bring something and never ask them to use it, dont be cross if someone fails to bring that thing to the lesson when you finally decide to refer to it.

With younger pupils, insist that they do not keep on the desk things which are not to be used during the lesson.

Help your pupils establish an organised way of keeping their notes by using the lesson/unit titles of the coursebook and perhaps the exercise/section/activity number as headings. The pupils can then write under these headings and the notebook can be referred to alongside the coursebook. If your pupils buy their own coursebooks, do not forbid them to write in them or mark things they want to remember, or even colour the pictures. If, however, books belong to the school, the notebook must become an essential tool for the pupil.

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There is almost always an established way in which young pupils will address you and you them. With older pupils you may establish the form of address together. However, this will depend largely on school custom and pupils expectations. Make it clear from the outset what your name is and how you like to be addressed.

Here are a few guidelines for beginning the school year:

Establish expectations

Explain requirements and grading systems (particularly with older pupils) Emphasize that learning and classroom order are interdependent

Plan structured instruction

Plan with great care during this period Conduct eye-catching and motivating activities Assess pupils skills and background knowledge Use large- rather than small-group instruction Minimize transitions from one activity to another

Teach rules and procedures

Begin teaching rules and procedures the first day Discuss and practise rules and procedures during the first few days Intervene and discuss every infraction of rules

Begin communication with parents

Meet the parents or send them a letter, and state your positive statements for the year Call or visit parents after the first or second week to nip potential problems in the bud

Summary This unit presents the complexity of the job of being an English teacher and the

many requirements that you need to comply with: you must have a deep understanding of the process of learning and of the characteristics of your pupils, a good understanding of the topics you teach; you should be able to represent the topics in ways that are understandable to pupils, to organize and maintain productive learning environments.

As a teacher, you are responsible for classroom learning and should be able to increase it. You should be caring and enthusiastic, a good role model, and have high expectations for your pupils. You should be well organized, know what is going on in your classrooms, use your class time well, and communicate clearly. You should present content in attractive ways, provide clear and informative feedback, and review important ideas. You should use effective questioning strategies, prompt pupils who do not answer successfully, and give pupils time to think about their answers. You should be able to draw, write legibly and speak convincingly, and maybe have other talents, too.

You should be able to create a classroom atmosphere conducive to learning and establish rules and routines which enhance the use of classroom learning time.

Further Reading

Cohen, A.D and Weaver, S. J. 1998. Strategies-based instructions for second language learners. In W. A. Renandya & G. M. Jacobs (eds.), Learners and language learning (pp. 1 -25). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

Harmer, Jeremy. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman. Oxford, Rebecca. 1990. Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know.

New York: Newbury House. Richards, Jack C. and Renandya Willy A., 2002. Methodology in Language Teaching.

Cambridge: CUP. Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching, Heinemann. Underwood, Mary. 1987. Effective Class management. A Practical Approach, Longman. Ur, Penny. 1996. A Course in Language Teaching. Practice and Theory, Cambridge

University Press.

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Catedra de Limba si Literatura engleza ELT Methodology, 2011

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Any average person in this country can tell you what teaching is about: a teacher speaking in front of a large number of pupils who sit in rows at their desks; the pupils listen or not. If the teacher knew how to make her pupils listen to her, education would be better.

In reality, what happens in the classroom is not so simple. The teacher is trying to achieve several objectives at the same time. Her first task is to provide a range of learning experiences to her pupils. Then, she needs to cater for individual differences by organizing activities that make use of various learning resources and different tasks. She needs to provide opportunities for the pupils to take responsibility of their own learning, while still managing the classroom activities. In one word, she manages classroom learning.

The skills of creating and managing a successful class may be the key to the teachers success. An important part of this is to do with the teachers role, attitude, intentions and personality, and with her relationships with the learners, but also with the students motivation and classroom constraints. Another important part is the organizational skills and techniques that the teacher uses. All these are often grouped under the heading of classroom management.

Classroom management emphasizes the complexity of classroom life and focuses on the managerial skills that the teacher needs to have and on the systematic way in which she coordinates classroom variety and complexity. The teacher is the coordinator of a varied and complex environment; she sets objectives, plans activities, attends to communication and motivation and evaluates performance.

Classroom management involves both decisions and actions. The actions are what is done in the classroom. The decisions are about whether to do these actions, when to do them, how to do them, who to do them, etc. The essential basic skill for classroom management is therefore to be able to recognize what options are available, to make appropriate decisions between these options and to turn them into effective and efficient actions. As the teacher grows in experience her awareness of possible options will also grow.

The aim of this lecture is to help you become aware of the lesson management skills that you need to develop. After you have completed the study of this lecture on classroom management, you should be able to:

explain what makes a lesson effective classify patterns of interaction explain the advantages and disadvantages of various patterns of classroom

interaction use various patterns of classroom interaction to involve all the pupils in your

lessons Key Concepts: lesson management, cooperative learning, patterns of

interaction, whole class teacher-led activities, pupils independent activities, class dialogue, questioning, teacher feedback, supervised learning, supported independent learning, pair work, group work

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1 Classroom management: strategies and tactics What is it that makes a teacher successful and respected? Why do such a teachers

pupils work with positive and constructive attitudes? Both teachers and pupils have their own characteristics and habits. These influence

the effectiveness of the lesson. Like a taxi driver who knows every city street, a teacher needs to develop a good understanding of her pupils and of herself.

Your physical presence, the way you move, sit or stand, the way you are dressed, all have an effect on your pupils perception. To some extent, these may also affect the effectiveness of your lesson. You need to be aware of all these details, adapt your language and your voice, your gestures, your expressions, your mime, your movements, the frequency of eye contact with individual pupils, for all these carry a message for your pupils.

Your lessons should be prepared thoroughly: materials, activities, and assessments. When the pupils feel that you are filling time, or when you have to change activities because you cannot find the materials, or if you are unprepared for the problems that may emerge, you may lose your pupils respect and confidence. A good idea is to prepare for each lesson more than you need. It is always good to have a reserve activity ready in case of extra time. As you are planning a lesson, note in advance which component(s) of the lesson you will sacrifice if you find yourself with too little time for everything.

During the lesson, keep a watch or clock easily visible, and make sure you are aware throughout how time is going relative to your plan. It is difficult to judge intuitively how time is going when you are busy, and the smooth running of the lesson depends to some extent on proper timing.

Try to create a serious impression of purpose by your contributions and by the demands made on your pupils. This means attention to detail, and an assumption that your pupils will take their work seriously and with a sense of responsibility. At every point in the lesson a teacher has options. To say one thing or to say something different; to stop an activity or to let it continue, to take some time to deal with difficult questions or to move on with what you had previously planned. There is no single correct answer, no single route through a lesson though some routes may in the end prove to be much more effective than others. Different people and different situations will create different solutions. The lesson is created by these choices.

Long-term strategies can help you build up good standards of personal relationships that result in good classroom atmosphere. Nevertheless, pupils are not always capable of coping with all the stresses of their lives and they may react by laziness, insubordination, defiance, aggression, or destructiveness. Such pupil behaviour will undermine the building up of good classroom practice, and the effectiveness of your classes. What can you do?

Unfortunately, advice about classroom tactics is less reliable than advice about general strategies.

The complexity of classroom life is responsible for many difficult situations. Classroom life is multidimensional, with many different kinds of activities, many different objectives, and many people having different needs and different styles. At any one time you need to consider what to do next, thinking ahead of the development of the lesson, watching the pupils progress, looking out for what might disrupt the flow of the lesson. There may be numberless unpredictables, interruptions, unforeseen difficulties, or minor incidents. In such a context your action and reaction are driven by intuition more than by deliberate thinking about alternative courses of action. Moreover, advice from other teachers may not be reliable, as different teachers use different tactics with equal (in)success.

Becoming an effective teacher is partly a matter of increasing your awareness of what options are available. It is also about the skilful selection of the most appropriate option at each point and efficiently, effectively turning these into actions.

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What informs and influences a teachers decisions between different options? Here are some factors to bear in mind: (Scrivener, 1994: 11)

What is the aim of the activity? What is the objective of the whole lesson? Is what we are doing useful? What is hindering the effectiveness of what we are doing? What have I planned to do? What would be the best thing to do now? Is it time for a change of mood or pace? Are we using time efficiently? How do the students feel? How do I (the teacher) feel? What are the possible outcomes of my actions?

Classroom decisions and actions are influenced by the teachers own attitudes, intentions, beliefs and values: what she thinks about learning, what is important for her in learning, what she genuinely feels towards the students.

Teachers decisions and actions Teachers attitudes and intentions Teachers beliefs and values Think first!

1.1 Getting organised Some of the options the teacher needs to take come at key moments: the beginning

of the lesson, the start of an activity, the end of an activity, when a discipline problem occurs in the lesson. A decision taken at such critical moments has great impact.

You need to develop clear routines for monitoring and controlling, for regular organizational tasks such as taking the roll, distributing materials, clearing away at the end of the lesson, forming pairs and groups, using equipment.

Adopt a supervisory role at regular intervals throughout the lesson. All gestures and signals can be effective: a finger to the lips, a hand signal to sit down, a finger to beckon, a nod to approve something to happen, a head shake to signal disapproval, etc. If it is really necessary to speak, approach the pupil and say it quietly, not to disturb the rest of the class.

Anticipate discipline problems and act quickly and decisively. If you are uncertain of the cause of a disruption (which is very common), approach the disruptive pupil in a non-

What teacher beliefs and attitudes might underline the following classroom activities? a. The teacher includes a lot of student communication activities in

her lessons. b. The teacher uses tape recordings of native speaker conversations. c. In every lesson the teacher includes at least one game that

involves students moving around the classroom.

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critical way, asking her/him to report what progress has been made or what problems have been encountered. Where the misbehaviour is overt, remove the pupil from any possible audience. Set the pupil to work in a different part of the room, making it clear that s/he may return when s/he has finished the task. This helps the pupil to accept the arrangement. Avoid confrontation, which is public and emotionally charged, and can result in conflict escalation.

1.2 Getting started

A first impression is always important. Pupils tune in to the image which you present to them from the first appearance. Make sure you arrive in time and with everything you need for the class. Your leaving the classroom or sending pupils to fetch forgotten items breaks the continuity and gives an opportunity for the pupils minds to wander.

Glance around to make sure the classroom and resources are in a state of readiness, with windows open or shut (as they suit you and your pupils) and the board clean. If not, ask the pupils to help. Then look around to see where the pupils are sitting and if their seating arrangement suits you. You may also need to ask pupils to put away things from their desks.

Make sure you are ready before beginning the actual lesson. Arrange your books, papers, etc. so that you can pick them up easily as you need them. Keep calm and do not rush to start. The time you take to get organised may seem shorter to the pupils than you may think. Allow your pupils to continue to talk quietly, while remaining in their seats, until you announce that you are ready to begin the lesson. This prevents you from being under pressure and also makes it clear that when you require silence the lesson will begin.

Make a clear and definite start. You can declare yourself ready by saying clearly and quite loudly Good morning / afternoon, everybody and waiting for silence before going on. Then, say briefly what the plan for the lesson is, so that your pupils can be aware of the way they are progressing through the work, e.g. Today were going to learn. Well be using Unit in our books. Ive brought for you to Well do some pair work, too But first of all, I want to ask you

When your way of beginning will become familiar to your pupils, they may even get prepared for the lesson without you having to ask. The routine nature of this part of the lesson establishes a secure environment. It sets up an atmosphere that is friendly but purposeful and conducive to serious and organized work.

1.3 Moving from one activity to another

During a lesson, the class moves from one activity to another. You may also want to change the pattern of interaction from time to time, so that for some part of the lesson pupils are working with each other, in pairs or in groups. The activities you choose must suit the objectives you have for the lesson, and many of them will be based on material in the textbook. There is a wide range of activities which you can use:

all pupils listening to recorded material pupils repeating individually or chorally individual pupils responding to you pupils reading silently (e.g. sections of the coursebook) pupils completing written exercises individually pupils working in pairs to complete written exercises pupils doing oral practice in pairs pupils solving problems in groups pupils preparing material (stories, questions, etc.) in groups group discussion of a topic pupils completing tests individually, etc.

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For all pupils, but especially for the weaker ones, a change of activity is motivating as it gives a new chance to those who have not enjoyed or not done well in the last activity.

1.4 Transitions

It is a good idea to mark transition moments, using transition signals, e.g.: Right. Weve finished, so well leave our books for today and go on to I want you to listen to and decide There is little point in beginning a new activity while some pupils are still trying to work out what they must do. For this reason, it is well worth checking and confirming that everyone has understood.

Always try to move from one part of the lesson to another without allowing a gap to occur. It is quite difficult to regain the attention of a class, particularly a large one.

Sometimes you can prepare for the next activity while the pupils are busy finishing the previous one (e.g. you can write something on the board). It is important not to reveal all the idea for a lesson at the beginning of the period. For instance, if you intend to use a picture, do not put it on show from the beginning of the class: pin it up and cover it with a large sheet of paper that can be removed easily. When you show it to the class, the pupils will have something fresh to focus on and their motivation will be helped. In the same way, if you are going to use handouts, keep them until the time they are to be used arrives. Overhead projectors are especially useful in this respect because you can prepare the material in advance and reveal it to the class bit by bit.

Pictures and handouts should be made visible or available to all the pupils as quickly as possible. When you have handouts or other papers to distribute to a large class, do not try to give every paper yourself to each pupil. A number of handouts can be given to pupils at different points in the class, asking them to take one and pass the rest on. Then wait quietly for a few moments so that the pupils have time to look at what they have received. If you begin speaking at once, many pupils will simply not listen as they will be preoccupied with what they are looking at. Do not forget that for most people the eyes almost always take precedence over the ears.

1.5 Ending a lesson

Keep an eye on the time so that you are not in the middle of an activity when the lesson should be ending. Give the homework towards the end but not in the last few seconds of the lesson. If homework is given too early, some pupils may try to do it during the lesson. If it is given too late, there may be no time to sort out any difficulties. It is often a good idea to tell the class what the homework is and then finish the lesson with an activity which helps with the tasks you have set. This gives an opportunity for any problems to be raised and helps to make the pupils feel confident that they will be able to do the homework.

It is better to finish a little early rather than late, even if you have to say Well have to leave this exercise until another day. Its almost time for the end of the lesson. The pupils will appreciate your courtesy in finishing on time. Conclude the lesson, rather than just stop by saying something which indicates that you have finished. For instance, refer to what has been done and to what you plan to do next.

When you are not in a hurry to your next lesson, take time gathering up your materials and books. Then, individual pupils have an opportunity to speak to you informally, and you may have time to say a few friendly words (in English) to some of the pupils. Of course, you must not delay pupils and make them late for their next lesson.

Leave the classroom in good order as you would expect to find it. You can ask the pupils to help you. Even if it is normal in your school for a pupil to be asked to clean the board, you should ensure that it is clean before you leave the classroom and, if necessary, clean it yourself.

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2 Patterns of interaction Classroom interaction is central to effective instruction. However, your pupils work

better in some circumstances than in others: some pupils may prefer a collaborative and conversational style, with interruptions and more than one pupil talking at a time. Others tend to be less active and yet others more independent.

The most common type of classroom interaction is that known as IRF: Initiation Response Feedback. The teacher initiates an exchange, usually in the form of a question, one of the pupils answers, the teacher gives feedback (in the form of assessment, correction, or comment), then initiates the next question, and so on. There are however, alternative patterns: the initiative does not always have to be in your hands. Interaction may be between pupils, or between a pupil and the material.

Here are some interaction patterns ordered from most teacher-dominated to most pupil-active:

Teacher talk: the teacher is talking or reading aloud with all pupils listening. There may be some kind of silent pupil response, such as writing from dictation or making notes in notebooks. There is no initiative on the part of the pupils.

Closed-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question which can get only one right response.

Open-ended teacher questioning: the teacher asks a question to which there are a number of possible right answers, so that more pupils answer each cue.

Choral response: the teacher gives a model which is repeated by all the class in chorus; or gives a cue which is responded to in chorus.

Pupil initiates, teacher answers: the pupils think of questions and the teacher responds. Such an interaction pattern can be found in guessing games. The teacher decides who asks the question.

Five types of student groupings are common in the classroom:

Whole-class interaction: the whole class is working together with the teacher; the pupils debate a topic or do a language task as a class. The teacher may intervene occasionally to stimulate participation or to monitor.

Individual work: the teacher gives a task or set of tasks, and the pupils work on them independently. They may also mix together as individuals. The teacher walks around monitoring and assisting where necessary.

Collaboration or pair work: the pupils do the same sort of tasks as in individual work, but work together, usually in pairs. The teacher may or may not intervene. This is different from group work where the task itself necessitates interaction.

Group work (done in small groups of three to eight pupils): the pupils work on tasks that entail interaction, conveying information or making decisions. The teacher walks around listening and intervenes little if at all.

Self-access: the pupils choose their own learning tasks, and work autonomously Varying groupings is one way of enabling a variety of experiences for the learners. The range of activity patterns is infinite, but we can group them into two main

categories: 1. whole class teacher-led activities 2. pupils independent activities

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teacher presentation whole class class dialogue pupil activities

Teacher-led activities briefing tutorial reviewing discussion individual work library work course work project work homework

Independent activities pair work private study discussions

collaborative projects private reading small group work use of audio/video/IT technology

Fig. 2.1 The components of classroom management (after Philip Watehouse, Classroom Management, Network Educational Press, Stafford, 1990, p.13)

2.1 Teacher-led activities and independent activities

Teacher-led activities These are the best known of teaching arrangements, and they are often referred to

as traditional teaching. Although traditional, if they are well done, teacher-led activities (also called lockstep teaching) can be very powerful. These activities include: teacher presentation, class dialogue and student activities.

What are, in your opinion, the advantages of whole class teacher-led activities? Write your answer in the space provided below and compare it with that given at the end of the unit.

Independent activities

Independent activities can be done individually, in pairs or in groups. Independent activities can range from pupils doing exercises on their own, to

activities where pupils take charge of their own learning in self-access centres or out-of-class activities. Such independent activities are a vital preparation for the development of the pupils learning autonomy.

When you wish your pupils to work on their own in class, you can, for instance, ask them to read a text privately and then answer questions individually, or you can ask them to complete worksheets with different tasks or to write tasks by themselves. You can give them worksheets with several different tasks and allow them to choose which tasks to do. Or you can hand out different worksheets to different pupils depending on their skills, needs or tastes. You can allow your pupils to do some research on their own or choose what they want to read or listen to.

Pupils enjoy to be given some degree of independence. While they need your guidance and help, they also need their own time and space, and some freedom in making

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decisions of their own. However, simply getting the pupils to work on their own is no guarantee of a high level of motivation.

Individual work is a good opportunity for the pupils to work entirely alone. Such an opportunity should be given frequently to all pupils. Good prior instructions are essential, as is the need to give additional support if it is required.

Paired work is very popular and usually the classroom seating decides the pairing. It is easy to use the pair as the normal unit for independent work and to break for individual work occasionally, or combine with other pairs for small group work.

Small group work can be very productive, but it is not easy to manage. Many young pupils may run into difficulties when they are left on their own. Working well as a member of a small group is an advanced activity which even adults may find hard to handle. That is why you need to offer constant care and monitoring of the group progress.

2.2 Whole class teacher-led activities Whole class activities play an important part in classroom management. They can be

very attractive and powerful, and they can be an opportunity for you to show your charisma.

A teachers presentation can be very effective if it is done for short periods and with sparkle. The pupils can be inspired and stimulated by the charisma of a teacher with good presentation skills.

Class dialogue (also known as the Socratic method) is a very useful method. By skilful questioning, you can lead the thinking of the class. Class dialogue is best when it is lively and motivating for the pupils. However, it needs firm and careful handling, as it can lose its vitality and become mechanical and repetitive.

Pupil activities, that is giving the pupils something to do, help to bring variety into whole class teaching. The pupils may all repeat something in the chorus; or respond to a cue, they may take notes, or write after dictation. The teacher remains in control of what is happening, but the pupils are given opportunities to be active.

2.3 Tutorials

Not as common as whole class teaching, mostly used in private schools, tutorials (extra-class small group work) are also teacher led. Tutorials can make a real difference to the quality of the pupils learning. During tutorials, you can help the pupils to prepare for their next assignment, give them guidance, and indicate resources, possible problems or standards. Reviews can also be organised during tutorials to look back at the work which has been completed, and to assess it. Tutorials can be organised to encourage the pupils to talk about their work, and to explore issues and ideas together, or to allow you to help them overcome their difficulties. Working in a small group, during tutorials it is easier to identify problems and to offer pupils more personal and individualised support.

2.4 Teachers presentation

Whole class teaching is especially favoured when making a presentation meant to inform, to describe or to explain. Such a presentation should not resemble a higher education lecture. It should be informal and spontaneous, and as short as possible (no longer than 10 minutes with younger pupils). Such an exposition can be interrupted by other short activities, such as a dialogue or individual tasks.

If you want the presentation to achieve its objectives, it needs to have a clear structure that the pupils can grasp. It is always helpful to present at the very beginning the structure of the exposition. Tell your pupils first what you are going to say, then say it, and then tell them what you have said! A way of involving the pupils is to ask them to take down

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notes. Alternatively, you can give them a handout with a gapped structure of your presentation, and ask them to complete it as you are presenting.

A thorough, high quality presentation can motivate and inspire your pupils. However, during the presentation the pupils may want help, especially if a new topic is introduced. They need to have a vision of the new knowledge, to understand why it is important and relevant, how it fits in with their previous work and knowledge, how it will contribute to their mastery of English.

A good presentation will stimulate your pupils intellectual curiosity; it may review, organize and consolidate their previous knowledge of the topic, or it can make the new learning more personal. Also, it can give guidance to the pupils about the styles and techniques to be used in doing work on the new topic.

At personal level your pupils may need help in order to see how they may personally identify with the new topic, how they can build clear images of what the topic is about. They may feel the need to share the excitement of the discovery with their classmates.

Whole class presentations are particularly valuable at the beginning, at the end and at critical points in the lesson, such as topic changes, or where the concepts that need to be taught are difficult. Also, after a period of time of independent activities (individual, in pairs or in small groups), your pupils will be prepared to work again together as a class for the consolidation of their work. At this stage, you should encourage pupil contributions, as they can report back, discuss the issues raised during independent work, revise and consolidate, assess the quality of the work done and evaluate the topic.

Teachers roles During presentations, you are the focus of attention, playing a number of related

roles: organizer, information source, or discussion leader. The pupils are relatively passive, listening, following instructions, responding to questions, and making contributions when you invite them to do so.

Here are a few suggestions:

Get the attention of your class before you start. Either insist on their paying attention to you or give them something to do (e.g. writing a title, an introductory example or statement). This will bring the class into the work frame of mind.

Your first sentences must be attention holding. Appeal to their curiosity, surprise them, intrigue them or move them emotionally.

Keep your voice level to the minimum necessary. A low voice creates a feeling of expectancy, gives a sense of importance to the occasion, and builds a sense of mutual confidence, a serious and trusting atmosphere.

Vary the volume and pace to give variety. Occasionally, make appeal to feelings and use a more theatrical language. Temper

your projections of personality with sensitivity. Do not forget that there is virtue in silence. A pregnant pause in a presentation can be

effective. Offer silence to your pupils so that they can reflect and consider their responses. Build in pauses in which you invite the pupils to summaries what you have said so far.

Be simple, be brief and be human. Start with plenty of examples and then gradually introduce new vocabulary or more complex statements.

Remember that much communication is non-verbal; how you look, where and how you stand, how you move are all observed and registered by the pupils.

Remember that no matter how good your presentation is, you cannot use it for

lengthy periods, as their span of attention is limited. It is better to introduce variety and more pupil participation. The most common way of doing this is by using class dialogue.

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2.5 Class dialogue In class dialogue, you lead the thinking of the class by asking questions and building

on the responses received from the pupils. Class dialogue should be carefully prepared. You might start with familiar examples, with the presentation of a stimulus (a picture, a drawing, a map, a piece of text, a recording, etc.) which has the aim of rousing the pupils curiosity. Then your questioning can help the pupils to build upon their existing knowledge and understanding. Gradually you help them to recognize general principles or rules and finally give them opportunities to demonstrate their understanding by applying it.

Questioning is a universally used activation technique in teaching, mainly within the IRF pattern. A question is a teachers utterance which has the objective of eliciting an oral response from the pupils. However, teacher questions are not always realised by interrogatives, e.g. Well describe what is going on in this picture, Tell me what you can see in this picture, etc. It is often hard to prepare the exact wording of the questions in advance, as the questions need to be adapted to the responses which are received.

Getting the best responses from the pupils calls for patience and skill. In the role of discussion leader you need to exercise a democratic, rather than an authoritarian style. Pupil contributions must be encouraged with reinforcement, prompting and occasional summaries as to where the discussion has reached.

Your motive in questioning is usually to get your pupils to engage with the language material actively through speech. But there are other various reasons why you might ask a question in the classroom:

to provide a model for language or thinking to find out something from the pupils (facts, ideas, opinions) to check or test understanding, knowledge or skill to get the class to be active in their learning to direct attention to the topic being learned to inform