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Methods for Detection of Microbial Contaminants – Part I. ENVR 421 Mark D. Sobsey. Detecting Pathogens and Indicators in the Environment. Detection of Pathogenic Microbes in Water. Three main steps: (1) recovery and concentration, (2) purification and separation, and - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Methods for Detection of Microbial Contaminants – Part I
ENVR 421
Mark D. Sobsey
2
Detecting Pathogens andIndicators in the Environment
3
Detection of Pathogenic Microbes in Water
• Three main steps:
• (1) recovery and concentration,
• (2) purification and separation, and
• (3) assay and characterization.
4
Microbial Methods for Pathogen Detection
1. Initial sampling, concentration, or recovery methods– Efficient recovery of low numbers from waters– One of the greatest challenges for environmental
detection
2. Pathogen detection and isolation methods– Modified methods from clinical microbiology– Must overcome environmental inhibitors
3. Pathogen confirmation and characterization– Where did the fecal waste come from?? (source
attribution and source tracking)
Direct Plating for Culture• Used for bacteria
and bacteriophages– Combine sample
with medium– Liquid broth
culture • quantal; MPN)
– Agar (gel) medium culture for colony count
5
6
Initial Recovery and Concentration of Pathogens from Water
• Sedimentation by Centrifugation– Bacteria and Parasites: differential
centrifugation• several thousand times gravity for several
minutes to tens of minutes– Blood cell separator; continuous flow
centrifugation and particle accumulation• being used for parasites; previously used for
bacteria– Viruses: ultracentrifugation
• 50-100,000 x gravity for several hours• Recover sedimented microbes in a small volume of
aqueous solution
7
Filtration: Bacteria
• Membrane and other microporous filters
• Filter 100s-1000s of ml of water through cellulose ester, fiberglass, nylon polycarbonate, diatomaceous earth or other filters– Apply membrane filters to agar
medium and incubate to get colonies
– Place filters in liquid culture medium to culture bacteria
8
Filtration: Parasites
• Absolute or nominal pore size filters, 1-several micrometer pore size
• Polypropylene, cotton, etc.. yarn-wound cartridge filters
• Polycarbonate, absolute pore size disk filters• Polysulfone, pleated capsule filters• Spinning cartridge and hollow fiber ultrafilters• Cellulose acetate, absolute pore size, circular
disks• Compressed sponge filter medium
Recover retained parasites by elution (washing) or recovery of retentate water containing particles
9
Filtration: Viruses(Used for cellular microbes, too)
• Ultrafiltration: 1,000-100,000 MWCO• Viruses are retained by size exclusion
– Hollow fiber, spiral cartridge, multiple sheets, flat disks, etc
– polysulfones, cellulose ester, etc.– tangential flow to minimize clogging
Recover viruses in retentate; facilitate by elution of filter medium
10
Filters to Recover and Concentrate Microbes from Water
11
Filtration: VirusesAdsorbent filters; pore size of filters larger than
viruses; viruses retained by adsorption• electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions• negatively charged cellulose esters, fiberglass
– must acidify water and add multivalent cations• Electropositive filters:
– charge-modified fiberglass as disks or pleated cartridges
– fiberglass filter disks one coats with precipitated aluminum or iron salts in their own laboratory, or
– positively-charged natural quartz fabricated into fiberglass that one packs into a column to make an adsorbent filter
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Electropositive Filter Media(flat disks and cartridges)
Flat Disk – filter holder Cartridge – filter holder
•Flat filter material used as single or double layers•Cartridge filter pleated to increase surface area
Cartridge filter holder
Filtration medium
13
How it works?? – Electrostatic and Hydrophobic Interactions: Virus Adsorption
• Electropositive filter >>> at ambient pH, viruses are negatively charged
• Isoelectric point – pH where there is no net charge on a particle or surface
• Hydrophobic interactions >>> hydrophobic areas on the filter surface that enhance viral adsorption
Virus Isoelectric Point
Poliovirus 7.0
Coliphage MS2 3.9
Coliphage PRD1 4.2
Coliphage Q 5.3
Coliphage X174 6.6
Norovirus 5 – 6 (depending on strain)
Adenovirus 4.55 (hexon)
4.69 (penton)
7.07 (fiber)
14
How it works?? – Electrostatic and Hydrophobic Interactions: Virus Elution
• Eluting solutions at higher pH (typically pH 9.5) surpass the isoelectric point of the filter so: – Both filter and virus have net negative (-) charge– Virus and filter repel, releasing viruses into solution
• Negatively charged constituents in eluting solution to compete for adsorption sites on the filter surface– enhanced by constituents with high isoelectric points
that remain negatively charged when pH is raised– a contributing factor for elution with beef
extract/glycine• Positively charged eluting solutions to compete as
competing surface for the negatively charged viruses– a contributing factor for elution by some eluting
solutions
15
Virus Elution from Adsorbent Filters
• Elute adsorbed viruses with alkaline organic buffer solutions:– Beef extract– Amino acids– Others
Beef extract less compatible with nucleic acid detection methods
16
Initial Recovery and Concentration of Pathogens from Water by Chemical
Precipitation Methods
• Viruses: precipitate with polyethylene glycol or aluminum hydroxide– resuspend PEG precipitate in aqueous buffer– dissolve aluminum floc in dilute acid solution– both have been used as second-step
concentration and purification methods
• Parasites: precipitate with calcium carbonate– dissolve precipitate in dilute sulfamic acid
17
Secondary Concentration: PEG Precipitation
• Polyethylene glycol (C2H6O2)
• General mode of action of a precipitation reagent is the binding of water
• Used along with NaCl > essentially “salting out” protein particles
• Rapid, inexpensive, non-destructive to viruses
• Gentle precipitation at neutral pH
18
Other Primary Recovery and Concentration Methods
• Minerals, such as iron oxide and talc; used to adsorb viruses
• Synthetic resins: ion exchange and adsorbent
• Other granular media: glass beads and sand
Less widely used; less reliable, cumbersome; uncertain elution, desorption, exchange efficiencies
19
Separation and Purification Methods
Purification, separation and concentration of target microbes in primary sample or sample concentrate– Separate target microbes from other particles
and from solutes– Reduce sample size (further concentrate)
Variety of physical, chemical and immunochemical methods:– Sedimentation and flotation (primarily parasites)– Precipitation (viruses)– Filtration (all classes)– Immunomagnetic separation or IMS (all classes)– Flow cytometry (bacteria and parasites); an
analytical method, too
20
Assay Methods for Waterborne Pathogens
• culture or infectivity
• viability or activity measurements
• immunoassays
• nucleic acid assays
• microscopic examinations
21
Culturing Waterborne Microbes
• Detection by culture or infectivity assays is preferred– demonstrates that the target microbes are
alive and capable of multiplication or replication.
From a public health and risk assessment standpoint, microbial pathogen assays based on infectious units are the most relevant and interpretable ones
22
Traditional Approach: Culture or Infectivity Assays for Bacteria
1. pre-enrich and/or enrich using non-selective and then selective broth media, or
2. grow colonies on membrane filters3. Transfer to differential and selective agars4. Recover presumptive positive colonies
5. Biochemical, metabolic and other physiological testing
6. Serological or other immunochemical typing and identification (agglutination, enzyme immunoassay, etc.)
7. Other characterization: phage typing, nucleic acid analyses, virulence tests (cell cultures and animal ileal loop assays for pathophysiologic response, animal infection, etc.)
23
Enrichment Cultures
• Cultures may have characteristic appearance– Color change– Other phenomena
• E.g., stormy fermentation
• Cultures may require additional measurement to confirm a positive result– Subculture– Apply other analytical
measurement• Immunoassay• Nucleic acid assay
24
Culturing Waterborne Bacteria Pathogens
• Continued interest and use because of newly recognized, newly appreciated and evolving agents
• Ability to culture some bacterial pathogens goes back more than a century
• Culturing bacterial pathogens from water remains technologically underdeveloped– Has not advanced greatly beyond the
adaptation of methods used in clinical diagnostic and/or food bacteriology
25
Culturing Waterborne Bacteria Pathogens
• Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter &Vibrio spp.:• Culture methods little changed beyond efforts to
improve recoveries using modified pre-enrichment and enrichment broths and differential and selective agars
• For some other bacterial pathogens: e.g., enterohemorrhagic strains of Escherichia coli (O157 H7), culturing from water is a challenge due to relative abundance of other, non-pathogenic strains of E. coli.– select for their growth based on unique
biochemical or other properties to facilitate their separation from the other, non-target strains
• e.g., sorbitol-MacConkey Agar for E. coli O157:H7
26
Waterborne Pathogenic Bacteria For Which Culture Methods Are Underdeveloped
• Campylobacter jejuni; other Campylobacters• Yersinia enterocolytica • Helicobacter pylori• Legionella species • Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare• Shigella
Better developed:• Salmonella spp.• Escherichia coli• Clostridium perfringens
27
Problems in Culture Methods for Bacterial Pathogens in Water
1. Inefficient growth (low plating efficiency) 2. Slow growth rates3. Overgrowth by other non-target bacteria.
Efforts to improve culture and reduce or eliminate non-target bacteria:
• antibiotics• physical (heat) treatments• chemical (acid) treatments• specialized plating:
– Selective media– Dual media plating– Biochemical substrates with colored or fluorescent
reaction products
28
Problems in Culturing Bacterial Pathogens in Water
Inability of typical culture methods now in use to detect or distinguish:
• pathogenic from non-pathogenic strains• the sources of pathogens• newly emerging pathogenic strains• evolutionary processes and mechanisms
– Role of environmental change in selection or emergence of new pathogenic strains
29
Detection of Stressed, Injured and Viable-But-Nonculturable (VBNC) Bacteria
• Waterborne bacterial pathogens and indicators are often physiologically altered/stressed and not efficiently cultured using standard selective and differential media
• Causes great underestimation of true concentrations in water and other samples– Underestimation of their risks to human health
• Stressed, injured and VBNC bacteria may still be fully infectious for humans and other animal hosts (there is disagreement on this point!)
• Repair and resuscitation methods to improve the detection of viable and potentially cultural bacteria– Such methods are rarely used to detect
pathogens in drinking water; more so in foods
Detection Of Viral Pathogens by Culture Infectivity
• Viruses: obligate intracellular parasites• many enteric viruses can be propagated
or cultured in susceptible hosts– whole animals – mammalian cells grown in culture
• Quantify viruses in animals and cells using quantal methods (e.g., Most Probable Number or MPN)
• Virus assays in cell cultures by quantal (e.g., MPN) or enumerative methods (plaque or local lesion assays)
Virus Plaques10-fold Dilution Series
31
Enteric Virus Detection in Cell Culture
• Some viruses propagate in susceptible host cell cultures and produce morphologically distinct cytopathogenic effects (CPE):
• Enteroviruses, reoviruses, adenoviruses and astroviruses
Uninfected Cell Uninfected Cell CultureCulture
Infected Cell Culture with Infected Cell Culture with CPECPE
32
Enteric Virus Detection in Cell Culture
• Other viruses (some enteroviruses, enteric adenoviruses, rotaviruses, astroviruses and hepatitis A virus) grow poorly or slowly in cell cultures and produce little or no CPE.– Detection requires the used of additional
analytical techniques directed at detecting viral antigens (immunofluorescence assay, enzyme immunoassays and radioimmunoassays) and nucleic acid (nucleic acid hybridization or amplification assays).
33
Detection of Hepatitis A Virus in Cell Culture by Radioimmunoassay
34
Viruses Not Detected in Cell Culture
• Some important human enteric viruses can not be propagated in any known cell cultures– Human noroviruses– Hepatitis E Virus
• Not detectable in water unless an alternative analytical method, such as direct nucleic acid amplification by PCR or RT-PCR, is applied directly to concentrated samples.
35
Detection of Protozoan Parasites by Culture
Environmental forms of some protozoan parasites, such as spores and oocysts, are culturable in susceptible host cells– Culture free-living amoebas (Naegleria spp.
and Acanthamoeba spp.) on lawns of host bacteria, such as E. coli, on nonnutrient agar; they form local lesions.
• For other waterborne parasites, such as Giardia lamblia and Cyclospora cayatenensis, culture from the environmental stage (the cyst or oocyst) recovered from water is still not possible
36
Detection of Protozoan Parasites by Culture:
• Spores of some microsporidia (Encephalitozoon intestinalis) and the oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum can be cultured in mammalian host cells where spores germinate or oocysts excyst and active stages of the organisms can proliferate.– Living stages detected (after immunofluorescent or
other staining) and quantified: score positive and negative microscope fields or cell areas (slide wells), or count numbers of foci of living stages or discrete living stages.
• Express concentrations MPNs or other units, such as numbers of live stages.
– Detection also possible by PCR or immunoblotting
• Facilitates molecular characterization
37
Progress in Detection of Protozoan Parasites by Culture
Oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum and spores of some microsporidia (Encephalitozoon intestinalis) infect mammalian host cells:
• Spores germinate and oocysts excyst• Active stages of the organisms proliferate• Detect and quantify (after immunofluorescent
or other staining) – Score positive and negative microscope
fields or cell areas (slide wells), or count numbers of foci of living stages or discrete living stages.
– Express concentrations as MPNs or other units based numbers of live stages, numbers of infectious foci or number of positive microscope fields
• Detect by NA methods (PCR, FISH, etc.)– Facilitates molecular characterization
Immunofocus of C. parvum Living Stages:in MDCK Cells with C3C3-FITC Antibody
38
Combined Cell Culture and Nucleic Acid Detection and Amplification of Waterborne Pathogens
1. Inoculate sample into susceptible host cell cultures2. incubate to allow the viruses or parasites to infect
the cells and proliferate. 3. After producing enough nucleic acid, extract and
either hybridize directly with a gene probe or further amplify by PCR or RT-PCR
• Facilitates detection of infectious but non-
cytopathogenic viral and protozoan pathogens able to proliferate in cell cultures.
• Reduces incubation time to detect pathogen nucleic acid.
• Facilitates molecular or other methods of characterization
39
Detection of Waterborne Pathogens by Viability or Activity Assays
Assay bacteria for viability or activity by combining microscopic examination with chemical treatments to detect activity or "viability".
– measure enzymatic activities, such as dehydrogenase,
esterase, protease, lipase, amylase, etc.
• Example: tetrazolium dye (INT) reduction:
2-[p-iodophenyl]-3-[p-nitrophenyl]-5-phenyltetrazolium Cl (measures dehydrogenase activity).
• Reduction of tetrazolium dye leads to precipitation of reduced products in the bacterial cells that are seen microscopically as dark crystals.
40
Progress in Detection of Waterborne Bacteria by Viability or Activity Assays
Combine activity measurement and immunochemical assay (for specific bacteria). – Combine fluorescent antibody (FA) (for detection of
specific bacterium or group) with enzymatic or other activity measurement
• Use image analysis tools to improve detection and quantitation– Flow cytometry– Computer-aided laser scanning of cells or colonies on
filters
41
Detection of Waterborne Bacterial Pathogens by Viability or Activity
Assays• Combine methods for bacterial detection
in water, such as activity measurement and immunochemical assay (for specific bacteria).
• Example "FAINT”: combines fluorescent antibody (FA) (for detection of specific bacterium or group) with tetrazolium dye reduction (INT)
• Look for INT crystals in cells specifically stained with fluorescent antibodies
42
Viability or Activity Assays for Protozoan Cysts and Oocysts
Example: Stain with DAPI (the fluorogenic stain 4',6‑diamidino‑2‑phenylindole; taken up by live oocysts and propidium iodide (PI; taken up by dead oocysts).
• Viable Cryptosporidium oocysts are DAPI-positive and PI-negative
• Non-viable oocysts are DAPI-negative and PI-positive
Alternative stains may be more reliableViability staining is often poorly associated with infectivity;
detects inactivated cysts and oocysts
But…..Detects cysts and oocysts inactivated by
UV and chemical disinfection
43
C. parvum oocysts
Dual stain : DAPI (blue) and propidium iodide (red)
44
Detecting Active or Viable Pathogens Using Nucleic Acid Targets
Detect short-lived nucleic acids present in only viable/infectious microbes:– ribosomal RNA– messenger RNA – genomic RNA of viruses (large amplicons)
• Detect pathogen nucleic acid by fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH)– applied to bacteria, protozoan cysts and oocysts,
as well as viruses in infected cell cultures • (see pictures in later slides; next lecture)
Detection of total, viable and membrane-perturbed bacteria using triple staining with fluorescent probes
Biochemical Journal www.biochemj.org Biochem. J. (2004) 380, 859-865 Biochemical Journal www.biochemj.org Biochem. J. (2004) 380, 859-865
• E. coli cells immobilized on poly(L-lysine)-coated glass slides, and incubated with CTC, DAPI and FITC
• DAPI: double-stranded DNA-binding dye stains all cells• FITC: green fluorescent probe unable to traverse the cytoplasmic membrane of cells unless permeabilized by a peptide.• CTC: vital dye CTC stains viable cells