Methods of Food Intake Assessment­An Annotated Bibliography

Nora J. Krantzler,1 Barbara J. Mullen,2 Elizabeth M. Comstock,1 Cathy A. Holden,1 Howard G. Schutz,1 Louis E. Grivetti,1 and Herbert L. Meiselman2

1 Departments of Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, University of Caltforma, DaVIS, 95616; and 2 U.S. Army Natick R&D Laboratories, Natick, MA 01760

Food intake assessment concerns profes­sionals m the health, nutritional, and social sciences because it can ensure a well­nourished population with a safe food sup­ply; help to assess relationships between diet, health, and disease; and contribute to an understanding of the socioeconomic, cultural, and psychological contexts of food consumption. A substantial body of research literature exists that addresses the methodological difficulties of assessing food intake. However, because ofthe diver­sity of the areas of professional interest in the topic, such reports are dispersed widely throughout the literature of the several fields.

We therefore prepared this annotated bibliography of research literature relevant to methodological issues m food intake assessment. Citations include abstracts, ar­ticles, and conference proceedmgs which were obtained primarily from computerized data bases (see note). In this report, the cita­tions appear m alphabetical order by the first author's last name. In addition, all en­tnes are summarized by demographic characteristics, sampling protocol, and study deSign features in the table at the end of the bibliography.

Abramson, 1. H., C. Slome, and 1 C. Kosovsky. Food frequency mter­

view as an epidemIOlogical tool. American Journal of Public Health 53:1093-101,1963. This study reports part of a commumty pro­gram to control anemia In pregnant women In Israel. The authors tested the predictive validity of the food frequency Interview as an index of the usual quantity of the foods eaten per week and as an Index of hemo­globin level. The investigators administered a 30-minute Interview to 60 pregnant women 17 to 39 years old on the frequency and quantity of various foods eaten. In several cases the number of times food items were eaten per week correlated strongly with the total weekly amount of food. The authors created indices for 4

108 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

groups of foods: green/yellow vegetables, flesh foods, milk, and fresh frUits. Hemo­globin levels did not correlate significantly with the amounts of single food groups reported, but subjects with a high Intake of any 2 or more of the food groups tended to have high hemoglobin levels. The authors conclude that the food frequency interview is a simple and economical tool for examin­ing relationships between diet and health in groups of people.

Adelson, S. F. Some problems In col-2 lectmg dietary data from individuals.

Journal of the American Dietetic ASSOCia­tIOn 36:453-61, 1960. A companson of 7-day weighed food records and 7-day recalls from 59 men showed that the 2 methods provided Similar group average data but that individual variation was high. The 2 methods yielded similar intake data for some, but not all, food items. With the exceptIOn of vitamin A, average nutrient in­take was Similar for both methods.

Balogh, M., H. A. Kahn, and 1. H. 3 Medalie. Random repeat 24-hour

dietary recalls. American Journal of Clinical NutrttlOn 24:304-10, 1971. With data from 100 adult male volunteers, thiS study compares repeated 24-hour recalls With dietary history information. USing coefficients of vanatlOn, the authors estimated the number of 24-hour recalls required for 95070 probability of obtaining a sample mean wlthm 20070 of the mean for 11 nutrients obtamed from the dietary history. The average intake obtained from the diet history did not exceed the average from 24-hour recalls for any nutrient. The investigators did not assess actual food consumption. The authors conclude that repeated 24-hour recalls are valuable aids m claSSifying dietary intake.

Balogh, M., 1. H. Medalie, H. Smith, 4 and 1. 1. Groen. The development

of a dietary questionnaire for an ischemic heart disease survey. Israel Journal of

Medical SCiences 4:195-203, 1968. The authors conducted a validation of a 15- to 20-minute dietary interView admimstered to 10,000 men with a probability sample of 48 men, stratified by area of bIrth and work grade, who completed the dietary ap­praisal and a longer dietary history a few hours apart. Four months later, 14 of these men kept I-week weighed intake records. The authors reported high correlations between the short and long dietary ap­praisals and between the short appraisal and the weighed record. The authors believe that the short dietary appraisal pro­vides good descnptlVe data which is as ac­curate as are more cumbersome methods for detectmg associatIOns between dietary habits and disease. The short mterview has the advantages of high response rate and low respondent burden and can be admin­Istered quickly by nonprofessionals.

Beal, V. A. Dietary intake of indl-5 viduals followed through infancy and

childhood. American Journal of Publtc Health 51:1107-17, 1961. As part of a 30-year longitudinal study, the author ex­amined nutrient mtake of children from upper middle-class families In the Denver area. She assessed the intake of 13 nutn­ents by taking dietary histories once a month during the child's first year of life and once every 3 months from ages 1 to 8. The results showed a wide range in nutri­ent intake across children with some simi­larities among children of the same age or sex. IndiVidual children tended to show a smooth increase in nutrient intake during the first 6 months and between ages 4 and 8; megulantJes occurred dunng late infan­cy and the early preschool years. Sex dif­ferences In nutnent intake appeared m ear­ly mfancy and became more pronounced after 6 months.

Beal, V. A. The nutritional history in 6 longitudinal research. Journal of the

American Dietetic AssociatIOn 41:426-32, 1967. This paper provides a very thorough

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

discussion of mterview techmques neces­sary to obtain an accurate dietary history, especially for use in longitudmal studies. The author stresses the importance of maintammg good rapport with the respondents and the necessity of stating questIOns objectively.

Beaton, G. H., J. Milner, P. Corey, 7 V. McGuire, M. Cousins, E. Steward,

M. de Ramos, D. Hewitt, P. V. Grambsch, N. Kassim, and J. A. Little. Sources of vanance in 24-hour dietary recall data: Im­plications for nutntion study deSign and interpretation. American Journal oj Clm­lcal NutritIOn 32:2546-59, 1979. To ex­amine sources of variance m 24-hour recalls, the investigators mtervlewed 30 male and 30 female respondents 6 times each by different interviewers on different days of the week. The study used a Grae­co-Latin square design which exammed the effects of the followmg variables on the assessment of nutnent intake: sex dif­ferences, respondent differences, trainmg effects over the 6 interViews, mterviewer differences, day-of-the-week differences, and day-to-day variability in indiVidual subjects. Assessment of nutrient intake did not differ by interViewer nor was it biased by repeated interviews of respon­dents. However, the mvestlgators found a strong sex difference in absolute nutnent mtake and a strong day effect in females. Both differences disappeared and total and mtenndivldual variance decreased when nutrients were expressed relative to energy mtake. Intramdividual vanance was less mfluenced by the methods of expression of nutrient intake. The authors conclude that mtramdivldual variation will bias esti­mates of correlation toward zero.

Bebb, H. T., H. B. Houser, J. C. 8 Witschi, and A.S Littell. Nutritive

content of the usual diets of eighty-two men. Journal oJthe American Dletellc As­SOCIatIOn 61:407-15, 1972. Dietary records were kept by 82 male professionals and ex­ecutives for 3 consecutive days at monthly mtervals over a period of 6 or 12 months. The authors express nutnent data as percentages of RDA for speCific nutnents. The authors believe that this method IS feaSible and provides reliable long-term dietary information for certam population groups.

Bransby, E. R., C. G. Daubney, and 9 J. King. Comparison of results ob­

tained by different methods of individual dietary survey. Brlllsh Journal oj Nutrl-

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

tlOn 2:89-110,1948. The authors compared weighed food mtake, 24-hour dietary re­call, diet record, and chemical analysis of foods consumed by 138 British school­boys. The investigators compared nutnent values of the diets as reported, recalled, or weighed. Nutnent values of weighed por­tions were determined from food tables and from chemical analysis. For groups of foods, there was agreement between methods, although chemical analysis pro­duced different results. Nutrient values for mdividual diets showed substantial differences between methods

Browe, J. H., R. M. Gofstem, D. M. 10 Morlley, and M. C. McCarthy. Diet

and heart disease study m the Cardiovas­cular Health Center. Pt. 1. A question­naire and its applicatIOn m assessmg dietary mtake. Journal oj the American Dietetic ASSOCIatIOn 48:95-100, 1966. Us­ing interviews and 24-hour diet recalls, the authors assessed the diets of 1,514 mlddle­aged males m order to obtam mformation on the kinds and amounts of fats in total food mtake The mtervlewers obtamed m­formation on meal patterns and practices, dieting, and amount of travel connected With work. The 24-hour recall and any var­Iation in eating patterns were recorded and used to cross-check the mterview data. Companson of the data With the Framing­ham Study'S dietary history techmque and high correlatIOns between fats and calones supported the validity of the question­naire. InterViewer reliability was assessed by comparing 3 mterviewers on 10 ques­tionnaires. Differences among them were mlmmal.

Burk, M. C., and E. M. Pao. Meth-11 odology Jor large-scale surveys oj

household and mdlVldual diets. USDA Home Economics Research Report No. 40. Washington, D.C.: Government Pnnt­mg Office, 1976, 88 pp. This very useful booklet descnbes and evaluates dietary survey methods and discusses validity, reli­ability, and practical fieldwork and anal­ysis consideratIOns. A table summarizing research results on 4 dietary methods IS of particular mterest.

Burke, B. S. The dietary history as a 12 tool in research. Journal oj the Amer­

ican Dietetic ASSOCIatIOn 23:1041-46, 1947. ThiS paper descnbes the dietary history techmque, which IS useful for comparing individual food intake patterns and for comparing average food intake with clini­cal and laboratory findmgs or growth

processes. The article discusses mtervlew and recording techmques m detail. For data analYSIS, emphaSIS IS on the use of the method for evaluating relallve nutntional ~tatus wlthm the population studied, smce the degree of accuracy of the nutnent data may be low. The paper explores both the advantages and pitfalls of the method.

Burke, B. S., and H. C. Stuart. A 13 method of diet analYSIS. Application

in research and pedIatnc practice. The Journal oj PedIatriCS 12:493-503, 1938. The authors explored a method for obtam­mg the range and amounts of food chil­dren ate by repeatedly collecting dietary mformation in normal home environ­ments and by developing a system of re­cordmg and evaluatmg these dietary hls­tones. The child's mother was taught to use 24-hour record forms over a 3-day period. Foods were rated by profeSSional nutritiomsts for nutnent content on a fleXI­ble scale ranging from very poor to opti­mum, and the diets were rated usmg con­sistent applicatIOn of this scale. Correla­tIOns between diet ratings and red blood cell count, hemoglobm, and Vitamin C level were performed on infants.

Campbell, V. A., and M. L. Dodds. 14 Collectmg dietary mformation from

groups of older people Journal oj the American Dietetic ASSOCIatIOn 51:29-33, 1967. The authors studied the effect of age on memory of foods consumed by com­panng recall of 100 individuals 20 to 40 years old With 200 mdivlduals over 65 years old. An interviewer probed for complete 24-hour food intake recall. Food Items re­called were converted to nutnents. Results showed that women tended to have better recall of their calories and nutnents than did men, and younger respondents had better recall than the older respondents. Older respondents IIvmg at home remembered better than older ones in in­stitutIOns.

CellIer, K. M., and M. E. Hankin. 15 Studies of nutnuon in pregnancy. Pt.

1. Some consideratIOns m collectmg die­tary mformation. American Journal oj Clinical NutritIOn 13:55-62, 1963. ThiS study examined dietary patterns in 167 pregnant women. Food frequency ques­tlOnmres were admimstered during the third tnmester, and 4-day or 7-day weighed intakes were obtained dunng the second and the third trimesters and postnatally. Results determmed the amounts of varia­bIlity m nutnent mtake day-to-day and

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 109

tnme~ter-to-tnmester (mcludmg post­natal). Changes in dietary habits between weekdays and weekend days were signifi­cant. However, the mean 4-day weighed mtake was comparable to the mean 7-day weighed intake. Vanations m intake be­tween and wlthm subjects showed that, for most nutnents, mcreasing the length of time of the dietary recordmg period was less effective m reducing the vanance than was mcreasmg the number of subjects recording their diets.

16 Chalmers, F. W., M M. Clayton, L. P. Gates, R. E. Tucker, A. W.

Wertz, C. M. Young, and W. D. Foster. The dietary record - How many and which days? Journal of the Amencan DietetIc AssoclOtlOn 28:711-17,1952 In this study, 3 groups of respondents contnbuted 7-, 14-, or 28-day dietary records. The re­searchers found that a one-day record was sufficient to charactenze nutnent mtake for each group. Except m a dlstmct sample of college students whose mtake decreased on weekends, It made no significant differ­ence which day was used. Graphs which show the relationships between the degree of precision of dietary records and the number of respondents or days included m the dietary record can be used to estimate number of subjects or days reqUired for a given precision.

Chapell, G. M. Long-term mdl-17 vidual dietary surveys. Bntlsh Journal

of NutntlOn 9:323-39,1955. This study ex­ammed the dietary mtake of a 66-year-old man and his 34-year-old daughter usmg the weighed mtake method over a long pe­riod of time. The man recorded his weighed mtake for a total of 70 weeks and the daughter recorded hers for 13 weeks. Mean dally mtake of specific nutnents and certam food Items were computed. Analy­SIS of data showed that the weekly intake of calones and nutnents was highly vana­ble. The extent of vanabllity differed for dIfferent dietary components.

Chnstakls, G., ed. Nutnllonal assess-18 ment in health programs Washmg­

ton, D.C.: Amencan Public Health Asso­ciatIOn, 1972, 82 pp. ThiS booklet reviews dIetary data collectIOn methods for groups and mdlvlduals. DIvided mto two parts, methodology and life cycles. it covers commumty assessment, dietary meth­odologies, and clinical and laboratory assessment of nutntlOnal status. The life cycle sectIOn discusses nutntlonal assess­ment of various groups of people .

110 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

Church, H. N., M. M. Clayton, 19 c. M. Young, and W. D. Foster. Can

different interviewers obtam comparable dietary survey data? Journal of the Amer­Ican Dletettc AssoclOtlOn 30:777-79, 1954. Seven different mterviewers administered dietary histories to 438 persons. Data were analyzed to test whether mtervlewer differ­ences were greater than expected sampling variatIOn. The percentage of the RDA was used as the unit of comparison for the data. The differences between mtervlewers were rarely greater than 10% of the RDA for each nutnent and were not likely to ex­ceed sampling vanatlOns. The authors conclude that intervIewers of similar back­ground and trammg were able to obtam comparable data.

Dawber, T. R., G. Pearson, P. 20 Anderson, G. V. Mann, W. B. Kan­

nel, D. Shurtleff, and P. McNamara. Dietary assessment m the epidemiologic study of coronary heart disease. The Frammgham study. Pt. 2. Reliability of measurement. Amencan Journal of Cllm­cal NutritIOn 11:226-34, 1962. ThiS report examines the reliability of dietary mea­surements obtamed to test the relatIOnship between dietary behavior and coronary heart disease, and to determme the precI­sion of classlfymg a population into sub­groups based on diet Thirty respondents were re-mtervlewed by the same nutntlOn-1st 2 years after an initial interview, 33 re­spondents were mterviewed by the same nutntlOnist 4 years later and 24 respon­dents were mtervlewed by a different nutn­tlOmst 2 years later. Respondents were classified into groups with low, medIUm, and high average daily mtake m a vanety of food categories. Mean values for each category were compared among the sam­ple groups. Data revealed high correla­tIOns between the two mtervlews by the same nutntlOnist, and between the inter­views by different nutritIOnists for the 2-year penod. Results of mtervlews 4 years apart showed less agreement, but some of the discrepancy was probably due to real dietary changes.

Chnstakls, G., ed. Nutritional assess-21 ment In health programs Washing­

preschool children. Journal of the Amer­Ican Dletellc AssoclOtlOn 47:292-96, 1965 . ThiS study mvestlgated the diet quality and food preferences of children. Mothers of the 115 children m the sample kept 3-day food records for their children. Intakes of 9 nutrient s were calculated For 7 nutri­ents, mean mtakes met or exceeded the

RDA. Low calculated intakes of niacin were attributed to madequacies m food consumption tables. Intakes of iron were significantly lower than the RDA for boys and girls 4 to 6 years old and for boys 2 to 3 years old. Mothers reported that their chil­dren liked vegetables least and meat, fruits and sweets most.

Emmons, L., and M. Hayes. Accuracy 22 of 24-hour recalls of young children.

Journal of the Amencan Dietetic AssoclO­tlOn 62:409-15, 1973. Researchers tested the abilIty of 431 elementary school chIldren to recall school lunches and meals at home. They then compared recalls with records of school lunches served and mothers' tele­phone reports of food eaten at home. The comparison between school lunch recall and the actual lunch eaten was a test of the validity of the recall. Results showed that the majority of mothers and their chIldren lIsted each food group the same number of times. However, there were more significant correlatIOns between the nutntive levels from the child's recall of lunch and the lunch actually eaten than between the nutntlve levels calculated from the mother's and chIld's recalls of the child's diet.

Eppnght, E. S., M. B. Patton, A. L. 23 Marlatt, and M. L. Hathaway. Dietary

study methods. Pt 5. Some problems in collectmg dietary mformation about groups of children. Journal of the Amencan Dletettc AssoclOuon 28:43-48, 1952. This report discusses problems and procedures m collecting dietary mformatlon from chil­dren . Three-day records were collected in the fall and spnng on 161 school children in OhIO and Kansas. In Iowa, 7-day records were collected on 263 school children and I-day's intake weighed for an additional 25 children. The procedure by which records were obtained IS not clearly stated. Results revealed that average ascorbic acid intake tended to be higher m the spnng than m the fall, but seasonal differences m average in­take of other nutrients were small. Analyses of days of the week showed that any 3-day combmatlOn of weekdays would likely rep­resent weekday Intake. Nutnent intake tended to differ between weekdays and weekend days; to be more vanable for fruits and vegetables than for meats, cereals, and milk; and to be more vanable for girls than for boys.

Epstein, L. M., A. Reshef, 1. H. 24 Abramson, and O. Bialik. Validity of a

short dIetary questIOnnaire. Israel Journal of Medical SCiences 6:589-97, 1970. To

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

check the validity of a short dietary ques­tionnaire on usual food intake, the authors admmistered it to 161 adults grouped into 7 categories based on sex, age, and blfth­place. Within 30 days, the respondents were mterviewed agam usmg the more detailed Burke method. Calone, carbohydrate, pro­tein, and fat content of the individuals' diets was determmed from each method. The short method gave lower nutrient mtakes than did the longer method. The 7 groups differed in nutrient intake and in the validity of the short questionnaire. Persons with more varied diets had the lowest validity scores.

Fry, P. c., H. M. Fox, and H. Lmks-25 wiler. Nutnent intakes of healthy older

women. Journal of the Amertcan Dietetic AssocwtlOn 42:218-22, 1963. The authors collected weighed intake data for older women over a period of 25 to 120 days for one group, and they collected 7-day records for a second group. The total sample com­pnsed 32 women. A dietary history was also taken to test the representativeness of the weighed mtake data. Dietary data were translated into nutrient data and compared to the RDA for the sample. Five-day mean intakes were calculated for 6 respondents to examme mdividual vanability. Three m­dividuals showed low vanability in mtake. VariabilIty appeared to depend more on the existence of a food pattern than on length of time studied.

Garn, S. M., F. A. Larkin, and P. E. 26 Cole. The problem with one-day diet­

ary mtakes. Ecology of Food and NutritIOn 5:245-47, 1976. This article reviews I-day dietary record and recall methods. Simple admmlstratlOn and greater validity are ad­vantages of the method; the accuracy for assessmg only the mtake of groups and not mdividuals is a disadvantage. The authors recommend that analYSIS of I-day dietary intakes be lImited to group trends and be­cause of skewness, that medians be used rather than means.

Gersovltz, M., J. P. Madden, and H. 27 Smiciklas-Wright. Validity of the 24-

hour dietary recall and seven-day record for group comparisons. Journal of the Amert­can DietetiC AssocwtlOn 73:48-55, 1978. The authors tested the mternal validity of both 24-hour recall and 7-day record methods on a sample of 65 elderly people particlpatmg m a congregate meals pro­gram. The 24-hour recall group reported at mtervals of either 3.5 hours or 24 hours after lunch. T-tests and regression analYSIS performed on the aggregate data showed

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

that both methods provided equally ac­curate data on mean nutntional intake. However, the 24-hour recall group demon­strated a "fiat-slope syndrome" (overreport­ing low mtakes and underreporting high m­takes). The 7-day record group had less ac­curate records and increased drop-out rates toward the end of the week.

Greger, J. L., and G. M. Etnyre Va-28 lidity of 24-hour dietary recalls by ado­

lescent females. Amertcan Journal of Pub­lic Health 68:70-72, 1978. In thiS study deSigned to determme the predictive validIty of the 24-hour recall, 32 adolescent girls participating m a metabolic study com­pleted an open-ended mtervlew to recall their 24-hour food intake. The food had been measured and weighed previously so validity was determmed by comparing reported mtake With actual mtake. To faCili­tate companson, food Items were converted to nutnents and major food groups. Results showed that dietary recall proVided valid estimates of energy, protem, calcIUm, and zinc. However, it was not a valid estimator of vltamms A or C, thIamm, nbofiavin, macin, and Iron.

Gnvettl, L. E., and R. M. Pangborn. 29 Food habit research: A review of ap­

proaches and methods. Journal of Nutrt­tlOn EducatIOn, 5:204-8, 1973. This paper discusses advantages and limitatIOns of 7 major approaches used m food habit re­search: environmentalism, cultural ecology, regIOnalism, culture-history, functionalism, quantitative approaches, and clinical ap­proaches. No smgle approach IS judged best.

Guthne, H. A. Nutntlonal mtake of 30 infants. Journal of the Amertcan Die­

tetic AssocwtlOn 43:120-24, 1963. For one week, a group of 40 mothers, all of whom saw the same pedlatncIan, kept daily die­tary records for their mfants. A nutntlOnist collected half of the records and the pedia­triCian collected the other half Half of the records were collected daily and half were collected weekly. Food intake was trans­lated mto nutrient mtake using standard food tables and some chemical analysis Neither the frequency of collecting data nor the person collectmg it affected reportmg.

Hankm, J H., and R. Huenemann. A 31 short dietary method for epidemIO­

logiC studies. Pt. 1. Developing standard methods for interpreting seven-day mea­sured food records. Journal of the Amert­can Dietetic AssocwtlOn 50:487-92, 1967. ThiS article presents the background of a

prelimmary study to develop a self-admm­Istered short questionnaire for mterpreting 7-day measured mtake records; It reports the standardized procedures developed for coding the food preparation and intake data from the individual records of 93 men of Japanese ancestry Expenments were conducted to obtam gram eqUIvalents per square or cubiC inch for selected measured foods, edible portions of cooked chicken based on purchased weight of chicken, estimated salt added at the table, and percentages of sodium absorption m meat marinated before cooking. These studies facilitated objective mterpretatlOn of 7-day food records.

Hankm, J. H., W. E. Reynolds, and S. 32 Margen. A short dietary method for

epidemiologiC studies. Pt. 2. Vanability of measured nutrient mtakes. Amertcan Jour­nal of Clinical NutntlOn 20:935-45,1967. In order to develop a short dietary method for epidemiologiC studies, mvestIgators col­lected 7-day food mtake data from 93 Japa­nese men. Daily mtakes of calones, protem, fat, carbohydrate, and sodIUm were ana­lyzed. Results showed normal distnbutlOns of daily mtakes. The day-to-day correla­tIOns for the 5 nutnents were low, With the correlatIOns for Sunday with the other 6 days being consistently lower than for other nutnents except sodium. Differences be­tween persons were slgmficant for each nutrient. The heterogeneous vanances of the 5 nutnents suggest large mdlvldual differences in daily eating patterns, but the authors feel these differences do not pre­clude development of a short method.

Hankm, J. H., G. G. Rhoads, and G. 33 A. Glober. A dietary method for an

epidemIOlogic study of gastromtestmal cancer. Amertcan Journal of Clinical Nutrt­tlOn 28:1055-61, 1975. The authors con­ducted a validity test of a dietary recall questionnaire with 33 possibly carcmogemc or protective food Items. The sample con­Sisted of 50 Japanese men m HaWaii. The validity critenon used was a 7-day diary of the frequencies and amounts of the Items, followed by a recall. Food portIOns were claSSified as small, medium, or large. The overall agreement between a I-day recall and a 7-day recall and the validity criterion was only slightly different. However, having partiCipants recall foods which they had also recorded mtroduced some degree of biaS. Nonetheless, the authors conclude that a 7-day quantitative recall has con­Siderable validity for studies of large groups and particular food Items.

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 111

Hankin, J. H., R. A. Stallones, and H. 34 B. Messmger. A short dietary method

for epidemiologic studies. Pt. 3. Develop­ment of questionnaire. Amencan Journal of Epidemiology 87:285-98, 1968. The authors developed a short, self-admims­tered questionnaire and compared It against 7-day records collected from 73 men of Japanese ancestry. Individual dally intakes of 5 nutrients were calculated. Foods were classified into food groups, and the means and standard deviations of the weight and nutrient values for each group were com­puted. Next, foods of similar compositIOn whose frequencies could be counted m stan­dard size units (e.g., slices of bread) were identified on the short questionnaire, and each Item was assigned a weight per serving unit . Frequencies were based on the number of servmg units consumed. A stepwise regression analysis of nutrient intakes on the average dally frequencies of the defined food items was computed. The dependent variable was the average dally intake of the 5 nutnents calculated from the 7-day records. Data revealed that the average measured intakes could be predicted fairly well uSing a relatively small number of food items.

Hawkins, W. W., ed. The assessment 35 of nutritional status. Proceedings of

the Miles SymposIUm, Nutrition Society of Canada. Saskatoon, Canada: T.H. Best Publishing Co. , 1973, % pp. ThiS collection of papers reviews the state-of-the-art of nutritional assessment. TopICS include general approaches to nutritional assess­ment, dietary assessment, biochemical and chnical assessment, statistical considera­tions, nutritIOnal services in health care delivery, and survey and service systems In nutritional surveillance.

Heady, J. A. Diets of bank c1erks -36 Development of a method of classify­

ing the diets of individuals for use m epidemiological studies . Journal of the Royal Statlsflcal Society, Senes A, 124:336-61, 1961. Seeking a short dietary method for examining relationships between diet and heart disease that could be sent through the mall to a large, homogeneous sample, the author first attempted to develop a criterion measure by administering 2 7-day weighed records to 118 British male bank officers. In comparing the records, he found that 2 food classes emerged: those foods eaten by nearly everyone almost every day and those foods not eaten by a considerable number of people. A regressIOn analysis revealed that a carefully chosen 3-day record might

112 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

be a reasonable compromise for examinmg indiVidual diets.

Houser, H. B. Food composition 37 tables and their use in studies of food

consumption and nutrient intake. Unpub­lished paper prepared for Workshop 3, Committee on Food ConsumptIOn Pat­terns, Food and Nutrition Board, National Academy of Sciences, March 21-23, 1979. ThiS article discusses problems in keeping food composition tables updated, translat­mg combinations of food items into the tables, and including Information on food additives m the tables. In spite of the prob­lems, the author concludes that valid estimates of specific mtake can be obtained when using food composition tables.

Houser, H. B., and H. T. Bebb. Indi-38 vidual variatIOn in mtake of nutnents

by day, month, and season and relation to meal patterns: Imphcations for dietary survey methodology. In AsseSSing changing food consumptIOn patterns, by NatIOnal Research Council, Committee on Food ConsumptIOn Patterns. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1981, pp. 155-79. The authors collected data from 3 popula­tions and analyzed It for seasonal varia­tions, workday-holiday variatIOns, and daI­ly vanations. Dietary data were collected over 3-day periods monthly for 12 months. A dietary history of 73 participants was completed at the end of the year. The results suggested that a representative food mtake must include both weekend days and weekdays, that a single day's record will represent a 3-day period, and that infre­quent sampling throughout the year Will provide a more representative sample than Will short-term sampling. Usual total intake was not well represented by samphng a limited number of food Items, by dietary histories, or by modal patterns of eatmg.

Houser, H . B., A. I. Sorensen, A. s. 39 Littell, and J . C. Vandervort. Dietary

mtake of non-hospitalized persons with multiple sclerOSIS. Pt. 1. Food diary and coding methods. Journal of the Amencan Dietetic AssoctatlOn 54:391-97, 1969. Thi5 paper describes the development of a dietary record questionnaire and food value table designed for data reduction by com­puter. The sample consisted of 106 nonhos­pitallzed mdlVlduals With multiple scleroSIS. Simplicity and practicahty were the major objectives for deSigning the questionnaire. The computer program was written to allow conversion of various food amounts mto household measures. Nutrient mtakes were

then determined on the basis of these household measures.

Huenemann, R. L., L. R. Shapiro, 40 M. C. Hampton, and B. W. Mitchell.

Food and eating practices of teenagers. Journal of the Amencan DietetiC ASSOCia­tIOn 53:17-24, 1968. The researchers studied the dietary habits of 122 teenagers by usmg I-week dietary records collected 4 times over a period of 2 years. The results showed that mdivldual eating habits were highly variable for approximately one-third of the partiCipants; variability between individ­uals was also high . Eating habits reflected ethmc groups and socioeconomic status .

Huenemann, R. L., and D. Turner. 41 Methods of dietary investigation.

Journal of the Amencan Dietetic Associa­tIOn 18:562-68, 1942. In this study using 25 dental patients 6 to 16 years old, researchers compiled dietary histories using assessments of "usual" food mtake, a 24-hour recall, a food frequency queStionnaire, food pur­chases, and the distribution of food among family members. PartiCipants kept weighed intakes for 100day periods once every 3 or 4 months for a year. Data showed large dis­crepancies in nutrient comparisons made between the dietary histones and the weigh­ed intakes. The authors conclude that a single weighed intake cannot be considered "typical" of a subject's food mtake over a longer period of time.

Jain, M., G. R. Howe, K. C. Johnson, 42 and A . B. Miller. Evaluation of a diet

history questionnaire for epidemiologiC studies. Amencan Journal oj EpidemIOlogy 111:212-19, 1980. ThiS paper reports the validity and reliability of an interviewer­admmlstered dietary history questionnaire for use in epidemIOlogic studies. Validity was assessed on a sample of 16 male volun­teers whose partners observed their eating and kept a 30-day diet record . The men were mterviewed at the end of the recording period regardmg usual intake over the previous month. Rehability was examined by re-intervlewing 26 case-control pairs in­volved m an ongoing study of diet and bowel cancer 6 months after their initial in­terview. At each mtervlew, respondents reported dietary intake for the 2 months preceding the mterview and for a 2-month period 6 months before. Correlations be­tween dietary history and records were high for 7 nutrients, and poor for calories, total protein, and fiber. The authors conclude that the dietary history questionnaIre is suf­fiCiently valid and reliable for epidemiologic studies.

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

Kolonel, L. N., T. Hirohata, and A. 43 M. Y. Nomura. Adequacy of survey

data collected from substitute respondents. Amerrcan Journal of EpidemIOlogy 106: 476-84, 1977. To determme whether or not data collected from surrogate respondents are representative of self-reported data, 300 pam of mdividuals were interviewed separ­ately. The study assessed frequency of con­sumption of specific food Items as well as smoking and dnnking habits. Mean mtake of food items, mean weight and height, smokmg, and alcohol consumptIOn were compared between the surrogate respon­dents and the respondents themselves. When the critenon for agreement was plus or minus 1 UnIt (e.g., ounces, years), 750/0 of the paIrS agreed on almost two-thirds of the items. When the cnterion was plus or minus 2 units, 75% of the pam agreed on all items except raw vegetables and fresh fruit. Length of residence together, number of meals eaten together, or surrogate respon­dent demographic characteristics did not affect accuracy of reporting.

Krehl, W. A., and R. E. Hodges. The 44 interpretatIOn of nutrition survey data.

Amerrcan Journal of Cltmcal NutritIOn 17:191-99, 1965. ThiS paper focuses on clinIcal and biochemical data and their rela­tIOnship to nutritional status m groups of people. It also reviews dietary history and diet record methods.

Leitch, I., and F. C. Aitken. Tech-45 nique and mterpretatlOn of dietary sur­

veys. NutrrtlOn Abstracts and Review 19: 507-25,1950. This review of the weighed m­take method gives bnef consideratIOn to diet recall and diet pattern assessment. The authors discuss sampling issues and the issue of minImal and optimal nutrient allowances. They conclude that recall IS unacceptable for measuring mdlVldual m­take, that a survey intermediate between weighing and questIOnIng m which diets are recorded m household measures can pro­vide an accurate week's record, and that weighed intake IS the most accurate of all methods.

Leverton, R. M., and A. G. Marsh. 46 Companson of food mtakes for week­

days and for Saturday and Sunday. Journal of Home Econonllcs 31:111-14, 1939. To determine changes in dietary intake be­tween weekdays and weekend days, re­searchers asked 23 college women par­ticipating in a metabolic study to complete weighed intakes for either 7 or 10 days. Calcium and nitrogen intake on weekdays and weekend days were compared for each

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

respondent. Weekend dietary habits con­tributed most to the variation in food m­take. The authors conclude that representa­tIVe dietary mtake data must include week­end mtake data.

Linusson, E., D. Sanjur, and E. Ensk-47 con. Validating the 24-hour recall

method as a dietary survey tool. Archlvos Lattnoamerrcanos de NutrrclOn 24 (2):277-94, 1974. The authors compared data about foods recalled m a personal mtervlew With foods observed (weighed before and after it was served) m a sample of 84 hospitalized, lactating women. Both quantity and num­ber of food Items were considered. Regres­sIOn analyses revealed a tendency for the participants to overestimate small quanti­ties and underestimate large quantities of foods consumed. The authors believe that the 24-hour recall IS fairly accurate for qual­Itative estimates of average group mtake but less accurate for estimatmg quantities consumed.

Lyons, 1. S., and M. F. Trulson. Food 48 practices of older people living at

home. Journal of Gerontology 11:66-72, 1956. Dietary hlstones, modified after Burke, were admmistered to 100 elderly respondents contacted initially either by mail or m person The hlstones mcluded an account of usual food patterns cross­checked With speCific foods eaten. The authors also collected mformatlon on SOCial history, illness, height, and weight. Respon­dents were more likely to participate when contacted m person. Approximately one­fourth of the respondents consumed less than the RDA for calones, nboflavm, Iron, and ascorbiC acid.

McHenry, E. W., H. P. Ferguson, and 49 1. Gurland. Sources of error in dietary

surveys. Canadian Journal of Publtc Health 36:355-61, 1945. The authors review problematiC areas m dietary mtake mea­surement and seek to assess the reliability of the 7-day food record using a highly educated, nutritionally aware group of 31 healthy individuals. Food records were col­lected for the first week of 12 consecutive months, and nutntlOnal adequacy was calculated for 8 nutnents. Vanance of several nutrients was examined by person and season for the dally and weekly data. Substantial vanatlOn across 12 months sug­gested that a single 7-day record IS not reli­able m populatIOns With free chOice of food. For most nutrients measured, season­al vanation was also Significant.

Madden, 1. P., S. 1. Goodman, and 50 H. A. Guthrie. Validity of the 24-hour

recall. AnalYSIS of data obtamed from elderly subjects. Journal of the Amerrcan Dletellc AssociatIOn. 68:143-47, 1976. Tramed personnel observed plate waste of 76 older mdlVlduals from 3 congregate meal sites m 2 mmmg towns and a city. Unobtru­sive observatIOn of plate waste and weigh­ing of standard food portIOns were used to estimate actual food mtake. Respondents were later asked to give a 24-hour recall which mcluded the measured meal. For each person, mtakes of energy and 7 nutnents were computed by diViding m­take by the RDA for age and sex category No SignIficant differences were found for the 7 nutrIents. However, participants tended to underestimate actual mtake of kiiocalones. For kIlocalories, protein, and vltamm A, the participants tended to over­report small quantities and underreport large quantities of food eaten.

51 Mann, G. V., G. Pearson, T. Gordon, T. R. Dawber, L. Lyell, and D. Shurt­

leff Diet and cardIOvascular disease in the Frammgham study. Pt. 1. Measurement of dietary mtake. Amerrcan Journal of Cltm­cal Nutrlflon 11:200-225, 1962. ThiS paper descnbes the method of measurement of dietary intake used in the Framingham Study. A variation of Burke's dietary histo­ry technique was used to interview 1,049 people once over a 4O-month penod. Usual dietary patterns were assessed, mcluding weekly and seasonal vanatlons. When an mdlVlduaI's diet was too variable to estab­lish a pattern, the interview was discarded. Food Items were converted to nutnents for analYSIS, and different methods of calcu­latmg nutnent mtake were compared.

Marr, 1. W. IndlVldual dietary surveys: 52 Purposes and methods. World Review

of NutrrtlOn and Dletellcs 13:105-64, 1971. ThiS thorough review covers both practical and theoretical aspects of dietary survey methods. The author discusses weighed In­take, record, recall, and dietary history pro­cedures; validity and reliability; variations in nutnent Intake over weeks, years, and seasons; short methods for epidemIOlogical studies; and the proceSSIng of dietary data.

Marr, 1. W., 1. A. Heady, and 1. N. 53 Morns. Towards a method for large­

scale individual diet surveys. In Proceedtngs of the Third InternatIOnal Congress on DietetiCs, London: Newman Books, 1961, pp. 85-91. To find a "short-cut" method for large-scale dietary assessment, the authors

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 113

used a 7-day weighed Intake record of 138 male British bank employees as a validatIng standard. WeIghed Intake of specific food groups was averaged for 44 IndIviduals, and the mean was multlphed by the frequency of intake of a group for the remaInder of the subjects. This YIelded a "calculated" amount of food consumed. Linear regres­sions were performed to test the validIty of this analysis. To measure the stablhty of the diet, 2 groups each completed 2 separate weighed records. AnalysIs of the repeated diets showed sImilar patterns of eating. Groupings by related food Items resulted In more consIstent measures of food intake than grouping by IndIvIdual food Items. The authors deVIsed a scoring system which determIned nutnent Intake USIng only the descnptlve Information about the food.

MeredIth, A., A. Mathews, M. Zlcke-54 foose, E. Weagley, M. Wayave, and

E. G. Brown. How well do school children recall what they have eaten? Journal oj the Amencan Dietetic ASSOCIatIOn 27:749-51, 1951. In thIS study to evaluate dIetary recall, the authors asked 94 rural school chddren to recall foods consumed from theIr school lunch. Food items selected by each chdd were recorded, and plate waste was meas­ured. The quantIty of food consumed by each chIld was determIned and compared to the chIld's recall of food consumed. USIng a very stnct critenon, only 6 children accu­rately Identified number, type, and amount of food Items eaten.

Moore, M. C , B. C Judlin, and P. M. 55 Kennemur USIng graduated food

models In takIng dIetary histones. Journal oj the Amencan Dietetic Assoc/Ol/on 51: 447-50,1967. ThIrty couples were chosen to participate In thIS study which examIned the usefulness of food models In facilitatIng dIetary hlstones. Each couple was asked to estimate the usual mtake of the husband WIthout USIng food models. The researchers repeated the dIetary history at a later date and used food models as aids In estimatIng portion sIzes. In both instances, husbands and wIves were separated so that they dId not Influence each other's dietary reporting. An analYSIS of the data showed that there was better agreement between estimations when food models were used.

Morgan, P. M., L. E. Demarest, W. 56 G. Unglaub, and R. S. Hubbard.

Some factors for refusal to partIcipate in nutntlOn surveys. Journal oj NutritIOn EducatIOn 2:103-5, 1971. The authors ex­amme reasons for the hIgh refusal rate m

114 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

the NatIOnal Nutrition Survey sample In Louisiana and offer several recommenda­tions of ways in whIch to Increase participa­tion.

Morgan, R. W., M. Jain, A. B. Miller, 57 N. W. ChOl, v. Matthews, L. Munan,

J. D. Burch, J. Feather, G. R. Howe, and A. Kelly. A companson of dIetary methods In epIdemiologic studIes. Amencan Journal oj Epldenuology 107:488-98, 1978. This study attempted to develop and standardize dietary methods In epIdemIologIc studies of cancer. The sample consIsted of 400 healthy women from 4 provInces In Canada. Re­spondents were intervIewed to obtain Infor­mation on personal and medIcal hIstory and on any changes that may have occurred in their dIet over time. A dIetary hIstory was collected for the most recent 2-month period and a 2-month penod 6 months before. A 24-hour recall was also obtaIned. PartICIpants then completed a 4-day dIet record. Group means for speCIfic nutrients were compared across methods. Correla­tIon coeffiCIents between recalls and the two dIetary histones were calculated for specific nutrients. The dietary hIstory produced a higher estImate of average daily intake than either of the other methods, and the two dietary hlstones had the highest correla­tIons for each nutflent.

Nomura, A., J . H. HankIn, and G. G. 58 Rhoads. The reproducIbility of dietary

Intake data in a prospectIve study of gastro­IntestInal cancer. American Journal oj Clinical NutritIOn 29:1432-36, 1976. ThIS IS a reliablhty study of 24-hour and 7-day recalls used In a prospective study of gastro­Intestinal cancer In Japanese men In Hawall. Second interviews took place after 6 months for 109 men and after 2 years for 111 men. The authors analyzed degree of agreement between Interview by speCIfic food Items as unit of analysis (present or ab­sent) for 24-hours and 7-days for each group. CorrelatIOn coeffiCients showed that habitually consumed foods had a hIgher degree of reproducibility than infrequently consumed foods.

Ohlson, M. A., L. Jackson, J. Boek, 59 D. C Cederquist, W. D Brewer, and

E. G. Brown. Nutntlon and dIetary habits of aging women. Amencan Journal oj Public Health 40:1101-8, 1950. To study the relationship between food selection and nutntlOn the authors conducted several 24-hour dietary recalls on a group of 200

women. A second group of 18 women, par­tiCIpated In a 24-hour recall, 3 or 4 reinter­views, weighed dietary records, and phys­ical examInatIOns; they also had excreta collected the last 10 days of each month. Mean nutnent intakes were higher when calculated from the 24-hour recalls than from the weIghed records. A short method of nutrient calculatIOn IS discussed. The authors conclude that 1,600-1,800 kllocal­ones per day are necessary for equilibrium and that total calones can serve as an mdex of the adequacy of specific nutnent intake If the diet IS reasonably varied and some milk IS included dally.

Pao, E. M., and M. C Burke. A com-60 puter-asslsted approach to meal pat­

terning. Journal oj the Amencan DietetiC Assoc/Ot/On 65:144-50, 1974. ThiS paper descnbes a computer-assisted approach to developing normative data on patterns of actual diet and the relatIOnship of those pat­terns to nutnent Intake and various socIOec­onomIc and environmental vanables. USIng the Spring, 1965, USDA Survey of Food In­take data base, the authors established meal patterns for 1,100 separate food Items In 3 time frames within a day. Food groupings were based on a Wide vanety of factors. The groupings Yielded 97 food sets orgamzed In­to 9 meal components. Two dIchotomous pattermng schemes were developed based on the presence or absence of the 9 com­ponents.

Pearl, R. B. POSSIble alternative meth-61 ods for data collectIOn on food con­

sumptIOn and expendItures. In AsseSSing changing Jood consumptIOn patterns, by National Research Council, Committee on Food ConsumptIOn Patterns. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 1981, pp. 198-203. Potential new methods of data collection on food consumptIOn IS the tOPIC of thIS paper. The author suggests a vanety of collection methods, Including the use of new technology and several techmques for collectIng data In the field.

Pekkarinen, M. Methodology in the 62 collection of food consumption data.

World ReView oj NutntlOn and Dietetics 12:145-71,1970. This comprehensive review of dietary methods Includes discussion of food balance sheets, food accounts (house­hold Inventones), welghmg methods, and interview methods. Advantages and dIsad­vantages of each method are dIscussed.

Raker, M. R. The validity of a tele-63 phoned food record. Unpublished

M.S. theSIS, Pennsylvania State Umversity,

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

University Park, Pennsylvania, 1979. The author studied the validity of 2 types of telephoned food records. One used an an­swering device (TA group); the other used a nutritlolllst who could probe (TN group). A volunteer group of 42 university students and employees compnsed the sample. Nu­tritlOlllsts used servmg lmes and one-way mirrors to observe the lunch meal over 4 days, although participants kept records for 7 consecutive days. Validity was assessed usmg the paired t-test and regression tech­lllques for specific nutnents Data revealed no significant differences between observed and reported mean levels of nutrient mtake for the total group, the T A group, or the fe­male participants. The T A group over­reported mean levels of calcium and nbo­flavin. Males in the survey siglllficantly overreported mtake of 6 nutnents; females and TN subjects tended to underreport nu­trIent intake.

Rasanen, L. NutntlOn survey of Fm-64 lllsh rural children. Pt. 4. Methodolog­

Ical study comparmg the 24-hour recall and the dietary history interView. American Journal of Cltmcal Nutrillon 32:2560-67, 1979. To test the relIability of dietary history and 24-hour recall methods, a sample of 1,033 children was divided mto 3 groups. One group received a 24-hour recall and a dietary history on the same day. The other groups received 2 24-hour recalls or 2 dietary histones several months apart The methods were compared usmg nutrients as the unit of analysis. Results mdlcated that for group data the 2 24-hour recalls were comparable. However, neither the 2 dietary histories nor the dietary history with 24-hour recall gave comparable estimates of nutnent mtake for a group. On an m­dividual level, no combmation of methods gave similar estimates of nutrIent mtake. Respondents were also classified mto 1 of 3 groups based on high, medIUm, or low m­take of energy, protein, and ascorbic aCid. Only about half of the respondents fell mto the same group after the second method was used. The author concludes that neither the 24-hour recall nor the dietary history is adequate for assessmg an mdlVldual child's mtake. Two 24-hour recalls repeated at dif­ferent seasons appear to milllmize the re­spondent burden and increase the relevance of the data for surveys of groups of children.

Reed, R. B., and B. S. Burke. Collec-65 tlOn and analYSIS of dietary data.

American Journal of Public Health 44:

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

1015-26, 1954. ThiS study measured relIabil­ity and validity of a dietary history taken on 103 children under 6 years of age m a longi­tudinal study on health and development The children's dietary hlstones were ob­tamed by interviewmg their mothers seml­anually for 5 years. Total protem, alllmal protein, and calonc mtake were calculated from each dietary history. In the statistical analysis, a straight lme was fitted across the 5 years for each mdlVldual and each nutri­ent. To test whether lack of regulanty m consumptIOn was due to errors m measure­ment or actual fluctuations m eatmg habits, 2 vanances were compared; the vanance of individual data pomts from the mdlVldual straight lInes was much less than the vanance among mdlVlduals. The authors reported that almost one-third of the observed differences between mdlvlduals could be due to errors of measurement. The dietary history techlllque was more useful for determmmg average levels of nutnent mtake than for assessing rates of change m nutnent mtake

Remmell, P. S., D. D. Gorder, Y. Hall, 66 and J. L. Tillotson Assessing dietary

adherence m the Multiple Risk Factor Inter­vention Tnal (MRFIT). Pt. 1. Use of a die­tary mOllltoring tool. Journal of the Amer­Ican Dietetic ASSOCiatIOn 76:351-56, 1980. To help alter food behaVIOr patterns of men at risk of developing coronary heart disease, the Multiple Risk Factor Interven­tIOn Trial (MRFIT) counselmg program de­veloped a food-scormg system that con­sisted of a SimplIfied teachmg and dietary assessment deVice The system predicted the blood lIpid effect of foods accordmg to theIr saturated fat, polyunsaturated fat, and cholesterol content. ThiS food sconng sys­tem reportedly enabled participants and counselors to mOllltor and evaluate pro­gress with dietary change. It also SimplIfied ways to make food chOIces that met the rec­ommended modified fat and cholesterol consumption and enabled participants to obtam a better perspective m plannmg die­tary changes.

Reshef, A., and L. M. Epstem. RelIa-67 bilIty of a dietary questIOnnaire. Amer­

Ican Journal of Clmlcal NutntlOn 25.91-95, 1972. ThiS study exammed the relIabilIty of a dietary history questIOnnaire admmls­tered to 29 men and 31 women from North Afnca and Europe. Reliability was mea­sured by comparing mean nutnents con­sumed between first and second interViews. Because no slglllficant differences between the means eXisted, the method was deemed

reliable. In order to determme whether van­abilIty in the diet affected reliability, respon­dents were diVided mto 3 groups based upon the number of food Items eaten. Data revealed no slglllficant differences m relia­bility for different amounts of vanabllIty.

Schnakenberg, D. D., T. M. HIll, M. 68 J. Kretsch, and B. S. Morns. DIary­

mtervlew techlllque to assess food con­sumption patterns of mdlVldual milItary personnel. In Assessmg changmg food consumptIOns patterns, by NatIOnal Re­search CounCil, Committee on Food Con­sumptIOn Patterns. Washmgton, D.C.: NatIOnal Academy Press, 1981, pp. 187-97. The authors tested a 14- to 17-day dlary-mtervlew techlllque m 6 different milItary studies conducted between 1973 and 1978 Participants recorded time, Item, quantity, and source of foods con­sumed on a pocket-sized card each day; and they were interviewed tWice each week to clanfy the information on the cards. In one of the studies, valIdity was assessed for dmmg hall meals by usmg weighed mtake and observation by dietitians. Food Item agreement and average nutnent intake were compared for the 2 methods, and food Item selectIOn agreed 80070 of the time. With the exception of protem, fat, and lllacm, which did not differ, the diary­mtervlew method slglllficantiy underesti­mated nutnent Intake by about 10070 The authors conclude that 7 to 8 consecutive days of reportmg IS suffiCient to obtam a relevant sample of an mdivldual's eating patterns.

Steele, B. F., R E. FranklIn, V. L 69 Smudskl, and C. M Young. Use of

checked seven-day records m a dietary sur­vey. Journal of the American Dietetic As­sociatIOn 27:957-59, 1951. Seven-day rec­ords were collected from 42 boys and 45 girls m grades 7 and 8. At the end of the 7-day penod, nutntlOnIsts reviewed the records With the chIldren for size of serv­mgs, foods m uncommon dishes, omission of snacks, and added Items such as butter and salad dressings. As a group, the mltial records showed no discrepancies greater than 10070 of the reviewed records. On an mdlVldual baSIS, 16070 of the respondents showed discrepancies of 10070 or more be­tween reviewed and unrevlewed records.

Stefalllk, P. A., and M. F. Trulson. 70 Determining the frequency mtakes of

foods in large group studies American Journal of Clmlcal NutritIOn 11:335-43, 1962. ThiS study attempted to valIdate a "shortened coded diet mtervlew form," a

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 115

type of food frequency interview whIch qualitatively measured food mtake. Re­spondent~ included female college students, male participants in a heart disease­study group, and Irish-born particIpants m a Boston-Ireland study. Respondents com­pleted coded food frequency forms whIch were compared to previously completed dIet hlstones or 7-day records. To deter­mine validity of the food frequency form, paIred and unpaired reports of food item intake were compared between food fre­quency form and eIther the diet history or 7-day record. Results indicated that the coded diet interview form IS comparable to the diet history and 7-day record. At both group and mdividual levels, the coded form gave generally eqUIvalent estImates of the qualItatIVe consumptIOn of food upon paired and unpmred compansons.

Stunkard, A. 1., and M. Waxman. 71 Accuracy of self-reports of food m­

take. Journal ojthe Amencan Dietetic As­sociatIOn 79:547-51, 1981. The valIdity of the 24-hour recall method was assessed by comparing observed food mtake and one­tIme recall for 3 obese and 3 nonobese boys. Standard handbooks were used to convert observed and recalled foods to kilocalones and nutrients consumed. Re­sults were reported solely for kilocalories and showed a strong correlatIOn between observed and recalled kiiocalones. The boys tended to overreport low intake and to underreport high mtake. The authors compare results to those from other studies and conclude that self-reports may be more accurate than is generally recogmzed.

Trulson, M. F. Assessment of dietary 72 study methods. Pt. 1. Comparison of

methods for obtammg data for clinical work. Journal oj the Amencan Dietetic ASSOCiatIOn 30:991-95, 1954. ThIs study compared 7-day dIetary records, dietary interview~, and 24-hour recalls. The sam­ple consisted of 214 young adolescents and children attendmg clImcs for rheumatIc fever. Forty-seven respondents reported their diets usmg all 3 methods, and the others used only 1 or 2 methods. The mean mtakes and the correlatIOn coefficients for pairs of methods were compared for pro­tein, milk, eggs, foods high in carotene, and foods hIgh in ascorbIC acid. The abIl­ity of each method to predict individual intake varied widely with the food or nutn­ent. The 7-day record and dietary inter­view gave the most SImIlar dIetary infor­mation.

116 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

Trulson, M. F. Assessment of dietary 73 study methods. Pt. 2. VariabIlity of

eating practices and determination of sam­ple size and duratIOn of dietary surveys. Journal oj the Amencan Dietetic ASSOCia­tion 31:797-802, 1955. To assess the varia­bility of nutnent mtake, 7-day dIetary rec­ords were collected from 252 Chicago schoolchildren. Seventy respondents were resurveyed 14 months later to determme mtake of milk, protem, and vitamin A. Means, standard deviatIOns, and coeffi­cients of vanation were calculated for each day of the week, and correlation coeffi­cIents were used to compare days. Both within and between days, variability m in­take of vitamin A was high. Protein and milk, on the other hand, showed much lower vanabllity within days and higher correlations across days. Standard deVIa­tIOns were smaller where longer periods of record-keeping occurred. The size of the sample necessary for a 10010 dIfference in mean mtake also vaned according to the partIcular food or nutnent m question. The less variabIlIty m intake of a food or nutnent, the smaller the sample needed or the fewer days of records needed. Thus, protein and milk intake evaluatIOn re­qUIred smaller samples than dId vltamm A.

Trulson, M. CommIttee on DIet, 74 Physical Activity, and BiochemIcal

Measurements. Subcommittee on Meth­odology for Diet Apprmsal. Amencan Journal oj PuMc Health 50:39-52, SUpp. 1, 1960. This article revIews dietary assess­ment methods used in epidemiological studies of cardiovascular dIsease and presents an extensIve cntique of past literature and methods of processing and classlfymg dIetary data.

Trulson, M. F., and McCann, M. B. 75 Companson of dIetary survey meth­

ods. Journal oj the Amencan Dietetic ASSOCiatIOn 35:672-76, 1959. This study compared the reliability of indIVIdual dIetary records and dIetary hIstories con­ducted tWIce over 2 years. The successIve 7-day dietary records completed by 11 male professors showed low correlations for m­divldual mtake of specified nutrients. The authors conclude that 7-day dietary rec­ords do not necessarily mdicate food pat­terns over more than the specified period of time. Two years after 180 people com­pleted an initial dietary history, a subsam­pie of 39 men completed a second dietary history. The 2 histones were compared for fat, protein, alcohol, and calories. There was large variation in individual intake.

Reported changes in caloric intake were found to correlate pOSItively WIth weight changes, lending validity to the dietary hIstory method. However, the authors do not believe the dietary history accurately characterizes an indiVIdual's diet.

The validIty of 24-hour dIetary recalls. 76 NutntlOn ReViews 34:310-11, 1976.

This article reviews the limitations of the 24-hour recall. Accordmg to the studies CIted, the 24-hour recall can be used in place of a 7-day record for groups larger than 50 when an error of 10070 can be tol­erated. For mdividuals, the 24-hour recall does not compare well with weighed intake because of underreporting and over­reportmg errors.

Wiehl, D. G., and R. Reed. Develop-77 ment of new or Improved dietary

methods for epidemIOlogIcal investiga­tions. Amencan Journal oj PuMc Health 50:824-28, 1960. The authors propose a "short schedule" for assessmg dIet patterns rather than nutrients m epIdemiological studies of diet and heart disease. Guide­hnes suggested include simple and speCIfic questIOnnaIres which may be analyzed for qualItative estimates and preference data. The relIability of this short schedule could be evaluated by repeating the questIOns after a penod of time and matchmg classificatIOns WIthin indiVIduals. ValidIty could be tested by intensive dIetary studies of groups of people WIth dIfferent qualIta­tive classificatIOns.

Wilson, C. S. Developmg methods for 78 studYIng diet ethnographically. In

The Anthropology oj Health, E. Bauwens, ed., St. LOUIS, Mo.: Mosby, 1978, pp. 141-48. This paper reviews nutn­tlOnal and dIetary methodologIes whIch might be helpful to anthropologists study­ing other socIetIes. The author discusses research topics in nutritional anthropol­ogy whIch need methods develop­ment - diet recalls, food waste, and taste preferences.

Wltschl, 1. c., A. S. Littell, H. B. 79 Houser, and A. 1. Sorensen. Dietary

intake of non-hospitalized persons WIth multiple sclerosis. Pt. 2. Nutrient intake for one year compared WIth recommended allowances. Journal oj the Amencan Die­tetic ASSOCiatIOn 56:203-11, 1970. ThIS ar­ticle concerns dietary Intake of people with multiple sclerosis. It emphasizes analysis and compares reported nutrient data with the RDA. The findmgs on nutrient mtake are m agreement with other studies, and the authors conclude that the dietary data

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

are vahd. Also discussed are the computer programming technIques used to calculate nutrient intake.

Youland, D. M., and A. Engle. Prac-80 tices and problems in HANES. Diet­

ary data methodology. Journal of the Amencan Dietetic AssoclGtlOn 68:22-25, 1976. The authors revIew the dietary meth­odology used in the U.S. Health and Nu­trition Exammation Survey (HANES). They particularly stress intervIewer qualifi­cations and traming as well as intervIew techniques m gathering recall and frequen­cy data. Some partIcular intervIewing problems are reported; validity was ana­lyzed by matching recall data with fre­quency data. Dietary data were gathered only on weekdays to help elIminate "un­usual food mtake~" common to weekends.

Young, C. H. M. Comparison of re-8t suits of dietary surveys made by dIffer­

ent methods. In Proceedings of the Fourth InternatIOnal Congress of Dietetics, Stockholm: Ivar Haeggstroms Tryckari Ab, 1965, pp. 119-26. This revIew of ap­proaches to mvestigatmg the dIets of large samples of mdividuals in epidemiologIcal studies of chronic diseases emphasIzes the need to specIfy the objectIves of a study before selecting a method for collectmg, processing, and interpreting dietary infor­mation. It lists issues to be consIdered before undertakmg a dietary study and discusses the importance of, and the trade­offs between, relIability and validity.

Young, C. M., F. W. Chalmers, H. N. 82 Church, M. M. Clayton, G. C. Mur­

phy, and R. E. Tucker. Subjects' estIma­tion of food mtake and calculated nutn­tive value of the diet. Journal of the Amer­Ican Dleteflc AssoclGtlOn 29:1216-20,1953. Food estimatIOn ability was studied In a sample of 149 adults and children m 6 states. EstimatIon methods tested include recall, 7-day record, and estimation of portIOns presented on trays. Nutrient value of estimated mtake was compared to nutrient value of measured mtake. Data revealed agreement between the group means of estimated and calculated intake. Greater variation was found for indiVId­uals, with errors greater than 20070 for ap­proximately one-third of the individuals. Best estImation came from respondents who were aware of being monitored.

Young, C. M., F. W. Chalmers, H. N. 83 Church, M. M. Clayton, R. E. Tucker,

A. W. Werts, and W. D. Foster. A com­parison of dIetary study methods. Pt. 1.

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

Dietary hIstory vs. seven-day record. Jour­nal of the Amencan Dietetic AssoclGtlOn 28:124-28, 1952. In a comparison of die­tary history and 7-day record techniques, data were taken from 5 expenment station projects m the northeastern UnIted States. A sample of 550 Junior high school stu­dents, college students, pregnant women, and male industnal workers kept 7-day dIet records and were administered a dIe­tary hIstory. An addItIonal sample com­pleted 4-day records and a dIetary hIstory. Using linear regression technIques, the in­vestIgators found that for almost all samples, dietary history gave much higher values than did the 7-day record or the 4-day record. It was not possIble to deter­mine amount of variation due to such van abies as personality, eating circum­stances, or interviewer skill.

Young, C. M., R. E. FranklIn, W. D. 84 Foster, and B. F. Steele. Weekly varia­

tion in nutrient intake of young adults. Journal of the Amencan Dleteflc Assocla­lion 20:459-64, 1953. ThIs study assessed weekly variation m nutrient intake in a sample of 18 persons 23 to 50 years old. They recorded their mtake for a 28-day period. Data for mdivlduals showed that one week dId not yield sufficiently accurate estimates of 28-day nutnent mtake, es­pecially for vitamin A, calCIUm, and ascor­bic acid . However, I week was suffiCIent to estimate 28-day nutnent intake for groups of indIViduals. AnalYSIS of variance for in­take of each nutrient showed no SIgnIficant effects by week (except for protem) or days (except for riboflavin) and few signIficant interactions, mdicatmg that average nutnent intake for a group tends to vary only slIghtly across days or weeks and that mdivlduals tend to exhIbit fairly stable nutrIent intake. The authors conclude that the 7-day record IS adequate for assessing group intake but not for assessing in­dividual intake.

Young, C M., G. C. Hagan, R. E. 85 Tucker, and W. D. Foster. A compan­

son of dIetary study methods. Pt. 2 Dietary history vs. seven-day record vs. 24-hr. recall. Journal of the Amencan DietetiC ASSOCiatIOn 28:218-21, 1952. To determine the generalizability of the 24-hour recall method, the authors com­pared a 7-day record with a dIet hIstory for 3 samples of males and females, ages II to 34. WIthin indiVIduals, nutnent intakes calculated from the 24-hour recall dIffered signIficantly from those determined using

the 7-day record and the diet hIstory. For groups, the dietary hi~tory yielded signifi­cantly hIgher estImates of nutnent intake than the 24-hour recall; however, the 24-hour recall was representative of the 7 -day record wlthm 10070.

Young, C. M., and M. F. Trulson. 86 Methodology for dietary studies in

epidemiologIcal surveys. Pt. 2 Strengths and weaknesses of existmg methods. Amencan Journal of PuMc Health 50·803-14, 1960. This artIcle IS a pragmatic review of the reliability and validity of dIetary methods used m epidemiologIcal studies. The authors raise many questions regardmg the deCISIons to be made In

deSIgnIng a dietary study, and they con­clude that more informatIOn is needed on validity and reliability of methods.

Yudkin, J. Dietary surveys: Variation 87 in the weekly mtake of nutrients .

Bntlsh Journal of NutntlOn 5:177-94, 1951. In order to determme variatIon in nutrient intake over tIme, 6 women in the dietetics program at Kmgs College re­corded theIr weIghed intakes for 4 weeks. Standard food tables were used to calcu­late the weekly mtake of calones and nutrI­ents from the weighed intake data. Varia­bIlity from week to week differed across individuals and across nutrIents and was often very high. The authors conclude that mtake obtained over a week's tIme IS not representative of an individual's usual mtake.

NOTE

The followtng are the computerIzed data bases used to IdentIfy relevant literature citations. Catalogmg and Indexmg for the NatIOnal Agriculture Library (CAIN), DIssertation Abstracts , Education Resources InformatIOn Center (ERIC), Excerpta Medica, Federal In­dex, Food SCience and Technology Abstracts (FST A), Medlme, National Techmcallnforma­tlOn Service (NTIS), Psychological Abslracts, SOCiologIcal Abstracts, and USDA Current Research Information System (CRIS) .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ThiS project was funded by the U.S Food and Drug AdmmlstratlOn (FDA) as part of Agree­ment Number WJ3G07-79246-()()9, 1980 The bibliography IS the work of the authors and does not repre~ent offiCial FDA policy. The aulhors Wish to acknowledge the assistance of R Schucker and R Stokes at FDA for valuable directIOn and adVice; CynthIa Hoopes and Joseph Hunn for assIstance With abstracttng ar­ticles; and Leona Schmidt and Charlene Slamm for then creative clerIcal assIstance.

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 117

118

Summary Table of Bibliographic Entries ArtIcles from the bIbliography are listed

and summanzed In one of two broad areas 1) basIc and applied research artIcles and 2) revIew articles Twelve parameters are listed tor each research article RevIew artIcles are listed only by number, first author, date, and methods dIscussed

Key to Codes In the Summary Tahle Number- SequentIal number of bIblio­graphIc entry and abstract

FIrst Author- FIrst-named author of the publication

Date- Publication date

Total Sample SIZe - ApproxImate total number of people from whom data were collected

Age C-Chlld (under 18 years old), A-Adult (18 to 64 years old), E- Elderly (65 years and older)

Sex M - Male, F - female, M, F - Both sexes, speCIal charactenstlcS IdentIfied by foot­notes

GeographIcal Area F-Forelgn, D-Domestlc, U-Urban, R- Rural

Test Slte- Place where respondents' data were collected H-At home, A-Away from home, I -In an institutIonal setting such as a hospItal, Idenufied by footnote

AdminIstrator - Person "ho collected data P - PartIcIpants, such as mother or spouse, R - Respondents, I -InterVIewer

De>Ign C - Cross-secuonal Major compansons

were made between dIfferent groups of respondents L- Longltudmal Respondents were gIven the same test more than once, major com­pansons were made between two or more Ume pen ods for the same respondents

Methods - All methods are assumed to have been adminIstered to a respondent once When thIS IS not the case, numbers m parentheses ind,cate the number of days for each admlnlstrauon and, when pre­ceded by an "x", the number of repetItions RI - Recall Respondents remember each food consumed, usually for the preceding 24 hours Fr - Frequency Respondents indIcate the frequency with which they eat each of the foods on a predetermmed list WI- WeIghed Intake Servings of each food are measured pnor to consumptIon Rd - Record Respondents keep records of all foods eaten and amounts estImated In household measures DH - Dietary History Respondents report theIr food consumption habits, usually In an Intervle" and sometImes in­cluding a frequency measure OM - Other methods of measunng con­sumptIOn

Reliabiht) and/or Valid It) R- Reliability of at least one method measured (e g , by Invesugatlng the con­SIStency of the method across repetitIOns) F - Validity of a method measured by companson "Ith a food Intake cntenon (e g , actual consumpuon) N - Validity of a method measured by companson with a nutntlOnal status cntenon (e g , weIght, hemoglobin level)

Review Articles

First Number Author

6 Beal II Burk

12 Burke

18 Chnstakls

26 Gam

29 Gnvettl

35 Ha""kms

37 Houser

44 Krehl

45 Leitch

53 Marr

61 Pearl

62 Pekkannen

74 Trulson

76 The \3hdJt)

77 Wlehl

78 Wilson

81 young

86 Young

Date Methods

1967 Rd(4), DH 1976 Rl. Rd,

WI, DH, OM

1947 Rd(3), DH

1972 RI, Rd, DH,OM

1976 RI, Rd

1973 OM

1973 RI, Fr, Rd, DH,OM

1979 OM

1965 Rd, DH, OM

1950 RI, Fr, WI, Rd

1961 RI, Fr, WI, Rd

1981 Rd(3), Fr, DH,OM

1970 RI, Fr, WI, DH,OM

1960 RI, Fr, WI,

1976 RI

Rd, DH, OM

1960 OM

1978 RI, OM

1965 RI, Fr, WI, Rd, DH, OM

1960 RI, Fr, WI, Rd, DH, OM

Basic and Applied Research Articles

Flnl Number Author

I Abram<;on

2 Adelson

3 Balogh

4 Balogh

5 Beal

7 Beaton

8 Bebb

9 Bramb,

10 Bro",e

13 Burke

14 Campbell

15 (elher

16 Chalme"

17 Chappell

19 Church

20 Dawber

21 Dlerk,

22 Emmo""

23 Eppnght

JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION

Date

1963

1960

1971

1968

1961

1979

1972

1948

1966

1938

1967

1963

1952

1955

1954

1962

1965

1973

1952

1970

Total Sample

Sl::'e

60

98

100

10,000

60

82

138

1,514

227

300

467

451

2

438

87

115

431

449

161

Age

A

A

A

A

C

A

A

C

A

C

A, E

A

C,A

A,E

C, A, E

A

C

C

C

A,E

Sn

F'

M

M

M

M,F

M, F

M, F

M

M

M, F

M, F

M, F

M, F

M, f

M, F

M, f

M, F

M, F

Geo!!,raphfcal Area

F, U

D,U

F, U

D, F

D,U

F, U

D,U

F

D

D,U D

F

D

F

D

D

D,U D,R

D,U, R

F, U

Tes! Site

A

H

A

A

H

A

A

H,A H

H,F,3

H,A

H

H

A

A

H

H,A H,A

H

4dmtnl5lrator

I

I, R

I

I,R

I

R

I, R

I, R

I, P

I

R

R

R

I

I

P

I

I, R, P

De5lgn

C

C

L

C

L

C, L

L

C

C

C,L

C

L

C

L

C

L

C

C

C,L

C

Afethods

Fr RI(7),

WI(7,14)

RI(,II), DH

Fr, Rd(7), DH

RI(x32), DH(x40)

RI(,6)

Rd(3x6,12), DH

RI(,3), WI(3), Rd(3),OM

RI, DH

Rd(3), DH

RI

Fr, WI(4,3), W1(7)

Rd(7,14,28)

W1(91,490)

DH

DH(x2)

Rd(3)

RI

WI, Rd(3x2), Rd(7)

Fr, DH

Rellabt/tty and lor

~a"dl{),

F, N

F, R

R

F

F, N

R

F

F. R N

R

R

R

F

F

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982

BasIc and Applied Research Articles-continued

Flrsl Number A whor

25

27

28

30

31

32

33

34

36

38

39

40

41

42

43

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

75

79

80

82

83

84

85

87

Frv

GersovJtz

Greger

Guthne

Hankm

Hanl<.m

Hankm

Hankin

Heady

HOll'\er

Houser

Huenemann

Huenemann

Jam

Kotonel

Leverton

Lmm<;on

L)oO'i

McHenn

Madden

Mann

Marr

Meredith

Moore

Morgan

Morgan

Nomura

Ohbon

Pao

Raker

Rasanen

Reed

Remmell

Re"hef

Schnaken­berg

Steele

Stefamk

Stunkard

Trul<;on

Trulson

Trulson

Wltschl

Youland

Young

young

Young

Young

Yudkm

Dale

1963

1978

1978

1963

1967

1967

1975

1968

1961

1981

1969

1968

1942

1980

1977

1939

1974

1956

1945

1976

1962

1971

1951

1967

1971

1978

1976

1950

1974

1979

1979

1954

1980

1972

1981

1951

1962

1981

1954

1955

1959

1970

1976

1953

1952

1953

1952

1951

Tutal Sample

Srze

32

65

32

40

93

93

50

73

118

127

106

122

25

68

600

23

84

100

31

76

1,049

138

94

60

323'

400

220

218

8,966

42

1,033

103

60

1,112

87

225

214

252

191

106

10,266

149

550

18

166

4ge

E

E

C

C

A,E

A

A

A

A

C

C

A

A, E

A

A

E

A

E

A

C

A

A

A. E

C, A, E

A

C

C

A

A. E A

C

A

C

C

C

A

A

C,A. E C.A

C,A

A

C,A

A

Sex

F

M, F

F

M' M'

M'

M

M,F'

M,F'

M. F

M, F

M

M,F'

F

F

M, F

M. F

M, F

~1

M. F

~1. f

M, F

F

M' F

M. F

M. F

M, F

M, F

M' M. F

M, F

M. F

M, F

Mil

M. F"

M, F

M

M.P M, F

M,F'

M. F'

M, F

M, F'

F'

Geographfwl Test Area 511e Administrator Design J\,fethod\

Rel/abtlft~ and, or ~alfdfH

D

D, U

D

D

D, U

D, U

D

D, U

F, U

D

D

D

D

F

D. U D, U

D. U D. U F. U D, U

D, U

F, U

D, R

D

D. U F

D

D, U

D, R. U

D

F. R

D

D

F

D

D, U

D, U

D

D, U

D, U

D, U

D

D. R, U

D

D

D

D

F

H

H

H

H

H

H

H

H.A H,A

H

H

H. "

H

H

H

H

H

A

A

H

A

H.A H

" H. "

H

H,A

" H

H,A H

I'"

H, AIO

H. "

H

H,A

H

H

H, " A

H

H

H

H,A

1. R

1, R

P

R

R

I.R

R

R

1, R

R

R

1. R. P

I, P

R

R

R

l.R

I

I, R

I, R

I, R

1

I. R

I, R

I, R

I, R

R

I, R

R

1

I. R

I, R

R

I. R

R

C WI(25-120). Rd(7). DH

C Rl, Rd(7) F

C RI F

C Rd(7)

C Rd(7) R

C Rd(7)

C RI(I,7), F Rd(7)

C Fr, Rd(7) F

C \\ 1(7.14) F

L Rd(3xI2), R F, N DH

L Rd(3xI2)

C, L Rd(7x4)

C \\ 1(l0-14x4). R, F. N DH

C Rd(30), t. R DH(x2)

C Fr

C \\ 1(7.10)

RI F

C DH L Rd(7) R

C RI F

C DH

C \\ 1(7) F

C RI F

C DH C OM

C RI,Rd (4), F DH

L Fr(lx2.h2) R

L R1(x3). F, N

C

C

\\1(10\3) DH(x3), OM

RI

Rd(7)'

C, L RI(x2), DH(xZ)

L DH(x1O) Rd(3)

C DH(2). OM

F, R

N, R

R

C RI.Rd(l4-17) F. N. R

C

C

C

C

L

L

L

C

C

C

C

C

C

R1. Rd(7)

Fr, Rd(7), DH

RI. \\1

RI(x3).

Rd(7). DH

Rd(7)

Rd(7x2). DH

Rd(3xI2)

Rl. FR

Rl. Rd(7). OM

Rd(7,4), DH

Rd(28)

Rl. Rd(7). DH

\\ 1(28)

F

F

R

M

F

F

F

R

F

Dash (-) lndlcdte~ data ml~~lng I s'ome or all pregnant, 's'ome re'>ldlng In a ho\pltal, '''ome or all residing In a retirement or nur~lng home,· Japane"e ancestn 'Hou,>ehold,>, ~Some or all "Jlh mulllple ~dero~I~, Ha"Juan ethnll. .. group,>. ~~ame data Lolle(..{ed b\ telephone, 9 <\t mk of de\eloplng coranar ... heart dl,>ea~e, I 0r...lihtarv, II Some obe'>e, I~A(!endtng chnlc~ for rheumatIc te\er

VOLUME 14 NUMBER 3 1982 JOURNAL OF NUTRITION EDUCATION 119