*MexicoMexico

Modified from Mr. Caroddo’s Education Website at http://caroddoapclasses.com/id4.html

Geographic InfluenceGeographic InfluenceNatural Resources – petroleum,

silver, copper, gold, lead, zinc, natural gas, timber

U.S.-Mexican Border – 2,000 mile long border means relationships are inevitable (migration, dependency, conflict)

PopulationOver 112 million people live in Mexico

60% Mestizo 30% Amerindian (Indigenous) 10% other (European, Asian)

Most populated Spanish-speaking country in the world

75% of Mexico’s population lives in urban areas (Mexico City’s population is nearly 9 million; it is the 16th largest city in the world)

Population in the northern part of Mexico is more prosperous than central and southern Mexico. The farther south, the greater the poverty.

Political CulturePolitical CultureNational Identity: Mexicans

share a strong sense of national identity, based on history, religion and language.

Clientelism: Mexican politics has a long history of patron client relationships.

Historical TraditionsAuthoritarianism –Mexico has long

tradition of authoritarian rule. Presidents still hold a great deal of power.

Populism – revolutions of 19th and 20th century had a significant peasant base; led by charismatic leaders that called for more rights for ordinary Mexicans, particularly indigenous citizens. The Zapatista movement is a reflection of this tradition

*Historical TraditionsPower Plays/Divisions within Elite –

There is a division within the elite over whether the politicos or tecnicos should run government.

Instability and Legitimacy Issues – Mexico’s political history is full of chaos, conflict, bloodshed, and violent resolution to political differences. Even though most Mexicans believe the government is legitimate, the current regime is unstable.

Legitimacy◦ Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)

– helped legitimize the revolution, served as an important source of government legitimacy until the late 20th century

◦ Constitution of 1917 – created a democratic, three-branch government, but allowed the PRI to stabilize and consolidate power. An authoritarian one party state was created but within a democratic framework.

Colonial EraCultural Heterogeneity – Spanish took control

over numerous indigenous populations dominated by the Aztecs once they conquered Tenochtitlan

Mestizo – ethnic mixture of two peoples (European and indigenous)

Catholicism – most Spaniards settled in or near Mexico City, but Spanish priests settled throughout Mexico, converting the population to Christianity. Priests developed strong relationships with the people.

Economic Dependency – all trade wasdone with Spain

Spanish Hierarchy – elaborate political and social status hierarchy structure, with deference to elites

Independence Instability and Legitimacy Issues – the

Spanish left and took hierarchy structure with them; reorganizing government was difficult task; Mexico had 36 presidents from 1833-1855

Rise of Military – Instability led to military control, ex. Santa Anna

U.S. Domination – US challenges Mexican land claims, Mexican-American War (1846-1848), Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (US gets TX, NM, CA, AZ, UT, part of CO)

The Us and Mexican The Us and Mexican TerritoryTerritory

“The Porfiriato”Porfirio Diaz

Staged military coup in 1876 Instituted himself as president of Mexico;

promised he would serve no more than one term

Ruled Mexico for 34 years with an iron hand

Cientificos – young, educated advisors of Diaz who believed in bringing scientific and economic progress to Mexico

Influences of PorfiriatoStability – Diaz dictatorship ended years of

conflict and chaos

Authoritarianism – no sharing of political power beyond a small, closed elite group

Foreign Investment/Economic Growth – cientificos encouraged entrepreneurship and foreign investment, primarily from the U.S., which resulted in growth of business and industry

Growing Gap between Rich & Poor – as a result of development and industrialization

20th Century Porfirio Diaz was ousted in a coup

by other elites dissatisfied with Diaz’s rule and sensitive to the greed of the Porfirians

Diaz abdicated to General Francisco Madero

Revolution of 1910 begins and warlordism (caudillos) and chaos would persist in Mexico until 1934

Influences of the Mexican RevolutionPatron-client System

Constitution of 1917

Conflict with Catholic Church

Establishment of the PRI

Mexican RevolutionPatron-Client System – in an

effort to unseat Diaz, caudillos rose to challenge each other for power. Popular leaders Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata emerged leading peasant armies. Around each leader a patron-client system emerged that involved large numbers of citizens

Many caudillos were ultimately assassinated (including Villa and Zapata)

Large numbers of followers were also killed in the competing world of the caudillos

Constitution of 1917Ended the RevolutionThe Mexican constitution is very long

and easily amendedSet up structure for Democratic

Government (political Institutions resemble those of the U.S.)

Three branches of GovernmentCompetitive electionsFederalism

Conflict with the Church after Revolution

Although most Mexicans are Catholic, church and state are legally separate

Until recently, priests were not allowed to vote.

Establishment of PRIPRI brings all caudillos under one big

umbrella political party Bring stability through the idea of “passing

around” power from one leader to the next as the presidency changed hands

Sexenios – president could only serve one 6-year term

Other leaders would be given major positions in government to establish their influence

PRI- “institutionalized” the revolution by stabilizing conflict between leaders

Cardenas Upheaval (1934-1940)Gave voice to peasant demands

from the Revolution of 1910Charismatic leader“The Roosevelt of Mexico” as

labeled by American scholars

Cardenas’ ChangesRedistribution of Land – land was taken away

from big landlords and foreigners and redistributed as ejidos – collective land grants – to be worked by peasants

Nationalization of Industry – foreign business owners were kicked out of country, most industry was put under control of the state. Ex: PEMEX – giant, government controlled oil company

Investment in Public Works – government builds roads, provides electricity, creates public services to modernize Mexico

Encouragement of Peasant and Union Organizations – Cardenas welcomes their input in government, they form their own camarillas with leaders that represent their interests on president’s cabinet

Concentration of Power in Presidency – Cardenas stabilizes presidency, when his sexenio was up he peacefully let go of power

Cardenas and ISICardenas used a strategy of

state-led development known as Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

Employs high tariffs to protect locally produced goods from foreign competition

Government ownership of key industries (PEMEX)

Government subsidies to domestic industries Government takes the lead in promoting

industrialization (very little capital in private hands during this era)

Pendulum TheoryMiguel Aleman becomes president in 1946

Encouraged entrepreneurship Foreign investment Free-market strategies on exports

Followed by president who returned to Cardenas-style reform

Pendulum Theory – back-and-forth effect in Mexican politics from socialist reform to free-market economic development and back again.

By the 1970s the pendulum appeared to stop with the emergence of the tecnicos

TecnicosTecnicos – educated, business-

oriented leaders usually with degrees in economics, political science or business.

Tecnicos in the PRI espouse a free-market approach to the economy

By the 1980s Mexico had settled into an economic approach based upon Neoliberalism

Free markets Balanced budgets Privatization Free trade Limited government intervention in the economy

Mexico borrowed in Mexico borrowed in ““PetrodollarsPetrodollars””

Tecnicos & PoliticosMexico welcomed foreign investmentGNP experienced spectacular growth until

the 1980sThis “Mexican Miracle”was based largely

on huge supplies of natural gas and oilMexico became a model for developing

states everywhereDuring the oil bust in the early 1980s, prices

of oil sunk the Mexican economy and inflated the value of the peso

This caused added political tension within the PRI

Division between the politicos – old style politicians who headed camarillas – and the tecnicos began to grow wider

Citizens, Society, & the StateTraditionally Mexican citizens have

interacted with government through a patron-client system

Because camarillas so interwoven in Mexican politics, most people have had some contact with government during their lives

Clientelism has generally meant that the government had the upper hand through its ability to determine which interests to address and which to ignore

The role of citizens in Mexico is changing as political parties have become competitive and democracy becomes more firmly entrenched

CamarillasHierarchical networkExchange of offices and other benefits for

political supportWithin the PRI, up until the election of 2000,

most positions within the president’s cabinet were filled by supporters or heads of camarillas that the president wanted to appease

Peasants in camarillas received jobs, financial assistance, family advice, and even food & shelter in return for votes for the PRI.

Patron-Client System (Mexico)Corporatism favors the largest businesses

and labor unionsPatron-client system still very important in

determining the nature of political participation

Modernization and legitimate democracy tend to break up the patron-client system as networks get blurred in large population centers, and more formal forms of participation are instituted

Political ParticipationHistorically characterized by

revolution and protest

Mexican citizens have generally been subjects under authoritarian rule of the political elite

Citizens sometimes benefited from patronage, but legitimate channels to policy-makers were few

Today citizens participate through increasingly legitimate and regular elections

CleavagesUrban vs. Rural –Today Mexico is 75% urban,

with a literacy rate of about 90%. Urban voters are less likely to support PRI and are more receptive to political and economic reform

Mestizo vs. Amerindian – only about 10% of Mexicans speak indigenous languages, but about 30% consider themselves Amerindians. Amerindians are marginalized, predominantly rural, and poor. This cleavage tends to define social class, with most of Mexico’s wealth in the hands of the mestizo population.

North vs. South – The north is almost like a different country then the area south of Mexico City. Majority of educated citizens and Mexico’s wealth lies in the north. Southern Mexico is primarily populated by Amerindians, characterized and led by Zapatista Movement in Chiapas.

ProtestsWhen citizens demands have gotten out of hand,

the government generally responded by not only accommodating their demands, but by including them in the political process through cooptation

Tlatelolco (1968) – student protest led to a massacre by government troops. The next president recruited large numbers of students into government, increased spending on social services

Zapatista Uprising (1994) – Partly a reaction to NAFTA, the Chiapas rebellion reminded Mexicans that some people still lived in appalling conditions, and poverty and lack of education were still serious problems

Voter BehaviorUntil 2000

PRI controlled local, state, and national elections

Voting rates were high because of patron-client system

Election day was festive, accompanied by free food, music, and celebrations

Corruption extensive Challengers easily defeated with tacos,”

stuffed ballot boxes2000-2012

Presence of competing parties, have existed since 1930s, but no real legitimacy until 1994 when electoral reforms were put in place In 1988, 49% voter turnout. This election was marred by fraud.

78% of eligible citizens voted in 1994, when election reform was promised

64% voted in 2000, when PAN won the presidency

Factors influencing VotersAge

Younger voters were more likely than older voters to support PAN, and older voters more likely to support the PRI

Education More educated vote for PAN

Region PRI is evenly supported throughout the regions of the country

PAN received majority of its support from the north and center-west

Mexico in TransitionMexico is characterized by economic and

political transition

Authoritarianism under the PRI has been replaced by competitive elections, which makes Mexico a transitional democracy

Economic dependency and underdevelopment are slowly being transformed as public policies support a free market economy, yet a backlash against neoliberalism has continued

Linkage InstitutionsMexico’s political parties, interest

group, and media all worked to link Mexican citizens to their government

During the PRI era all of this took place under the authority of the PRI party so a true civil society did not exist

As democratization began and civil society began to develop, these structures were already in place, so activating democracy was easier than it would have been otherwise.

Political PartiesPartido Revolucionario

Institucional (PRI)National Action Party (PAN)Democratic Revolutionary Party

(PRD)

Voter ProfilesPRI – small town or rural, less educated, older,

poorer

PAN – from the north, middle-class professional or business, urban, better educated (at least high school, some college) religious (or those less strict regarding separation of church & state)

PRD – younger, politically active, from the central states, some education, small town or urban

PRI In power from 1920-2000, re-elected in 2012Corporatist structure –Party has ultimate

authority, but other voices were heard by bringing interest groups under the umbrella of the party. Structure is not democratic, but allows for more input into government than other types of authoritarianism.

Patron-client system – party traditionally gets its support from rural areas where patron-client system is still in control. Patron-client system allowed the PRI to remain in control of Mexicans as long as majority of population was rural-based, this began to change in the late 1980s

PAN (Right of Center) Represents business interests PAN support strongest in the north PAN generally considered PRI’s opposition to the

Right PAN candidate Vicente Fox won 2000

presidential election, Felipe Calderon won 2006 election

Platform Regional autonomy Less government intervention in the economy Fair elections Good relationship with Catholic Church Support for private and religious education

PRD (Left of Center)PRD considered PRI’s opposition to the Left

Presidential candidate in 1988 & 1994 was Cuahtemoc Cardenas (son of Lazaro Cardenas)

In 1988 Cardenas won 31.1% of the official vote, and PRD captured 139 seats in the Chamber of Deputies (500 total)

Many believe had it been an honest election Cardenas would have won

PRD has been plagued by poor organization, lack of charismatic leadership, and most importantly the lack of an economic alternative to the market-oriented policies of the PRI and PAN

Andres Lopez Obrador, former mayor of Mexico City, was the PRD candidate for president in the 2006 election. He lost by a slim margin to Calderon (PAN)

ElectionsCitizens in Mexico directly elect the

president, Chamber of Deputy Representatives, and Senators as well as most local & state officials.

Elections are generally competitive, specifically in urban areas

ElectionsElectionsEach of Mexico’s 31 states elects three

senators, 2 are determined by majority vote, the other is determined by whichever party receives the second highest number of votes

32 senate seats are determined nationally through a system of proportional representation that divides the seats according to the number of votes cast for each party (128 Senate seats in total)

In the Chamber of Deputies, 300 seats are determined by plurality within single-member districts, and 200 are chosen by proportional representation

Election of 2000 PAN/PRD candidate Vicente Fox won presidency (43% of the vote

compared to 36% garnered for PRI candidate Francisco Labastida)

PAN captured 208 of 500 deputies in lower house

PRI captured 209 deputy seats in the lower house

PAN won 46 senate seats; PRI won 60 senate seats

New, competitive election system has encouraged coalitions to form to the right & left of the PRI

Split in votes has encourage gridlock, phenomenon unknown to Mexico under the old PRI-controlled governments

Election of 2006 – closely contested election, won by PAN candidate Felipe Calderon by narrow margin over PRD candidate Andres Lopez Obrador

Interest Groups & Popular Movements Corporatist structure allowed for accommodation of interest group

Business Interests – networked with political leaders to protect the growth of commerce, finance, industry, and agriculture

Labor – accommodated within system, wage levels for union workers increased from 1940-1982, until economic crisis of lowering oil prices caused wages to drop. Power of union bosses has decreased as unions weaken and members become more independent

Rural/Peasant Organizations – encouraged under PRI through the ejido system that granted land from the government to these organizations. Since 1980s groups have demanded greater independence from the government, and supported movements for better prices for crops, and access to markets and credit. Joined with other groups to promote better education, health services, and environmental practices

Urban/Popular Movements – concerned about social welfare spending, city services, neighborhood improvement, economic development, feminism, and professional identity. As groups become more independent and grow in strength the government and political system must negotiate with them, and in doing so transform the political culture

Media Part of the patron-client system under the PRI,

with rewards and favors doled out in return for political support

Have become more independent as PRI-political structure has been reorganized

Many Mexicans have access to international newspapers, magazines, CNN and the BBC

◦“Toallagate” Scandal – overpriced towels at President Fox’s mansion

◦“Comes y te vas” – Fidel Castro-U.N. meeting incident

XVIII. Government Institutions Mexico is a federal republic, though state and

local governments have little independent power and few resources

Executive branch has held majority of the power historically

Legislative & Judicial branch followed the executive’s lead, rubber-stamping most presidential decisions

Mexico has traditionally been an authoritarian and corporatist regime

Executive Branch Center of policy-making

Sexenio: non-renewable six-year term (Under PRI similar to dictator) Selected successor Appointed officials to all positions of power in the government Named PRI candidates for other public offices

Until mid-1970s Mexican presidents were above criticism and people revered them as symbols of national progress and well-being

Managed huge patronage system Control over “rubber-stamp” Congress

President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) –relinquished number of traditional powers of the president, including naming the PRI candidate for the 2000 election

President Fox inherited the presidency in a time of transition President still viewed as all powerful, but blamed for shortcomings Harder for Fox to accomplish political goals without strong party support in

the post-PRI Congress

Bureaucracy About 1.5 million people employed by federal

government (Most in Mexico City)

High & Middle level officials have a good deal of power

Under PRI corruption and bribes quite common amongst officials in the bureaucracy

Parastatal Sector – semiautonomous government agencies that often produce goods & services◦ PEMEX◦ After 1980’s oil bust reforms cut the number of para-

statals, and many are now privately owned◦ President Fox tried unsuccessfully to privatize PEMEX

Legislature Bicameral

Chamber of Deputies (500-member) 300 deputies from single-member districts

(plurality) 200 deputies chosen by proportional

representation Senate (128-member)

3 senators from each of the 31 states & the federal district(96)

Remaining 32 selected by proportional representation

All legislators directly elected Until 1980s legislature remained under strict control of the

president PRI’s lost hold on legislature earlier than it did on the

presidency Lost majority in the Chamber of Deputies in 1997 Women in both houses has risen significantly since 1996

election law required parties to sponsor female candidates Parties must run at least 30% female candidates for proportional

representation and single-member district elections 113 of 500 deputies in Chamber are female 20 of 128 Senators are also female

Judiciary Strong judicial branch necessary for a country to operate

on the “Rule of Law” Mexico does not have an independent judiciary or

judicial review system Most laws are federal, limiting the authority of state

courts

Supreme Court On paper has judicial review, but it never overrules important

government policy or actions Historically has been controlled by the executive branch Judges appointed for life, but in practice resigned at the beginning

of each sexenio President Ernesto Zedillo (1994-2000) attempted to strengthen

courts by emphasizing the rule of law, he refused to interfere with court judgments and President Fox continued this policy

Fox tried to work for an independent judiciary but seems to have come up short on this endeavor

Military Dominated Mexican political life into the early 20th century

PRI dramatically cutback the political power of generals (even former military generals who became presidents acted to separate the military from politics)

Calles and Cardenas de-politicized the military Continually moved generals to different regions of the country not allowing

them to develop a regional base of power Presidents traded favors with military officers to allow them economic power,

if not political power

Government control of the military one of PRI’s most important accomplishments

Strong ties between military officers and drug barons Military heavily involved in drug-enforcement Patron-client system of favors and loyalty has led some military officers to

accept money from drug lords in return for allegiance and security General Jesus Gutierrez Rebollo (Head of anti-drug task force) arrested in

1997 on accusations of protecting a drug lord

XIX. Policies & IssuesEconomy

◦ “Mexican Miracle” 1940-1960 economy grew more than 6% per year Industrial production up nearly 9% per year

during 1960s Agricultural share of production down: 25% to

11% Manufacturing share of production up: 25% to

34%

◦ Problems Growing gap between rich & poor Rapid/Unplanned Urbanization

Economics IIDebt Crisis

Mexican government borrowed heavily in order to industrialize

Most of the economic growth based on oil economy

Oil plummet in 1982, caused Mexican economy to plummet as well

1987, Mexico over $107 billion in debt, debt represented 70% of GNP

Economics III Reform

Begun by President Miguel de la Madrid in 1982, continued by presidents Salinas & Zedillo (the tecnicos)

◦ Sharp cuts in Government Spending – according to agreements with the IMF, World Bank, and the U.S. Mexico greatly reduced government spending by eliminating public enterprises, cutting government subsidies, and cutting hundreds of thousands of public jobs

◦ Debt Reduction – with assistance from U.S. the Mexican government reached agreement to reduce interest rates on loans and allow for more lenient repayment plans. Mexico still pays on average about $10 billion a year on loan interests

◦ Privatization – many government industries were privatized, in 1990 President Salinas returned the banks to the private sector. Special laws like duty-free importing of components and cheap labor led foreign companies to invest in Mexican manufacturing plants

Between 2001 and 2003 Mexico economy suffered from the post-September 11 U.S. recession. In 2004, the economy grew by 4.1% but an estimated 40% of the Mexican population still lived below the poverty line

Foreign PolicyGATT/WTO – in 1986 Mexico joined the

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the precursor to the World Trade Organization

NAFTA – economics still dominates even in terms of foreign policy

Immigration & Drug Trafficking – America still the key focus for Mexican foreign policy

Issues of Democracy Election Reform

CFE (Federal Election Reform) – created as an independent regulatory body to safeguard honest and accurate election results

Campaign Finance Restriction – laws that limit campaign contributions

International Watch Teams – so Mexico could convince other countries that elections are fair and competitive

Election monitoring – done by opposition party members

Fox’s LegacyPluralism

Decentralization

Electoral Reform

Rule of Law

Anti-Narcotics Policy

“Ya Basta” Zapatista Movement Lives On (EZLN) EZLN – began in 1994 in Chiapas in protest of the signing of the NAFTA

treaty

Viewed agreement as a continued exploitation of landowners and PRI bosses

EZLN captured four towns demanding jobs, land, housing, food, health, education, independence, freedom, democracy, justice and peace

Rebellion originally based on ethnicity – Amerindian – but spread to other factions of society

Zapatista supporters were black ski masks to hide their identity from the government

Although a moderate truce was announced with the government, the Fox administration was unable to negotiate a settlement to the dispute with the Zapatistas despite numerous efforts to do so

Zapatistas represent the stance against all that is still wrong with Mexican politics