Mexico Chapter 10. 10 | 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. SECTION 1 THE MAKING OF THE MODERN MEXICAN STATE

MexicoMexico

Chapter 10

10 | 2Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

SECTION 1SECTION 1

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN MEXICAN THE MAKING OF THE MODERN MEXICAN STATESTATE



Politics in ActionPolitics in Action• 2006: Felipe Calderón became president.

– Day earlier Andres Manuel López Obrador had declared himself the legitimate president.o Members of Party of the Democratic Revolution vowed to prevent

Calderon from taking office.

– Election had been close, with allegations of fraud on all sides.

• Political and economic dissatisfaction continues today.– Daunting challenges:

o Restoring sense of securityo Establishing the rule of law and impunity

Police forces and criminal justice system undergoing reformo Reducing inequality o Creating jobs and opportunities







Geographic Setting• Second largest nation in Latin America; Portuguese speaking• Diverse population:

– Sixty percent is mestizo.o Mestizo —a person of mixed white, indigenous (Amerindian), and

sometimes African descent.o AmerindiansAmerindians—original peoples of North and South America;

indigenous people.

– Largest indigenous groups indigenous groups are the Maya and Náhuatl. o Indigenous groups Indigenous groups —population of Amerindian heritage in Mexico.

– Men and women seek job opportunities in maquiladorasmaquiladoras, or assembly industries.

o Maquiladoras Maquiladoras —factories that produce goods for export, often located along the United States-Mexican border.









Critical JuncturesCritical Junctures Independence and Instability (1810–1876)Independence and Instability (1810–1876)• 1521 Hernán Cortés toppled Aztec; thus Spain began its rule,

which would expand over three centuries.• “New Spain” was designed to:

– Extract wealth from the territory, ensuring flow to mother country

– Ensure commitment to Roman Catholic Church– Subordination of Amerindian population

• 1810 Miguel Hidalgo, parish priest, began wars for independence.

– Mexico gained independence in 1821.



Independence and Instability (1810–1876) (ContIndependence and Instability (1810–1876) (Cont’’d)d)• United States declares war on border dispute in 1846

– Resulted in 1848 treaty entitling land that became states of New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, California, and part of Colorado for $18 million.

– Legacy of Mexican resentment towards the United States.

• Constitution of 1857 incorporated a somewhat democratic government, a bill of rights, and limitations on the power of the church.

• 1861: Occupation by Great Britain and France to collect debts– Reign of Emperor Maximilian (1864–1867)

• 1867: Benito Juárez, President



The Porfiriato (1876–1911)The Porfiriato (1876–1911)• Retired general Porfirio Díaz becomes President in 1876• Established dictatorship, known as Porfiriato

– Lasted for 34 years– Welcomed at first for stability– Highly centralized authoritarian system to create political

order and economic progress imposed by Díazo Relied on clique of advisors known as científicos (scientists) to

adopt European foreign investment and amass personal fortunes.

o Citizens dissatisfied with greed of government and lack of opportunities.



The Revolution of 1910 and the Sonoran Dynasty The Revolution of 1910 and the Sonoran Dynasty (1910–1934)(1910–1934)

• Revolution 1910 brought end to Porfiriato.• 1910: Francisco I. Madero, president

– Díaz was jailed and forced into exile.– Madero assassinated during coup dcoup d’’état état in 1913

o Coup dCoup d’’éatéat—forceful, extra-constitutional action resulting in removal of an existing government.

o Wealthy landowners took over lands of villagers. Emiliano Zapata manifesto, the Plan de Ayala, became

part of Constitution of 1917.





The Revolution of 1910 and the Sonoran Dynasty The Revolution of 1910 and the Sonoran Dynasty (1910–1934) (Cont(1910–1934) (Cont’’d)d)

• Pancho Villa rallied army to challenge national army– Combined military maneuvers with banditry, looting,

warlordism– United States invaded Mexico to punish Villa

o Failed to locate Villa and increased hostility toward United States




• Mexican Constitution 1917– Established formal set of political institutions and guaranteed

citizens a range of progressive social and economic rights: o agrarian reform, social security, right to organize in unions, minimum

wage, an eight-hour workday, profit sharing for workers, universal secular education, and adult male suffrage.

o Did not provide for women suffrage

– Only Mexican citizens or the government could own land or rights to water and other natural resources.

– Limited power of the Roman Catholic Church




• Power consolidated in hands of Sonoran Dynasty, under Plutarco Elías Calles

– Emerged as supreme leader (jefe máximo)

• Calles emerged as president (1924–1928) and selected successors.

– Accompanied by anticlericalismanticlericalism, resulting in warfare between government and Catholic Church

o anticlericalismanticlericalism—opposition to the power of churches or clergy in politics

– Resulted in nonviolent conflict resolution among elites and uninterrupted rule under International Revolutionary Party.




• Five results of revolution:– Power of traditional landowners was undercut.– Influence of Catholic Church was reduced.– Power of foreign investors was severely limited.– New political elite consolidated power and agreed to bargain

to resolve differences.– New constitution and new party established basis for strong

central government.



LLázaro Cárdenas, Agrarian Reform, and the ázaro Cárdenas, Agrarian Reform, and the Workers (1934 –1940)Workers (1934 –1940)

• Lázaro Cárdenas established his own supremacy.– Mobilized peasants and workers in pursuit of radical goals of

1910– Tremendous land distributiono Distributed in form of ejidosejidos (collective land grants) to peasant

groupso Ejidatarios became supporters of government . EjidatarioEjidatario—recipient of an ejido land grant in Mexico.

– Cárdenas encouraged workers to form unions, demand higher wages, and better working conditions.

– Cárdenas years witnessed great expansion of role of state o Encouraged investment in industrializationo Provided credit to agricultureo Created infrastructure



The Politics of Rapid Development (1940–1982)The Politics of Rapid Development (1940–1982)• Cárdenas’s successors counteracted his reforms.

– Leaders developed patronage machine and used organizations in return for political favors.o Exchange relationships known as clientelismclientelism

ClientelismClientelism—patron offers resources in return for support and services.

– Presidents reoriented country away from egalitarian goals to industrialization and accumulation of wealth.o Economic growth high during 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s

• Economic crisis in 1970s short-lived with discovery of vast amounts of oil.

• New economic crisis in 1980s as oil prices plunged.



Crisis and Reform (1982–2000)Crisis and Reform (1982–2000)• Economic crisis led to reversal of development strategy.

– Limit government role in economy, increase exports– Effort to integrate Mexico into global economy includes signing of

North American Free Trade Agreement 1993 (NAFTANAFTA)o NAFTANAFTA—Jan., 1994: Treaty among United States, Mexico, and Canada

that largely eliminates trade barriers among the three nations and establishes procedures to resolve trade disputes.

• Economic development tied to international economic conditions.

• Economic crises 1994 and 2008– Economic crisis of 1990s accompanied by political instability.

o Rebellion of Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN)o Assassination of President Luis Donaldo Colosio on March 23, 1994

• Vincente Fox—(2000) First non-PRI president in 70 years.



Since 2000: Mexico as a Multi-Party DemocracySince 2000: Mexico as a Multi-Party Democracy• Fox’s reform program difficult to implement

– Lacked experience and congressional majority– Turned to international policy, particularly United States migration

policy o September 11 refocused United States away from Mexico and Latin

Americao Migration policy failed.

• Calderón elected – Obrador refused to concede, alleging fraud

o Declared himself “legitimate” presidento Divided opposition, allowing Calderón to consolidate power

– Able to achieve major legislative goals – Declared war on drug lords and drug trafficking



Themes and ImplicationsThemes and Implications Historical Junctures and Political ThemesHistorical Junctures and Political Themes• Modern Mexican state emerged from revolution.

– Goals: democracy, social justice, national control of resources

– State created conditions for political and social peace and belief that it could improve the quality of life.

– Early 1980s—aspired to status of newly industrialized newly industrialized countries (NICs)countries (NICs)

o Newly industrialized countries (NICs)Newly industrialized countries (NICs) —Countries that achieved rapid economic development beginning in the 1960s, largely stimulated by robust international trade (particularly exports) and guided by government policies. o Concern that this puts Mexico in a position subordinate to the

Unites States



Historical Junctures and Political Themes (ContHistorical Junctures and Political Themes (Cont’’d)d)• After 1910 Revolution, representation through government-

mediated organizations within corporatist statecorporatist state– Corporatist stateCorporatist state—a state in which interest groups become

an institutionalized part of the structure.o Increased state power in relation to civil society civil society —space

occupied by voluntary associations outside the state; for example, professional associations (lawyers, doctors, teachers), trade unions, student and women’s groups, religious bodies, and other voluntary association groups.

– State goals were defined and indoctrination used to legitimize this as a state action.

– State had resources to control or co-opt dissent and purchase political loyalty.



Implications for Comparative PoliticsImplications for Comparative Politics• Mexican political system stability unique among developing

countries– Model based on alliance between dominant party and strong,

development-oriented state

• Oil rich, upper-middle-income developing country– Oil is vulnerable source of revenue.– Economic inequality stems from the way economic growth

and industrialization were promoted.




SECTION 2SECTION 2

POLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENTPOLITICAL ECONOMY AND DEVELOPMENT

State and EconomyState and Economy• Policymakers during Porfiriato linked economic growth to export of

raw materials.– Efforts to attract domestic and international investment

encouraged major boom.

• Postrevolutionary Mexico combines nationalism with social justice.– Adopted strategy of state capitalismstate capitalism to guide industrial and

agricultural growth o State capitalismState capitalism—System that is primarily capitalistic but in which

there is some degree of government ownership of the means of production.



Import Substitution and Its ConsequencesImport Substitution and Its Consequences• 1940–1982: Followed import substituting industrialization import substituting industrialization

(ISI)(ISI)– Import substituting industrialization (ISI)Import substituting industrialization (ISI)—Strategy for

industrialization based on domestic manufacture of previously imported goods to satisfy domestic market demands.

• Agrarian reform in 1930s created ejido.– Development of private agriculture after Cárdenas left office– Adoption of Green revolution Green revolution technologyo Green RevolutionGreen Revolution—Strategy for increasing agricultural (especially

food) production, involving improved seeds, irrigation, and abundant use of fertilizers.

• Domestic entrepreneurs developed relationship with state.– Protected by government policies – Commercially-oriented farmers emerged to dominate the

agricultural economy.





Import Substitution and Its Consequences (ContImport Substitution and Its Consequences (Cont’’d)d)• Economic and political development had costs.

– Government policies limited growth potential.– Shift from labor-intensive to capital-intensive industries

limited generation of new jobs.– Growth of inequality, informal sector (economy)informal sector (economy)o Informal sector economyInformal sector economy—workers who produced and sold goods

and services at the margin of the economic system and faced extreme insecurity.o Disparities in rural and urban incomes encouraged rural

guerrilla movements and student protests emerged.

– By 1960s, country was no longer able to meet domestic demands for food.



Sowing the Oil and Reaping a CrisisSowing the Oil and Reaping a Crisis• Mexico became major oil exporter.

– Revenues were invested in all sectors and poverty reduction programs started.

• Economy vulnerable to change in oil prices– Oil prices dropped in 1982.

o United States tightened monetary policy; increased interest rates.o Foreign debt mounted.

• Implications of crisis on structures of power and privilege

– Import substitute created inefficiencies in production.– Failed to generate sufficient employment– Cost government far too much in subsidies– Increased dependency on industrialized countries– Shift in employment from formal to informal caused

fragmentation



New Strategies: Structural Reforms and NAFTANew Strategies: Structural Reforms and NAFTA• Demands to deal with economic and political crisis

– Weakening of political power centers provided opportunity to reorient economic development strategyo Deregulation gave private sector more freedom.o Overhaul of federal system, delegating more power to state and

local governments

• North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA)– Increased vulnerability to international economy– Linked Mexican and United States economies– Led to economic crises of 1994 and recession of 1995



Society and EconomySociety and Economy• Mexico’s economic development impacted social conditions.

– Standard of living rose after 1940s– Development of middle class– Social progress could have been better.– Increased economic inequality

o Rural areas particularly impoverished

– South and central regions worse off than north– Economic crisis of 1980s hurt social conditions.

o Rise of informal sectoro Reduced quality and availability of social services



Mexico in the Global EconomyMexico in the Global Economy• Mexico’s international economic policies altered by 1982 crisis

– Government pursued outward-oriented policies.o Relaxed trade and investment barriers and encouraged production of

exportso Joined General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)o Signed trade pactso Ratified North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA)

Seen as having benefits and risks

• Further changes with 1994 crisis– $50 billion economic assistance program by United States,

Europe, and IMF– Imposed economic stabilization package—containing austerity

measures, higher interest rates, and limits on wages.

• Globalization has increased government transparency.


SECTION 3SECTION 3

GOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKINGGOVERNANCE AND POLICY-MAKING

Organization of the StateOrganization of the State• Constitution of 1917—supreme law of land

– Three branches with checks and balances

– Two chamber legislature:o Senate:

128 senators are elected (three from each of the country’s 31 states) and 3 from the Federal District.

32 are elected nationally by proportional representation (PR) proportional representation (PR)

Proportional representation (PR)Proportional representation (PR)——system of political representation in which seats are allocated to parties within multimember constituencies, roughly in proportion to the votes each party receives.



Organization of the State (ContOrganization of the State (Cont’’d)d)• Constitution of 1917—supreme law of land (Cont’d)

– Two chamber legislature (Cont’d)

o Chamber of Deputies 500 members are elected from 300 electoral districts by

simple majority; 200 by proportional representation.

– Deputies and municipal officers have three-year terms.

– Constitution is easily amended and includes human, economic, and social rights.

– Political system is still fairly centralized.

– Executive initiates policy and manages political conflict.

– President, governors, and senators are elected for six years, referred to as the sexeniosexenio—six year administration.



The ExecutiveThe Executive The President and the CabinetThe President and the Cabinet• President is central institution of governance and policy-making.• Until 1990s: Incumbent selected candidate from Institutional

Revolutionary Party, appointed officials, named other candidates as governors, senators, and so on.

• Currently, president sets outline of policy and uses resources to ensure adoption.

• Powers of president:– Formal powers: Initiate legislation, lead foreign policy, create

agencies– Informal power: Make policy by decree and through

administrative regulations and procedures



The President and the Cabinet (ContThe President and the Cabinet (Cont’’d)d)• Although powerful, not omnipotent; constitutional and

traditional limitations– One six-year term, after which they exit political limelight– Demonstrate loyalty to Mexican nationalism

• Since 1970s, Presidents have been trained in economics and management.

– By 1980s, divide between políticos (politicians) and técnicos técnicos (technocrats) (technocrats) had emerged within national political elite.o TechnocratsTechnocrats—career-minded bureaucrats who administer

public policy according to a technical rather than political rationale.

• President names cabinet and appoints other high-level positions, increasing his control over government.



The BureaucracyThe Bureaucracy• Bureaucracy is large and powerful.

– Lower level personnel are unionized and protected by legislation that gives them job security and a range of benefits.

– Middle and upper levels are called “confidence employees”—serve as long as their bosses have confidence in them.o Meager salary, but wield significant power in public affairs

o Others take bribes or use other means to promote personal interests.



The Parastatal SectorThe Parastatal Sector• The parastatal parastatal sector was powerful in Mexico prior to the

1990s.– ParastatalsParastatals —State-owned, or at least state-controlled, corporations,

created to undertake a broad range of activities, from control and marketing of agricultural production to provision of banking services, operating airlines, and other transportation facilities and public utilities.

– Important in government support of economic development

– Trimmed by economic reforms of 1980so Privatization of industries

o Nationalist political actors insist on importance of public ownership of key industries.



Other State InstitutionsOther State Institutions The MilitaryThe Military• Military marginalized from political power • Military has dealt with domestic unrest and natural disasters.

– Involved in human rights abuses in 1970s

• Involved in combating drug trafficking – Rumors of military deals with drug barons• Citizenship have more respect for armed forces than police

forces, which are widely regarded as corrupt and ineffective.





The JudiciaryThe Judiciary• Mexican law based on Roman and Napoleonic tradition

– Formal and explicit – No punitive damages allowed – Amparo—citizens ask for writ of protection claiming

constitutional rights violated by government action or law.

• Federal and state courts– Federal system includes Supreme Court (important cases),

circuit courts (appeals), district courts (cases entering system).

– Specialized federal courts include labor, military, electoral.

• Historically, judicial is politically subordinate to executive.– Reforms underway, but exceedingly slow



Subnational GovernmentSubnational Government• Regional and local government differs from constitution in

practice.• Each state has own constitution, executive, unicameral

legislature, judiciary.• Municipalities governed by elected mayors and councils.• State and municipal governments poor

– Funds transferred from central government – Little capacity to raise their own revenue– Staff not well trained or well paid

• Efforts at decentralization since 1990s – Some local resistance due to work load and budgets



The Policy-Making ProcessThe Policy-Making Process• Mexico dependent on presidential understanding of economic and

social policy impacts– New presidents can extensively change government personnel.

o High and middle levels share and are motivated to carry out goals.o Ability to quickly change policy

• President and bureaucracy focus of policy formulation and political management.

– Legislative majority until 1997 provided rubber stamp of president-sponsored legislation.

– Since 1997 congress more active in policy-makingo Presidential legislation not guaranteed passage

• Presidential power limited during policy implementation– President may not always deliver on intentions.


SECTION 4SECTION 4

REPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATIONREPRESENTATION AND PARTICIPATION

The LegislatureThe Legislature• Because of overwhelming dominance of ruling party, opposition to

presidential initiatives was rarely heard.– If no agreement with policy, they counted on flexibility and after-

the-fact bending of rules or disregard of measures that they felt were harmful to interests.

• Since end of 1980s, representation became more diverse.– Number of political parties now represented– Women have begun to be elected to more positions.– Representatives from ranks of community activists

• Since 1990s role of legislature in policy process has been strengthened because of lost of stranglehold by PRI.

• Congress has evolved from rubber-stamp institution to one that must be negotiated by executive branch.





Political Parties and the Party SystemPolitical Parties and the Party System• Multiple parties have existed in Mexico.

– Electoral reforms made it easier for opposition parties to contest elections and win seats in legislature.o 1990: Electoral commission created to regulate campaigns and

elections.o All parties receive government funding and have access to media.o Campaign financing law was passed in 2008.





The PRIThe PRI• Institutional Revolutionary Party founded by coalition of political

elites who preferred compromise to violence– 1930s: Forerunner was mass-based party.– Principle activities to generate support for government, organize

electorate, distribute patronage

• Party organization based on corporate representation of class interests until 1990s

– Labor represented by Confederation of Mexican Workers (CTM)o Best organized and most powerful

– Peasants represented by National Peasant Confederation (CNC)o Source of strongest support

– Popular sector less cohesive but represented by National Confederation of Popular Organizations (CNOP)



The PRI (ContThe PRI (Cont’’d)d)• Institutional Revolutionary Party functioned through extended

networks that distributed public resources to activists, who controlled local votes.

– Ambitious developed networks of patrons to whom they delivered votes from clients, who received public resources.

– Power was centralized and sectors responded to elites rather than members.o Sectors became associated with corruption, bossism, centralized

control, lack of effective participation.

• By 1980s: New generations less reliant on patronage politics and willing to question party

– 1988 election demonstrated relevance of changing demographic.

• It is still only party that has a presence in every region of the country.





The PANThe PAN• 1939: National Action Party (PAN) founded to represent

interests opposed to centralization and anticlericalism of PRI– Founders believed strong opposition party needed.– Strongest in northern states where opposition to Mexico City

is strong– Primarily urban middle class identified with private sector– Platform generally regional autonomy, less government

intervention, reduced business regulation, fair elections, relationship with Catholic Church, support for private and religious education

• National Action Party increased power in 1980s and 1990s.– Used economic crises and political reforms– Plurality of seats in Congress by 2006



The PAN (ContThe PAN (Cont’’d)d)• Nominated Fox for president in 2000

– Not longstanding party membero Party insiders worked to limit his ability to run for office, forcing

him to find other sources of funding.

– When he won, party was weak and not united behind him.– Unable to capitalize on electoral victory, allowing party

insiders to regain control and nominate Calderón

• As of 2011, PAN controls the governships of seven states, is the largest party in the Mexican Senate, and the second-largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, after the PRI.



The PRDThe PRD• Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD)

– Populist, nationalist, leftist– Candidate in 1988 and 1994 was Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas,

son of Mexico’s most famous president.o Rejected from Institutional Revolutionary Party when demanded

internal party reform and social justice platformo Benefited from Institutional Revolutionary Party defectiono Challenged vote counts

• Internal divisions over platform, leadership, organizational structure, election strategy

• Obrador was elected party leader in1996.• Institutional Revolutionary Party and National Action Party

have effectively formed an alliance excluding Democratic Revolutionary Party.



Other PartiesOther Parties• Smaller parties contest elections.

– These are: Convergencia (Convergence); Partido del Trabajo (PT, Labor Party): Partido Verde Ecologista Mexicana (PVEM, Green Party); and Partido Nueva Alianza (New Alliance Party).

• Mexican law requires parties to receive at least 2.5 percent of vote to compete in future elections.

– Long-term viability of small parties questionable– Win some of the proportional representation seats in

Chamber of Deputies and Senate– Gain power through alliances with larger parties

o Endorse candidate or party slate

• Some small parties have clear platforms while others appear opportunistic in alliances.



ElectionsElections• Three main parties draw voters from wide, overlapping spectrum,

yet each has a typical voter.– Institutional Revolutionary Party—rural, older, poorer, less

educatedo Support vulnerable to economic and demographic changes

– National Action Party—northern, urban, middle-class professional, high school or above

– Democratic Revolutionary Party—young, political activist, central states, urban or small town, high school or less

• Voting for opposition parties is urban phenomenon.• Electoral reforms made it easier for opposition parties.

– Elections more competitive and fair since 1994



Political Culture, Citizenship, and IdentityPolitical Culture, Citizenship, and Identity• Most Mexicans understand political system and its benefits.

– Understand informal ruleso Clientelism allows participation at all levels.

• New ways of interacting with government are emerging.– Coexist with clientelism– Negotiate with government on basis of citizenship rights– Organizations forming coalitions– Role of public opinion and media more important

o Media became more independent in 1980s.



Interests, Social Movements, and ProtestInterests, Social Movements, and Protest• Mexican political system responded to groups of citizens by

pragmatical accommodationaccommodation of their interests.– AccommodationAccommodation—Informal agreement or settlement between government

and important interest groups that is responsive to the interest groups’ concerns for policy or program benefits.

• As PRI no longer monopolizes political power, the power of union bosses has declined.

• Since 1994, Zapatista have become focal point for rights of indigenous groups and rural poverty.

• Civic organizations operate at community and local levels independent of politics.

– Globalization has brought to surface issues such as abortion and gay rights.




SECTION 5SECTION 5

MEXICAN POLITICS IN TRANSITIONMEXICAN POLITICS IN TRANSITION

Political Challenges and Changing AgendasPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas• Mexico tests democratic idea in a state with a history of

authoritarian institutions.– Make government more transparent

• Efforts to increase transparency being hindered

– Improve state of human rights• Opening of military and secret police files

• Ratification of Inter-American Convention on Enforced Disappearance of Persons

• Although human rights are much more likely to be protected than in the past, the government still has a long way to go in safeguarding the rights of the Mexican people.



Political Challenges and Changing Agendas (ContPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas (Cont’’d)d)• Challenges to reflect ethnic and religious diversity and provide

equity for women in economic and political affairs– Movement of ethnic groups demanding justice and equality– Roman Catholic Church losing member to Protestant sects that

appeal to concerns of poor Mexicans– Women have a long way to go before equal wages or equal voice

in politics.

• National identity affected by global economic integration and international migration.

– Labor migration to the United States o Cash remittances are important income.o Border control issues, especially since 9/11o Difference in job opportunities and wages



Political Challenges and Changing Agendas (ContPolitical Challenges and Changing Agendas (Cont’’d)d)• Mexico being challenged to improve social conditions

– In past social services used to increase political control– Some argue for expanded employment and economic growth, but

requires improved education.– Others look to understand the causes of poverty.– Populace does not believe that government has the capacity to

provide conditions fairly and efficiently.



Mexican Politics in Comparative PerspectiveMexican Politics in Comparative Perspective• Mexico confronts same challenges as other countries in unique

historical and institutional context• Mexico has tradition of relatively strong institutions

– Not likely to devolve to sustained political instability

• Pivotal case of political and economic transition for developing world

– Bridge gap between past and future– Move from centralization to effective local governance – Move from regional vulnerability to global interdependence – Move from control of few to participation of many

Documents

Mexico Chapter 10. 10 | 2 Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. SECTION 1 THE MAKING OF THE MODERN MEXICAN STATE