Julio SanchezEastern Florida State College

Maria P. CantonBrevard Public Schools

CRC Press@Taylor&Francis GroupBoca Raton London NewYork

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor fa Francis Croup, an informa business

Table of Contents

Preface xx

Chapter 1 Microcontrollers for Embedded Systems 1

1.1 Embedded Systems 1

1.2 Microchip PIC 1

1.2.1 PIC Architecture 2

1.2.2 Programming the PIC 2

PIC Programmers 3

Development Boards 4

1.3 PIC Architecture 4

1.3.1 Baseline PIC Family 5

PICK) devices 6

PIC12 Devices 7

1.3.2 Mid-Range Family 9

PIC14 Devices 9

PIC16 Devices 9

1.3.3 High-Performance PICs and DSPs 10

Digital Signal Processor 11

Analog-to-Digital 12

Chapter 2 PIC18 Architecture 13

2.1 PIC18 Family Overview 13

2.1.1 PIC18FXX2 Group 14

2.1.2 PIC18FXX2 Device Group Overview 15

2.1.3 PIC18F4X2 Block Diagram 16

2.1.4 Central Processing Unit 17

Status Register 17

Program Counter Register 17

Hardware Multiplier 18

Interrupts 18

2.1.5 Special CPU Features 19

Watchdog Timer 20

Wake-Up by Interrupt 21

Low Voltage Detection 21

Device Configuration 21

2.2 Memory Organization 22

2.2.1 Program Memory 22

v

vi Table of Contents

2.2.2 18FXX2 Stack 23

Stack Operations 23

Fast Register Stack 24

Instructions in Memory 25

2.2.3 Data Memory 25

2.2.4 Data EEPROM Memory 27

2.2.5 Indirect Addressing 28

2.3 PIC18FXX2 Oscillator 29

2.3.1 Oscillator Options 29

Crystal Oscillator and Ceramic Resonator 29

RC Oscillator 30

External Clock Input 31

Phase Locked Loop Oscillator Mode 31

2.4 System Reset 31

2.4.1 Reset Action 32

Power-On Reset (POR) 33

Power-Up Timer (PWRT) 33

Oscillator Start-Up Timer (OST) 33

PLL Lock Time-Out 33

Brown-Out Reset (BOR) 33

Time-Out Sequence 33

2.5 I/O Ports 34

2.5.1 Port Registers 34

2.5.2 Parallel Slave Port 35

2.6 Internal Modules 35

2.6.1 PIC18FXX2 Modules 35

Chapter 3 Programming Tools and Software 37

3.1 Environment 37

3.1.1 Embedded Systems 37

3.1.2 High-and Low-Level Languages 38

3.1.3 Language-Specific Software 40

3.2 Microchip's MPLAB 40

3.2.1 MPLAB X 40

3.2.2 Development Cycle 40

3.3 An Integrated Development Environment 41

3.3.1 Installing MPLAB 42

3.3.2 Creating the Project 43

3.3.3 Setting the Project Build Options 45

3.3.4 Adding a Source File 47

3.3.5 Building the Project 48

3.3.6 .hex File 48

3.3.7 Quickbuild Option 50

3.4 MPLAB Simulators and Debuggers 50

3.4.1 MPLAB SIM 51

Using Breakpoints 51

Watch Window 52

Simulator Trace 52

3.4.2 MPLAB Stimulus 54

Stimulus Dialog 54

3.4.3 MPLAB Hardware Debuggers 55

Table of Contents vii

3.4.4 An Improvised Debugger 56

3.5 Development Programmers 56

3.5.1 Microchip PICkit 2 and PICkit 3 58

3.5.2 Micropro USB PIC Programmer 60

3.5.3 MPLAB ICD 2 and ICD 3 In-Circuit Debuggers/Programmers 60

3.6 Test Circuits and Development Boards 61

3.6.1 Commercial Development Boards 61

3.6.2 Circuit Prototype 63

3.6.3 Breadboard 64

Limitations of Breadboards 65

Breadboarding Tools and Techniques 66

3.6.4 Wire Wrapping 67

3.6.5 Perfboards 67

3.6.6 Printed Circuit Boards 68

Chapter 4 Assembly Language Program 71

4.1 Assembly Language Code 71

4.1.1 A Coding Template 71

Program Header 73

Program Environment Directives 73

Configuration Bits 73

Error Message Level Control 74

Variables and Constants 74

Code Area and Interrupts 74

4.1.2 Programming Style 74

Source File Comments 75

4.2 Defining Data Elements 75

4.2.1 equ Directive 76

4.2.2 cblock Directive 76

4.2.3 Access to Banked Memory 77

4.3 Naming Conventions 77

4.3.1 Register and Bit Names 77

4.4 PIC 18Fxx2 Instruction Set 79

4.4.1 Byte-Oriented Instructions 80

4.4.2 Bit-Oriented Instructions 80

4.4.3 Literal Instructions 80

4.4.4 Control Instructions 80

Chapter 5 PIC18 Programming in C Language 85

5.1 C Compilers 85

5.1.1 C versus Assembly Language 85

5.1.2 MPLAB C18 86

5.2 MPLAB C18 Installation 86

5.2.1 MPLAB Software Components 87

5.2.2 Configuration Options 88

5.2.3 System Requirements 89

5.2.4 Execution Flow 90

5.3 C Compiler Project 91

5.3.1 Creating the Project 91

viii Table of Contents

Select Hardware Device 92

Select the Language Toolsuite 92

Create a New Project 93

Add Files to the Project 95

5.3.2 Selecting the Build Directory 96

5.4 A First Program in C 98

5.4.1 Source Code Analysis 99

main() Function 100

Local Functions 101

Chapter 6 C Language in an Embedded Environment 103

6.1 MPLAB C18 System 103

6.1.1 PIC18 Extended Mode 104

6.2 MPLAB C18 Libraries 104

6.2.1 Start-Up Routines 104

6.2.2 Online Help for C18 and Libraries 105

6.3 Processor-Independent Libraries 106

6.3.1 General Software Library 106

Character Classification Functions 107

Data Conversion Functions 107

Memory and String Manipulation Functions 108

Delay Functions 110

Reset Functions 111

Character Output Functions 112

6.4 Processor-Specific Libraries 115

6.4.1 Hardware Peripheral Library Functions 115

6.4.2 Software Peripherals Library Functions 116

6.4.3 Macros for Inline Assembly 116

6.4.4 Processor-Specific Header Files 117

6.5 Math Libraries 118

6.5.1 ANSI-IEEE 754 Binary Floating-Point Standard 118

Encodings 119

Rounding 119

6.5.2 Standard Math Library Functions 120

6.5.3 Floating-Point Math Sample Program 120

6.6 C18 Language Specifics 122

6.6.1 C18 Integer Data Types 122

6.6.2 C18 Floating-Point Data Types 122

6.6.3 Endianness 123

6.6.4 Storage Classes 123

6.6.5 Static Function Argument 123

6.6.6 Storage Qualifiers 123

far and near Qualifiers 123

rom and ram Qualifiers 124

Chapter 7 Programming Simple Input and Output 125

7.1 Port-Connected I/O 125

7.1.1 A Simple Circuit and Code 125

7.1.2 Circuit Schematics 125

7.1.3 Assembler Simple I/O Program 126

Table ofContents ix

7.1.4 Assembler Source Code Analysis 129

Command Monitoring Loop 129

Action on the LEDs 130

A Delay Routine 130

7.2 C Language Simple I/O Program 131

7.2.1 C Source Code Analysis 132

main() Function 133

7.3 Seven-Segment LED Programming 134

7.3.1 Computed Goto 135

7.3.2 Assembler Seven-Segment LED Program 136

Access Bank Operation 136

Port A for Digital Operation 137

DIP Switch Processing 138

Seven-Segment Code with Computed Goto 139

7.3.3 Assembler Table Lookup Sample Program 140

7.4 C Language Seven-Segment LED Programs 141

7.4.1 Code Selection by Switch Construct 142

7.4.2 Code Selection by Table Lookup 142

7.5 A Demonstration Board 143

7.6.1 Power Supply 145

Voltage Regulator 145

Chapter 8 Interrupts 147

8.1 Interrupt Mechanism 147

8.2 PIC18 Interrupt System 147

8.2.1 Hardware Sources 148

8.2.2 Interrupt Control and Status Registers 148

INTCON Registers 149

PIE Registers 151

PIR Registers 152

IPR Registers 152

8.2.3 Interrupt Priorities 154

High-Priority Interrupts 154

Low-Priority Interrupts 155

An Interrupt Interrupting Another One 155

8.2.4 Context Saving Operations 155

Context Saving during Low-Priority Interrupts 156

8.3 Port B Interrupts 157

8.3.1 Port B External Interrupt 158

8.3.2 INTO Interrupt Demo Program 158

cblock Directive 158

Vectoring the Interrupt 159

Initialization 160

Setup INTO 160

Program Foreground 161

Interrupt Service Routine 161

Switch Debouncing 162

Interrupt Action 162

8.3.3 Port B Line Change Interrupt 163

Reentrant Interrupts 164

Multiple External Interrupts 165

X Table of Contents

8.3.4 Port B Line Change Interrupt Demo Program 165

Setting Up the Line Change Interrupt 165

Interrupt Service Routine 166

8.4 Sleep Mode and Interrupts 168

8.4.1 Wake-Up from SLEEP 169

8.4.2 Sleep_Demo Program 170

8.5 Interrupt Programming in C Language 171

8.5.1 Interrupt Action 171

Context in the Stack 172

Interrupt Data 172

8.5.2 Interrupt Programming in C18 173

Sleep Mode and RBO Interrupt Demo Program 174

Port B Interrupt on Change Demo Program 176

Chapter 9 Delays, Counters, and Timers 179

9.1 PIC18 Family Timers 179

9.2 Delay Timers 179

9.2.1 Power-Up Timer (PWRT) 179

9.2.2 Oscillator Start-Up Timer (OST) 180

9.2.3 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 180

Power-Up Delay Summary 181

9.2.4 Watchdog Timer 181

Watchdog Timer Uses 181

9.3 Hardware Timer-Counters 182

9.4 TimerO Module 182

9.4.1 TimerO Architecture 184

16-bit Mode Operation 184

Timer and Counter Modes 185

TimerO Interrupt 185

External Clock Source 185

TimerO Prescaler 186

9.4.2 TimerO as a Delay Timer 186

Long Delay Loops 187

Delay Accuracy Issues 188

Black-Ammerman Method 188

Delays with 16-Bit TimerO 189

9.4.3 Counter and Timer Programming 189

Programming a Counter 190

TimerO_as_Counter.asm Program 190

A Timer/Counter Test Circuit 191

TimerO _Delay.asm Program 191

A Variable Time-Lapse Routine 193

TimerO_VarDelay.asm Program 193

Interrupt-Driven Timer 196

9.5 Other Timer Modules 199

9.5.1 Timerl Module 199

TimeM in Timer Mode 200

Timerl in Synchronized Counter Mode 201

External Clock Input Timing in Synchronized Mode 201

Timerl Read and Write Operations 201

16-bit Mode Timerl Write 201

Table of Contents xi

16-Bit Read-Modify-Write 202

Reading and Writing Timed in Two 8-bit Operations 2029.5.2 Timer2 Module

203Timer Clock Source 204TMR2 and PR2 Registers 204Prescaler and Postscaler 205Timer2 Initialization

205

9.5.3 Timer3 Module205

Timer3 in Timer Mode 207Timer3 in Synchronized Counter Mode 207External Clock Input Timing 208

Timer3 in Asynchronous Counter Mode 208External Clock Input Timing with Unsynchronized Clock 208Timer3 Reading and Writing 208Writing in 16-Bit Mode 20816-bit Read-Modify-Write Operation 209Reading in Asynchronous Counter Mode 209Timerl Oscillator in Timer3 210

9.6 C-18 Timer Functions 2109.6.1 CloseTimerx Function 2109.6.2 OpenTimerx Function 2119.6.3 ReadTimerx Function

2119.6.4 WriteTimerx Function 212

9.7 Sample Programs 2129.7.1 TimerO_as_Counter program 2129.7.2 Timer0_Delay Program 2159.7.3 TimerO_VarDelay Program 2169.7.4 Timer0_Varlnt Program 2209.7.5 C_Timer_Show Program 224

Chapter 10 Data EEPROM 227

10.1 EEPROM on the PIC18 Microcontrollers 22710.1.2 On-Board Data EEPROM 227

10.2 EEPROM Programming 22810.2.1 Reading EEPROM Data 22810.2.2 Writing EEPROM Data 230

10.3 Data EEPROM Programming in C Language 23110.3.1 EEPROM Library Functions 23210.3.2 Sample Code 232

10.4 EEPROM Demonstration Programs 23310.4.1 EEPROM_to_7Seg Program 23310.4.2 C_EEPROM_Demo Program 237

Chapter 11 Liquid Crystal Displays 239

11.1 LCD239

11.1.1 LCD Features and Architecture 23911.1.2 LCD Functions and Components 240

Internal Registers 240Busy Flag 240Address Counter

240

xii Table of Contents

Display Data RAM (DDRAM) 240

Character Generator ROM (CGROM) 241

Character Generator RAM (CGRAM) 241

Timing Generation Circuit 241

Liquid Crystal Display Driver Circuit 242

Cursor/Blink Control Circuit 242

11.1.3 Connectivity and Pin Out 242

11.2 Interfacing with the HD44780 243

11.2.1 Busy Flag and Timed Delay Options 244

11.2.2 Contrast Control 245

11.2.3 Display Backlight 245

11.2.4 Display Memory Mapping 245

11.3 The HD44780 Instruction Set 247

11.3.1 Instruction Set Overview 247

Clearing the Display 248

Return Home 248

Entry Mode Set 248

Display and Cursor ON/OFF 248

Cursor/Display Shift 248

Function Set 248

Set CGRAM Address 249

Set DDRAM Address 249

Read Busy Flag and Address Register 249

Write data 249

Read data 250

11.3.2 18F452 8-Bit Data Mode Circuit 250

11.4 LCD Programming 251

11.4.1 Defining Constants and Variables 252

Constants 252

11.4.2 Using MPLAB Data Directives 253

Data Definition in Absolute Mode 253

Relocatable Code 254

Issues with Initialized Data 254

11.4.3 LCD Initialization 255

Reset Function 255

Initialization Commands 256

Function Preset Command 256

Function Set Command 256

Display Off 257

Display and Cursor On 257

Set Entry Mode 258

Cursor and Display Shift 258

Clear Display 258

11.4.4 Auxiliary Operations 259

Time Delay Routine 259

Pulsing the E Line 260

Reading the Busy Flag 261

Bit Merging Operations 262

11.4.5 Text Data Storage and Display 264

Generating and Storing a Text String 265

Data in Program Memory 265

Displaying the Text String 266

Sample Program LCD_18F_MsgFlag 268

Table of Contents xiii

11.5 Data Compression Techniques 278

11.5.1 4-Bit Data Transfer Mode 279

11.5.2 Preserving Port Data 279

11.5.3 Master/Slave Systems 280

11.5.4 4-Bit LCD Interface Sample Programs 281

11.6 LCD Programming in C18 291

11.6.1 Editing xlcd.h 292

Defining the Interface 292

Defining the Data Port and Tris Register 293

11.6.2 Timing Routines 294

11.6.3 XLCD Library Functions 295

BusyXLCD 295

OpenXLCD 296

putrXLCD 296

putsXLCD 296

ReadAddr 296

ReadDataXLCD 297

SetDDRamAddr 297

SetCGRamAddr 297

WriteCmdXLCD 298

WriteDataXLCD 298

11.7 LCD Application Development in C18 299

11.7.1 Using the Project Wizard 299

Main Program File 300

Chapter 12 Real-Time Clocks 303

12.1 Measuring Time 303

12.1.1 Clock Signal Source 303

32 kHz Crystal Circuit 304

12.1.2 Programming the Timerl Clock 305

Setting Up Timerl Hardware 305

Coding the Interrupt Handler 306

Sample Program RTC_18F_Timer1 .asm 306

12.2 Real-Time Clock ICs 309

12.2.1 NJU6355 310

12.2.2 6355 Data Formatting 310

12.2.3 Initialization and Clock Primitives 311

Reading and Writing Clock Data 311

Initialize RTC 314

12.2.4 BCD Conversions 316

12.3 RTC Demonstration Circuit and Program 318

12.3.1 RTC_F18_6355.asm Program 318

Code Details 319

Code Listing 319

12.4 Real-Time Clocks in C18 336

12.4.1 Timerl-Based RTC in C18 336

xiv Table of Contents

Chapter 13 Analog Data and Devices 343

13.1 Operations on Computer Data 343

13.2 18F452 A/D Hardware 343

13.2.1 A/D Module on the 18F452 344

ADCONO Register 345

ADCON1 Register 347

SLEEP Mode Operation 348

13.2.2 A/D Module Sample Circuit and Program 349

Initialize A/D Module 350

A/D Conversion 351

13.2.3 A2D_Pot2LCD Program 352

13.3 A/D Conversion in C18 365

13.3.1 Conversion Primitives 365

Busy ADC 365

CloseADC 365

ConvertADC 366

OpenADC 366

ReadADC 367

SetChan ADC 367

13.3.2 C_ADConvert.c Program 368

C_ADConvert.c Code Listing 368

13.4 Interfacing with Analog Devices 371

13.4.1 LM 34 Temperature Sensor 371

13.4.2 LM135 Circuits 372

Calibrating the Sensor 372

13.4.3 C_ADC_LM35.c Program 373

Chapter 14 Operating Systems 377

14.1 Time-Critical Systems 377

14.1.2 Multitasking in Real-Time 378

14.2 RTOS Scope 378

14.2.1 Tasks, Priorities, and Deadlines 379

14.2.2 Executing in Real-Time 381

14.3 RTOS Programming 381

14.3.1 Foreground and Background Tasks 382

Interrupts in Tasking 382

14.3.2 Task Loops 383

14.3.3 Clock-Tick Interrupt 383

14.3.4 Interrupts in Preemptive Multitasking 383

14.4 Constructing the Scheduler 384

14.4.1 Cyclic Scheduling 384

14.4.2 Round-Robin Scheduling 385

14.4.3 Task States and Prioritized Scheduling 385

14.5 A Small System Example 386

14.5.1 Task Structure 386

14.5.2 Semaphore 387

14.6 Sample OS Application 388

Table of Contents xv

Appendix A MPLAB C18 Language Tutorial 413

A.1 In This Appendix 413

A.1.1 About Programming 413

A.1.2 Communicating with an Alien Intelligence 414

A.1.3 Flowcharting 415

A.1.4 C Language Rules 417

Comments 418

Program Header 418

Programming Templates 419

A.2 Structure of a C Program 419

A.2.1 Sample Program C_LEDs_ON 420

Identifiers 420

Reserved Words 421

main() Function 421

A.2.2 Sample Program C_LEDs_Flash 422

Expressions and Statements 423

Variables 423

Scope and Lifetime of a Variable 425

Constants 426

Local Functions 427

A.2.3 Coding Style 428

A.3 C Language Data 428A.3.1 Numeric Data 429

A.3.2 Alphanumeric Data 430

A.3.3 Arrays of Alphanumeric Data 430

A.3.4 Arrays of Numeric Data 431

A.4 Indirection 431A.4.1 Storage of C Language Variables 432

A.4.2 Address of Operator 432

A.4.3 Indirection Operator 433

A.4.4 Pointers to Array Variables 434

A.4.5 Pointer Arithmetic 435

A.5 C Language Operators 436

A.5.1 Operator Action 436

A.5 2 Assignment Operator 437

A.5.3 Arithmetic Operators 438

Remainder Operator 439

A.5.4 Concatenation 439

A.5.5 Increment and Decrement 440

A.5.6 Relational Operators 441

A.5.7 Logical Operators 442

A.5.8 Bitwise Operators 443

AND Operator 445

OR Operator 446

XOR Operator 447

NOT Operator 447

Shift-Left and Shift-Right Operators 448

A.5.9 Compound Assignment Operators 449

A.5.10 Operator Hierarchy 449

Associativity Rules 450

A.6 Directing Program Flow 451

xvi Table of Contents

A.6.1 Decisions Constructs 451

if Construct 451

Statement Blocks 452

Nested if Construct 452

else Construct 454

Dangling else Case 454

else-if Clause 456

switch Construct 457

Conditional Expressions 460

A.7 Loops and Program Flow Control 460

A.7.1 Loops and Iterations 461

A.7.2 Elements of a Program Loop 461

A.7.3 for Loop 462

Compound Statement in Loops 464

while Loop 464

do-while Loop 465

A.8 Breaking the Flow 466

A.8.1 goto Statement 466

A.8.2 break Statement 467

A.8.3 continue Statement 468

A.9 Functions and Structured Programming 469

A.9.1 Modular Construction 469

A.9.2 Structure of a Function 470

Function Prototype 470

Function Definition 471

Function Call 471

Return Keyword 472

Matching Arguments and Parameters 473

A.10 Visibility of Function Arguments 474

A. 10.1 Using External Variables 474

A. 10.2 Passing Data by Reference 475

Pointers and Functions 475

Passing Array Variables 476

A.10.3 Function-Like Macros 477

Macro Argument 477

A.11 Structures, Bit Fields, and Unions 478

A.11.1 Structure Declaration 478

Structure Type Declaration 479

Structure Variable Declaration 479

A.11.2 Accessing Structure Elements 480

Initializing Structure Variables 481

Manipulating a Bit Field 482

Type Casting 484

A.11.3 Unions 484

A.11.4 Structures and Functions 485

Pointers to Structures 485

Pointer Member Operator 485

Passing Structures to Functions 486

A.11.5 Structures and Unions in MPLAB C18 487

Table of Contents xvii

Appendix B Debugging 18F Devices 491

B.1 Art of Debugging 491

B.1.1 Preliminary Debugging 492

B.1.2 Debugging the Logic 492

B.2 Software Debugging 493

B.2.1 Debugger-Less Debugging 493

B.2.2 Code Image Debugging 493

B.2.3 MPLAB SIM Features 494

Run Mode 494

Step Mode 494

Animate 494

Mode Differences 494

Build Configurations 495

Setting Breakpoints 495

B.2.4 PIC 18 Special Simulations 495

Reset Conditions 495

Sleep 495

Watchdog Timer 496

Special Registers 496

B.2.5 PIC 18 Peripherals 496

B.2.6 MPLAB SIM Controls 497

B.2.7 Viewing Commands 498

Dissasembly Listing 498

File Registers 499

Hardware Stack 500

Locals 500

Program Memory 500

Special Function Registers 501

Watch 502

Watch Window in C Language 504

B.2.8 Simulator and Tracing 504

Setting Up a Trace 505

Trace Menu 506

B.2.9 Stimulus 507

Stimulus Basics 508

Using Stimulus 509

Asynch Tab 510

Message-Based Stimulus 510

Pin/Register Actions Tab 510

Advanced Pin/Register Tab 512

Clock Stimulus Tab 513

Register Injection Tab 514

Register Trace Tab 515

B.3 Hardware Debugging 516

B.3.1 Microchip Hardware Programmers/Debuggers 516

MPLAB ICD2 516

MPLAB ICD3 517

MPLAB ICE 2000 517

MPLAB ICE 4000 518

MPLAB REAL ICE 519

MPLAB PICkit 2 and PICkit 3 519

B.3.2 Using Hardware Debuggers 519

xviii Table of Contents

Which Hardware Debugger? 520

ICSP 520

B.3.3 MPLAB ICD2 Debugger Connectivity 521

Connection from Module to Target 522

Debug Mode Requirements 523

Debug Mode Preparation 523

Debug Ready State 524

Breadboard Debugging 525

B.4 MPLAB ICD 2 Tutorial 526

B.4.1 Circuit Hardware 526

B.4.2 LedFlash_Reloc Program 527

B.4.3 Relocatable Code 527

Header Files 527

Program Memory 527

Configuration Requirements 528

RAM Allocations 528

LedFlash_Reloc.asm Program 529

B.4.4 Debugging Session 531

Appendix C Building Your Own Circuit Boards 533

C. 1 Drawing the Circuit Diagram 533

C.2 Printing the PCB Diagram 535

C.3 Transferring the PCB Image 535

C.4 Etching the Board 536

C.5 Finishing the Board 536

C.6 Backside Image 536

Appendix D PIC18 Instruction Set 539

Appendix E Number Systems and Data Encoding 633

E.1 Decimal and Binary Systems 633

E.1.1 Binary Number System 633

E.1.2 Radix or Base of a Number System 634

E.2 Decimal versus Binary Numbers 634E.2.1 Hexadecimal and Octal 635

E.3 Character Representations 636

E.3.1 ASCII 636

E.3.2 EBCDIC and IBM 638

E.3.3 Unicode 639

E.4 Encoding of Integers 639E.4.1 Word Size 640

E.4.2 Byte Ordering 641

E.4.3 Sign-Magnitude Representation 642

E.4.4 Radix Complement Representation 643

E.4.5 Simplification of Subtraction 645

E.5 Binary Encoding of Fractional Numbers 646E.5.1 Fixed-Point Representations 647

E.5.2 Floating-Point Representations 648

Table of Contents xix

E.5.3 Standardized Floating-Point 649

E.5.4 Binary-Coded Decimals (BCD) 650

E.5.5 Floating-Point BCD 650

Appendix F Basic Electronics 653

R1 Atom 654

F.2 Isotopes and Ions 654

F.3 Static Electricity 655

F.4 Electrical Charge 656

F.4.1 Voltage 656

F.4.2 Current 656

F.4.3 Power 657

F.4.4 Ohm's Law 657

F.5 Electrical Circuits 658

F.5.1 Types of Circuits 658

F.6 Circuit Elements 660

F.6.1 Resistors 661

F.6.2 Revisiting Ohm's Law 661

F.6.3 Resistors in Series and Parallel 662

F.6.4 Capacitors 664

F.6.5 Capacitors in Series and in Parallel 665

F.6.6 Inductors 666

F.6.7 Transformers 667

F.7 Semiconductors 667

F.7.1 Integrated Circuits 668

F.7.2 Semiconductor Electronics 668

F.7.3 P-Type and N-Type Silicon 669

F.7.4 Diode 669

Index 671