AP Human Geography Models & Theories

1. Demographic Transition Model2. Gravity Model3. Rostow's Stages of Growth4. Concentric Circle (Burgess) 5. Hoyt Sector Model 6. Multiple Nuclei Model 7. Central Place Theory (Christaller) 8. Weber Model of Industrial Location (least - cost> > theory) 9. Von Thunen's Agricultural Model 10. Epidemiologic Transition Model 11. Core Periphery Model 12. Domino Theory 13. Heartland and Rimland Theories 14. Neocolonialism 15. Thomas Malthus (Population) 16. Modernization & Dependency Theories 17. Sustainable Development 18. World Systems Theory 19. Bid-Rent Theory 20. Rank Size Rule 21. Views on Globalization 22. Agricultural/Cultural Hearths23. Agricultural Revolutions24. Language Trees25. Universalizing Religions, Ethnic, etc.26. Primary Economic Activities (primary sector, secondary, tertiary sector)

AP Human Geography Models & Theories (Define, Compare/Contrast and provide examples)

1. Demographic Transition Model (Population)a. Movement from high birth and death rates to low birth and death

rates

b. Shows 4 stages

1. Pre-industrial societies birth/death rates high

2. Improvements in health care reduce death rate, but birthrate remains

high because people are used to having many children

3. Population becomes urban

a. family size decreases

b. children in urban areas more

2. Gravity Model (Migration/Population) a. Ernst Ravenstein’s proposal (1885)b. 11 laws of migration c. there is an inverse relationship between the volume of migration and the distance between the source and destination d. the model states the spatial interaction is directly related to the size of the populations and inversely related to the distance between them

i. example: 19th & 20th century moves from Europeii. example: when European immigrants moved into cities in the

eastern U.S. iii. example: African-Americans from south to north during WWI

(internal)

3. Rostow’s Stages of Growth (Economic Development)

a. Modernization theoryi. Economic prosperity is open to all countriesii. Britain first to develop its industryiii. Criticism of modernization 1. socialist countries a. justification for capitalist systemb. justification to continue capitalist exploitation

一. has not occurred in poor countries 一. fails to recognize rich nations benefit from status quo一. causes of poverty lie entirely on poor societies themselves 一. iv. Max Weber 一. cultural environment in Europe favored change一. Wealth regarded as sign of personal virtue 一. importance of individualism replaced kinship/community

Modernization occurs in 5 stages1. Traditional stage (LDC)a. build lives around families, local communities, religious beliefsb. lives similar to ancestors; very limited wealth c. mostly subsistence farmersd. 100 yrs. Ago most countries in this stage, some still are

2. Preconditions to take off (LDC)a. Primary Sector- still farming

b. Needs an elite group to start the take off

c. Development of water supply & transportation

3. take-off stage (LDC)a. Often encourage by political leaders, people start to experiment with producing goods not just for consumption, but for trade w/ profitb. Country experiences something like industrial rev., sustained growth takes hold c. Urbanization increases, technological breakthroughsd. Greater individualism, take risks, desire for material goods often at expense of family ties and customs

4. Drive to technological maturity (MDC)a. economic development widely accepted, focus on higher living standards b. economy diversifies; people become more prosperous & afford luxuriesc. poverty reduced, materials goods common d. cities grow, people leave farms, modernization evident in core areas of countrye. population growth reduced, children require more yrs. Of schooling more expensive to raisef. International trade expands

5. high mass consumption (MDC)a. economic development raises living standards and mass production encourages consumption of industrial productsb. Items that use to be luxury now necessities as the society is structured on expanding array of goods producedc. Marked by high incomes, w/majority of workers involved in service sector of the economy

4. Burgess’ Concentric Zone Model

The Burgess Urban Land Use Model In 1925, Burgess presented a descriptive urban land use model, which divided cities in a set of concentric circles expanding from the downtown to the suburbs. This representation was built from Burgess' observations of a number of American cities, notably Chicago, for which he provided empirical evidence. The model assumes a relationship between the socio-economic status (mainly income) of households and the distance from the Central Business District (CBD). The further from the CBD, the better the quality of housing, but the longer the commuting time. Thus, accessing better housing is done at the expense of longer commuting times (and costs). According to this monocentric model (see above figure), a large city is divided in six concentric zones:

Zone I: Central Business District (called the "loop" in Chicago) where most of the tertiary employment is located and where the urban transport infrastructure is converging, making this zone the most accessible.

Zone II: Immediately adjacent to the CBD a zone where many industrial activities locate to take advantage of nearby labor and markets. Further, most transport terminals, namely port sites and railyards, are located adjacent to the central area.

Zone III: This zone is gradually been reconverted to other uses by expanding manufacturing / industrial activities. It contains the poorest segment of the urban population, notably first generation immigrants living, in the lowest housing conditions.

Zone IV: Residential zone dominated by the working class and those who were able to move away from the previous zone (often second generation immigrants). This zone has the advantage of being located near the major zones of employment (I and II) and thus represents a low cost location for the working class.

Zone V: Represents higher quality housing linked with longer commuting costs.

Zone VI: Mainly high class and expensive housing in a rural, suburbanized, setting. The commuting costs are the highest. Prior to mass diffusion of the automobile (1930s), most of these settlements were located next to rail stations.

According to Burgess, urban growth is a process of expansion and reconversion of land uses, with a tendency of each inner zone to expand in the outer zone. On the above figure, zone II (Factory zone) is expanding towards zone IV (Working class zone), creating a transition zone with reconversion of land use. Although the Burgess model is simple and elegant, it has drawn numerous criticisms:

The model is too simple and limited in historical and cultural urban context that prevailed up to the 1950s. It is a product of its time.

The model was developed when American cities were growing very fast in demographic terms and when motorized transportation was still uncommon as most people used public transit. Expansion thus involved reconversion of existing land uses. This concept cannot be applied in a contemporary (from the second half to the 20th century) context where highways have enabled urban development to escape the reconversion process and to take place directly in the suburbs.

The model was developed for American cities and has limited applicability elsewhere. It has been demonstrated that pre-industrial cities, notably in Europe, did not at all followed the concentric circles model. For instance, in most pre-industrial European cities, the center was much more important than the periphery, notably in terms of social status. The Burgess concentric model is consequently partially inverted.

There were a lot of spatial differences in terms of ethnic, social and occupational status, while there was low occurrence of the functional differences in land use patterns. The concentric model assumed a spatial separation of place of work and place of residence, which was not generalized until the twentieth century.

However, the Burgess model remains useful as a concept explaining concentric urban development, as a way to introduce the complexity of urban land use and to explain urban growth in American cities in the early-mid 20th century.

5. Hoyt Sector Model

Soon after Burgess generalized about the concentric zone form of the city,Homer Hoyt re-cast the concentric ring model. While recognizing the value of the concentric ring model, Hoyt also observed some consistent patterns in many American cities. He observed, for example, that it was common for low-income households to be found in close proximity to railroad lines, and commercial establishments to be found along business thoroughfares. In 1939, Hoyt modified the concentric zone model to account for major transportation routes. Recall that most major cities evolved around the nexus of several important transport facilities such as railroads, sea ports, and trolley lines that emanated from the city's center. Recognizing that these routes (and later metropolitan expressways and interstate highways) represented lines of greater access, Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or sectors,Emanating from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes. Higher levels of access translate to higher land values. Thus, many commercial functions would remain in the CBD, but manufacturing activity would develop in a wedge surrounding transport routes. Residential land use patterns also would grow in wedge-shaped patterns with a sector of lower-income households bordering the manufacturing/ warehousing sector (traffic, noise and pollution making these less desirable locations to live) and sectors of middle- and higher-income households located away from industrial sites. In many respects, Hoyt's sector model is simply a concentric zone model modified to account for the impact of transportation systems on accessibility. Example: Cities growing in the era of rapid transportation systems technology, pre-WWII.

6. Multiple Nuclei Model

By 1945, it was clear to Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman that many cities did not fit the traditional concentric zone or sector model. Cities of greater size were developing substantial suburban areas and some suburbs, having reached significant size, were functioning like smaller business districts. These smaller business districts acted as satellite nodes, or nuclei, of activity around which land use patterns formed. While Harris and Ullman still saw the CBD as the major center of commerce, they suggested that specialized cells of activity would develop according to specific requirements of certain activities, different rent paying abilities, and the tendency for some kinds of economic activity to cluster together. At the center of their model is the CBD, with light manufacturing and wholesaling located along transport routes. Heavy industry was thought to locate near the outer edge of city, perhaps surrounded by lower-income households, and suburbs of commuters and smaller service centers would occupy the urban periphery. Examples: Rapidly-growing, newer, modern

cities, large land-area cities like Houston and Los Angeles

7. Central Place Theory (Christaller)

Central place theory is a spatial theory in urban geography that attempts to explain the reasons behind the distribution patterns, size, and number of cities and towns around the world. It also attempts to provide a framework by which those areas can be studied both for historic reasons and for the locational patterns of areas today.

The theory was first developed by the German geographer Walter Christaller in 1933 after he began to recognize the economic relationships between cities and their hinterlands (areas farther away). He mainly tested the theory in Southern Germany and came to the conclusion that people gather together in cities to share goods and ideas and that they exist for purely economic reasons.

Before testing his theory however, Christaller had to first define the central place. In keeping with his economic focus, he came to the conclusion that the central place exists primarily to provide goods and services to its surrounding population. The city is in essence, a distribution center.

Christaller's Assumptions

To focus on the economic aspects of his theory, Christaller had to create a set of assumptions. He decided for example that the countryside in the areas he was studying would be flat, so no barriers would exist to impede people's movement across it. In addition, two assumptions were made about human behavior: 1) Christaller stated that humans will always purchase goods from the closest place that offers the good, and 2) whenever demand for a certain good is high, it will be offered in close proximity to

the population. When demand drops, so too does the availability of the good.In addition, the threshold is an important concept in Christaller's study. This is the minimum number of people needed for a central place business or activity to remain active and prosperous.

This then brings in the idea of low-order and high-order goods. Low-order goods are things that are replenished frequently such as food and other routine household items. Because these items are purchased regularly, small businesses in small towns can survive because people will buy frequently at the closer locations instead of going into the city.High-order goods though are specialized items such as automobiles, furniture, fine jewelry, and household appliances that are bought less often. Because they require a large threshold and people do not purchase them regularly, many businesses selling these items cannot survive in areas where the population is small. Therefore, they often locate in large cities that can serve a large population in the surrounding hinterland.

Central Place Size and Spacing

Within the central place system, there are five sizes of communities. A hamlet is the smallest and is a rural community which is too small to be considered a village. Cape Dorset (population 1200), located in Canada's Nunavut Territory is an example of a hamlet. The rank order of central places is:

Hamlet, Village, Town, City

Regional CapitalExamples of regional capitals would include Paris, France or Los Angeles, California. These cities provide the highest order goods possible and have a huge hinterland.

Central Place Theory Geometry and Ordering

If visually imagined, the central place is located at the vertexes (points) of equilateral triangles. They then serve the evenly distributed consumers who are closest to the central place. As the vertexes connect, they form a series of hexagons- the traditional shape in many central place models.This shape is ideal because it allows the triangles formed by the central place vertexes to connect and it represents the assumption that consumers will visit the closest place offering the good.

In addition, the central place theory has three orders or principles. The first is the marketing principle and it is shown as K=3 (K is a constant). In this system, market areas at a certain level of the central place hierarchy are three times bigger than the next lowest one. The different levels then follow a progression of threes, meaning that as one moves through the order of places, the number of the next level goes up

three times. For example, when there are two cities, there would be six towns, 18 villages, and 54 hamlets.

There is also the transportation principle (K=4) where areas in the central place hierarchy are four times bigger than the area in the next lowest order. Finally, the administrative principle (K=7) is the last system and here, the variation between the lowest orders and highest orders increase by a factor of seven. Here, the highest order trade area completely covers that of the lowest order, meaning that market serves a larger area.

8. Weber Model of Industrial Location (least - cost> > theory)In 1909 the German location economist Alfred Weber formulated a theory

of industrial location in his book entitled Über den Standort der

Industrien (Theory of the Location of Industries, 1929). Weber’s theory,

called the location triangle, sought the optimum location for the production of a good based on the fixed locations of the market and two raw

material sources, which geographically form a triangle. He sought to determine the least-cost production location within the triangle by

figuring the total costs of transporting raw material from both sites to

the production site and product from the production site to the market. The weight of the raw materials and the final commodity are important

determinants of the transport costs and the location of production. Commodities that lose mass during production can be transported less

expensively from the production site to the market than from the raw

material site to the production site. The production site, therefore, will

be located near the raw material sources. Where there is no great loss of mass during production, total transportation costs will be lower when

located near the market.

Once a least-transport-cost location had been established within the

triangle, Weber attempted to determine a cheap-labor alternate location.

First he plotted the variation of transportation costs against the least-transport-cost location. Next he identified sites around the triangle that

had lower labor costs than did the least-transport-cost location. If the

transport costs were lower than the labor costs, then a cheap-labor

alternative location was determined.

9. Von Thunen's Agricultural Model

The Von Thunen model of agricultural land use was created by farmer and amateur economist J.H. Von Thunen (1783-1850) in 1826 (but it wasn't translated into English until 1966). Von Thunen's model was created before industrialization and is based on the following limiting assumptions:

The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State" which is self-sufficient and has no external influences.

The Isolated State is surrounded by an unoccupied wilderness.

The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains to interrupt the terrain.

The soil quality and climate are consistent throughout the State.

Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart, across land, directly to the central city. Therefore, there are no roads.

Farmers act to maximize profits.In an Isolated State with the foregoing statements being true, Von

Thunen hypothesized that a pattern of rings around the city would develop.There are four rings of agricultural activity surrounding the city. Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city (remember, we didn't have refrigerated oxcarts!)

Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second zone. Before industrialization (and coal power), wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking. Wood is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is located as close to the city as possible.

The third zone consists of extensive fields crops such as grains for bread. Since grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing transport costs, they can be located further from the city.

Ranching is located in the final ring surrounding the central city. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting. Animals can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering.

Beyond the fourth ring lies the unoccupied wilderness, which is too great a distance from the central city for any type of agricultural product.

Even though the Von Thunen model was created in a time before factories, highways, and even railroads, it is still an important model in geography. The Von Thunen model is an excellent illustration of the balance between land cost and transportation costs. As one gets closer to a city, the price of land increases. The farmers of the Isolated State balance the cost of transportation, land, and profit and produce the most cost-effective product for market. Of course, in the real world, things don't happen as they would in a model.

10. Epidemiologic Transition Model

Omran’s Epidemiological Transition theory –basics

Stage 1: Age of Pestilence and Famine

This period went from prehistory to about the 1750s, which is a period when the standard of living was low. Demographically this was the pre-industrial period where population growth was low because there was no natural increase, coupled with high rates of fertility and mortality. It was a period of war, famine, epidemics, and unsanitary conditions. Epidemic infections such as phenomena, tuberculosis and parasitic dieses such as cholera, typhus, small pox would wipe away populations. However, the leading cause of mortality rates being so high was famine and severe malnutrition causing many deficiency diseases. Food was of poor quality in addition to it already being in short supply. Life expectancy was very low varying from twenty to forty years, with infants and women dying more than men. Generally though, once children and women got older the inverse trend was noticed and men had higher mortality rates. This era was one with no health care and the reliance of healing was based on witch craft. (Omran, 1971)

Stage 2: Age of Receding Pandemics

This stage is referred to as the early industrial lasting a long period of time, almost from the 1750s to the early 1920’s. It was a time of rapid population growth, with high rates of fertility and decreases in rates of mortality. The average life expectancy rates were rising as well. This was the time when pandemic rates began to decrease and at the beginning of this period improved health in society started to take place. Life expectancy on average was changing around the world to thirty or forty years, combined with declines in mortality rates of pregnant women, children, and infants. Outbreaks of tuberculosis peaked with industrialization especially in younger women. Closer to

the end of this stage it was seen that pandemics of infection, malnutrition, and plagues largely decreased or disappeared (Omran, 1971). These were replaced with heart diseases and cancer beginning to appear and become more significant. (Omran, 1971).

Stage 3: Age of Degenerative and Man Made Disease

The early 1920s to the 1960s is stage three of Omran’s theory, known as the modern urban industrial era. This was a period when fertility rates finally became controlled; it went from fluctuating to low to moderate to replacement levels. The mortality rates remained low but life expectancy rates got higher, in some areas almost 70 years or more. Therefore population growth had pretty much remained constant or decreased and become negative. This was the period of dramatic rise in heart disease, cancer, and stroke, which were accredited as the leading cause of death. Polio, scarlet fever, and smallpox became very rare to extinct during this period. This was the time when nutrition became very important, but at the same time there was an increase in consumption of rich and high fat foods creating metabolic diseases. Mental illness, addiction, accident, radiation hazards, environmental conditions, degenerative and chronic illnesses all became more prominent. Health systems became more important and oriented to preventive care but at the same time medical costs were very high. This was the time when privilege became important and rich did better than poor because of medical access. (Omran, 1971)

Stage 4- The Age Delayed Degenerative Diseases

Olshansky and Ault added to the previous epidemiological model proposed by Omran to discuss the current stage of advanced societies. The addition was in the mid 1980’s and explained contrary to what Omran thought; the decline in mortality did not stop. They had observed uninterrupted increases in life expectancy. This stage consisted of continuously slow and fluctuating mortality rates. The main difference from Omran’s third stage is the unexpected shift in the age pattern of mortality by the generative causes. The three characteristics of this stage were: (1) rapid decline of death rates in advanced ages occurring equally in males and females; (2) the deaths by degenerative causes are shifted progressively toward older ages and (3) the fast improvements in survival rates of the advanced ages. They explain the source of this change in death especially to older ages is due to advances in medical technology, health care programs for the aged and reductions in risk factors in communities. It can generally be said this theory is based more on macro-level determinants for mortality rates such as health promotion programs.

11. Core Periphery Model

The countries of the world can be divided into two major world regions - the 'core' and the 'periphery.' The core includes major world powers and the countries that contain much of the wealth of the planet. The periphery are those countries that are not reaping the benefits of global wealth and globalization.

The Theory of Core and Periphery

The basic principle of the 'Core-Periphery' theory is that as general prosperity grows worldwide, the majority of that growth is enjoyed by a 'core' region of wealthy countries despite being severely outnumbered in population by those in a 'periphery' that are ignored.

There are many reasons why this global structure has formed, but generally there are many barriers, physical and political, that prevent the poorer citizens of the world from participating in global relations. The disparity of wealth between core and periphery countries is staggering, with 15% of the global population enjoying 75% of the world's annual income.

The Core

The 'core' consists of Europe (excluding Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus) , the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, and Israel. Within this region is where most of the positive characteristics of globalization typically occur: transnational links, modern development (i.e. higher wages, access to healthcare, adequate food/water/shelter), scientific innovation, and increasing economic prosperity. These countries also tend to be highly industrialized and have a rapidly-growing service (tertiary) sector .

The top twenty countries ranked by the United Nations Human Development Index are all in the core. However, of note is the slowing, stagnant, and occasionally declining population growth of these countries.The opportunities created by these advantages perpetuate a world driven by individuals in the core. People in positions of power and influence around the world are often brought up or educated in the core (nearly 90% of world "leaders" have a degree from a Western university).

The Periphery

The 'periphery' consists of the countries in the rest of the world: Africa, South America, Asia (excluding Japan and South Korea), and Russia and many of its neighbors. Although some parts of this area exhibit positive development (especially Pacific Rim locations in China), it is generally characterized by extreme poverty and a low standard of living. Health care is non-existent in many places, there is less access to potable water than in the industrialized core, and poor infrastructure engenders slum conditions.

Population is skyrocketing in the periphery because of a number of contributing factors including a limited ability to move and the use of children as means to support a family, among others. (Learn more about Population growth and the demographic transition.)Many people living in rural areas perceive opportunities in cities and take action to migrate there, even though there are not enough jobs or housing to support them. Over one billion people now live in slum conditions, and the majority of population growth around the world is occurring in the periphery.

The rural-to-urban migration and high birth rates of the periphery are creating both megacities, urban areas with over 8 million people, and hyper cities, urban areas with over 20 million people. These cities, such as Mexico City or Manila, have little infrastructure and feature rampant crime, massive unemployment, and a huge informal sector.

Core-Periphery Roots in Colonialism

One idea for how this world structure came about is called the dependency theory. The basic idea behind this is that capitalist countries have exploited the periphery through colonialism and imperialism in the past few centuries. Essentially, raw materials were extracted from the periphery through slave labor, sold to core countries where they would be consumed or manufactured, and then sold back to the periphery. Advocates of this theory believe that the damage done by centuries of exploitation have left these countries so far behind that it is impossible for them to compete in the global market.

Industrialized nations also played a key role in establishing political regimes during post-war reconstruction. English and the Romance languages remain the state languages for many non-European countries long after their foreign colonists have packed up and gone home. This makes it difficult for anyone brought up speaking a local language to assert him or herself in a Eurocentric world. Also, public policy formed by Western ideas may not provide the best solutions for non-Western countries and their problems.

Core-Periphery in Conflict

There are a number of locations that represent the physical separation between the core and periphery. Here are a few:

The growing fence between the U.S. (core) and Mexico (periphery) to prevent the entrance of unauthorized immigrants.

The Demilitarized Zone between North and South Korea.

Air and naval patrols on the waters between Australia and Southeast Asia and between the EU and North Africa to keep out unwanted immigrants.

The UN-enforced border separating the Turkish north and Greek south of Cyprus, known as the Green Line.

The core-periphery model is not limited to a global scale, either. Stark contrasts in wages, opportunities, access to health care, etc. among a local or national population are commonplace. The United States, the quintessential beacon for equality, exhibits some of the most obvious examples. U.S. Census Bureau data estimated that the top 5% of wage earners made up roughly one-third of all US income in 2005. For a local perspective, witness the slums of Anacostia whose impoverished citizens live a stone's throw from the grand marble monuments that represent the power and affluence of the Washington D.C.'s central downtown.

While the world may be metaphorically shrinking for the minority in the core, for the majority in the periphery the world maintains a rough and limiting geography. Read more about these ideas in two comprehensive books from which this article draws much from: Harm de Blij's The Power of Place, and Mike Davis' Planet of Slums.

12. Domino Theory

The domino theory, which governed much of U.S. foreign policy beginning in the early 1950s, held that a communist victory in one nation would quickly lead to a chain reaction of communist takeovers in neighboring states. In Southeast Asia, the United States government used the domino theory to justify its support of a non-communist regime in South Vietnam against the communist government of North Vietnam, and ultimately its increasing involvement in the long-running Vietnam War (1954-75). In fact, the American failure to prevent a communist victory in Vietnam had much less of a global impact than had been assumed by the domino theory. Though communist regimes did arise in Laos and Cambodia after 1975, communism failed to spread throughout the rest of Southeast Asia.ORIGINS OF THE DOMINO THEORY

In September 1945, the Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam’s independence from France, beginning a war that pitted Ho’s communist-led Viet Minh regime in Hanoi (North Vietnam) against a French-backed regime in Saigon (South Vietnam). Under President Harry S. Truman, the U.S. government provided covert military and financial aid to the French; the rationale was that a communist victory in Indochina would precipitate the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia. Using this same logic, Truman would also give aid to Greece and Turkey during the late 1940s to help contain communism in Europe and the Middle East.

By early 1950, makers of U.S. foreign policy had firmly embraced the idea that the fall of Indochina to communism would lead rapidly to the collapse of other nations in Southeast Asia. The National Security Council included the theory in a 1952 report on Indochina, and in April 1954, during the decisive battle between Viet Minh and French forces at Dien Bien Phu, President Dwight D. Eisenhower articulated it as the “falling domino” principle. In Eisenhower’s view, the loss of Vietnam to communist control would lead to similar communist victories in neighboring countries in Southeast Asia (including Laos, Cambodia and Thailand) and elsewhere (India, Japan, the Philippines, Indonesia, and even Australia and New Zealand). “The possible consequences of the loss [of Indochina],” Eisenhower said, “are just incalculable to the free world.”

THE DOMINO THEORY AND GROWING U.S. INVOLVEMENT IN VIETNAM

After Eisenhower’s speech, the phrase “domino theory” began to be used as a shorthand expression of the strategic importance of South Vietnam to the United States, as well as the need to contain the spread of communism throughout the world. After the Geneva Conference ended the French-Viet Minh war and split Vietnam along the latitude known as the 17th parallel, the United States spearheaded the organization of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), a loose alliance of nations committed to taking action against “security threats” in the region.

John F. Kennedy, Eisenhower’s successor in the White House, would increase the commitment of U.S. resources in support of the Ngo Dinh Diem regime in South Vietnam and of non-communist forces fighting a civil war in Laos in 1961-62. In the fall of 1963, after serious domestic opposition to Diem arose, Kennedy backed away from support of Diem himself but publicly reaffirmed belief in the domino theory and the importance of containing communism in Southeast Asia. Three weeks after Diem was murdered in a military coup in early November 1963, Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas; his successor Lyndon B. Johnson would continue to use the domino theory to justify the escalation of the U.S. military presence in Vietnam from a few thousand soldiers to more than 500,000 over the next five years.

THE DOMINO THEORY IN HINDSIGHT

In hindsight, the domino theory failed to take into account the character of the North Vietnamese and Viet Cong struggle in the Vietnam War. By assuming Ho Chi Minh was a pawn of the communist giants Russia and China, American policymakers failed to see that the goal of Ho and his supporters was limited to Vietnamese independence, rather than the spread of global communism.

In the end, even though the American effort to block a communist takeover failed, and North Vietnamese forces marched into Saigon in 1975, communism did not spread throughout the rest of Southeast Asia. With the exception of Laos and Cambodia, the nations of the region remained out of communist control.

13. Heartland and Rimland Theories

Heartland Theory: (Halford Mackinder) early 20th c. theory that claimed whichever state controlled the resource-rich “heartland” of Eastern Europe could eventually dominate the world. It would suggest that not the United Kingdom (an ocean-based empire), but Russia (which was becoming communist) would be in a position to achieve this dominance. "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island (Europe, Asia & Africa); who rules the World-Island controls the world."

Rimland Theory: (Nicholas Spykman) mid 20th c. theory that the domination of the coastal fringes of Eurasia (the “rimland”) would provide the base for world conquest (not the “heartland”).

According to Spykman, "Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia, who rules Eurasia controls the destinies of the world."

The Rimland, Halford Mackinder's "Inner or Marginal Crescent", was divided into three sections:

The European coast land; The Arabian-Middle Eastern desert land; and, The Asiatic monsoon land.

Rimland or inner crescent contains most of world's people as well as large share of world's resources. Rimland is in between Heartland and marginal seas, so it was more important than Heartland. It included Asia minor, Arabia, Iran, Afghanistan, South East Asia, China, Korea and East Siberia except Russia.

All the aforesaid countries lie in the buffer zone that is between sea power and land power.

Rimland countries were amphibian states, surrounding the Eurasian continents.

While Spykman accepts the first two as defined, he rejects the simple grouping of the Asian countries into one "monsoon land." India, the Indian Ocean littoral, and Indian culture were geographically and civilizationally separate from the Chinese lands.

The Rimland's defining characteristic is that it is an intermediate region, lying between the heartland and the marginal sea powers. As the amphibious buffer zone between the land powers and sea powers, it must defend itself from both sides, and therein lies its fundamental security problems. Spykman's conception of the Rimland bears greater resemblance to Alfred Thayer Mahan's "debated and debatable zone" than to Mackinder's inner or marginal crescent.

The Rimland has great importance coming from its demographic weight, natural resources, and industrial development. Spykman sees this importance as the reason that the Rimland will be crucial to containing the Heartland (whereas Mackinder had believed that the Outer or Insular Crescent would be the most important factor in the Heartland's containment).

14. Neocolonialism The less developed countries are still dependent on the MDCs

- investments- development- technology

15. Thomas Malthus (Population)

Thomas Malthus / 1800s

Relationship of population growth and food supply

Food supply grows arithmetically (1, 2, 3, 4)

Population grows exponentially (1, 2, 4, 8, 16)

The world population will outgrow the food supply . . . this lack of population will create a check on the population!

Malthus was wrong . . . Green Revolution, hybrid seeds, GMOs, etc

16. Modernization & Dependency Theories

Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of modernization within societies. The theory looks at the internal factors of a country while assuming that, with assistance, "traditional" countries can be brought to development in the same manner more developed countries have. Modernization theory attempts to identify the social variables which contribute to social progress and development of societies, and seeks to explain the process of social evolution. Modernization theory not only stresses the process of change but also the responses to that change. It also looks at internal dynamics while referring to social and cultural

structures and the adaptation of new technologies. 

Dependency theory is a body of social science theories predicated on the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theory that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "world system."

Some countries allow themselves to remain in poverty as a whole to obtain some other type of economic power . . . usually for an elite class.

The leadership hoards economic resources for themselves . . .

- Egypt- Libya- Yemen

17. Sustainable Development

Addresses issues of social welfare and environment

Protection within the context of capitalism and economic growth . . .

People living today should be able to meet their needs without prohibiting the ability of future generations to do the same . . .

- focus on use of renewable resources- promote ecotourism- organic farming

18. World Systems Theory

The world systems theory, developed by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein, is an approach to world history and social change that suggests there is a world economic system in which some countries benefit while others are exploited. Just like we cannot understand an individual's behavior without reference to their surroundings, experiences, and culture, a nation's economic system cannot be understood without reference to the world system of which they are a part.

The main characteristics of this theory,are:

The world systems theory is established on a three-level hierarchy consisting of core, periphery, and semi-periphery areas.

The core countries dominate and exploit the peripheral countries for labor and raw materials.

The peripheral countries are dependent on core countries for capital. The semi-peripheral countries share characteristics of both core and

peripheral countries. This theory emphasizes the social structure of global inequality.

Core CountriesAccording to the world systems theory, the world is divided into three types of countries or areas: core, periphery, and semi-periphery. Core countries are dominant capitalist countries that exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. They are strong in military power and not dependent on any one state or country. They serve the interests of the economically powerful. They are focused on higher skill and capital-intensive production. Core countries are powerful, and this power

allows them to pay lower prices for raw goods and exploit cheap labor, which constantly reinforces the unequal status between core and peripheral countries.

The first core region was located in northwestern Europe and made up of England, France, and Holland. Today, the United States is an example of a core country. The U.S. has large amounts of capital, and its labor forces are relatively well paid.

Periphery CountriesPeriphery countries fall on the other end of the economic scale. These countries lack a strong central government and may be controlled by other states. These countries export raw materials to the core countries, and they are dependent on core countries for capital and have underdeveloped industry. These countries also have low-skill, labor-intensive production, or, in other words, cheap labor. Periphery countries are commonly also referred to as third-world countries.

Eastern Europe and Latin American were the first peripheral zones. An example from today is Cape Verde, a chain of islands off the west coast of Africa. Foreign investors promote the extraction of raw materials and the production of cash crops, which are all exported to core countries.

Semi-Periphery CountriesSemi-periphery countries fall in the middle of the economic spectrum. These countries share characteristics of both core and periphery countries. These are core regions in decline or periphery regions attempting to improve their economic position. These countries are sometimes exploited by core countries, but they also may exploit periphery countries themselves. For example, India is largely dependent on core countries for capital, but India has a growing technology industry and an emerging consumer market.

19. Bid-Rent Theory

§ The rent derived from certain land use will decrease as well as the land uses will vary with increasing distance from city center.(i.e. distant-decay function)

§ The land users who are willing to pay the rent must obtain the use of land in a free market.

§ The bidder will be the one who will obtain the greatest returns from the land.

§ a simple model to explain the general urban land use pattern.§ it reflects the highly competitive bidding for sites among various

urban activities and § the differential ability of those activities to bid for sites at

increasing distances from the urban center.§ In this model, a series of bid-rent curves is used to determine the

basic land use pattern.§ So, what is a bid-rent curve?……..§ A bid-rent curve is a line which indicates how much a person is

prepared to pay for a unit of a land at varying distance from the market / the city center.

§ It describes the trade-off of cheaper land rents with higher transport costs owing to increasing distance in traveling.

§ The shape of the curve depends on the transportation characteristics of the product in the case of producers and preference for accessibility in the case of householders.

§ Transport cost increases with increasing distance.§ Such a bid-rent curve assumes that household incomes, product prices,

transport cost structures, etc., are kept constant.

20. Rank Size Rule

According to the rank-size rule, a rank 3 city would have ⅓ the population of a country's largest city, a rank four city would have ¼ the population of the largest city, and so on.

In 1949, George Zipf devised his theory of rank-size rule to explain the size cities in a country. He explained that the second and subsequently smaller cities should represent a proportion of the largest city. For example, if the largest city in a country contained one million citizens, Zipf stated that the second city would contain one-half as many as the first, or 500,000. The third would contain one-third or 333,333, the fourth would be home to one-quarter or 250,000, and so on, with the rank of the city representing the denominator in the fraction.

While some countries' urban hierarchy somewhat fits into Zipf's scheme, later geographers argued that his model should be seen as a probability model and that deviations are to be expected.

21. Views on Globalization

Scholars David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton provide an overview of different perspectives on globalization dominant in the 1990s. They describe the general conceptual contours of each perspective and note the limitations of each. The authors identify identify the perspective as:

The Hyperglobalist perspective, The Skeptical perspective, The Transformationalist perspective.

HYPERGLOBALIST PERSPECTIVE

The authors describe the hyperglobalist perspective as an approach which sees globalization as a new epoch in human history. This new epoch is characterized by the declining relevance and authority of nation-states, brought about largely through the economic logic of a global market. Economies are becoming “denationalized.”

SKEPTICAL PERSPECTIVE

Held and his colleagues say that the skeptical perspective on globalization views current international processes as more by fragmented and regionalized than globalized. In fact, according to skeptical authors, the “golden age” of globalization occurred at the end of the 19th century. Current processes show, at best, a regionalization.

The authors say that skeptics also disagree whether old cleavages are becoming increasingly irrelevant. The third world is not being drawn into a global economy that destroys old lives of benefit and exploitation. Quite the contrary, the third world, say skeptical authors, is becoming increasingly marginalized.

TRANSFORMATIONALIST PERSPECTIVE

Held and his colleagues say that the transformationalist perspective differs fundamentally from the other two perspectives in that:

There is no single cause (that is, the market or economic logic) behind globalization,

The outcome of processes of globalization is not determined.

So, even though transformationalist authors describe many of the same general changes involved in globalization, their approach is considerably less certain about the historical trajectories of these changes and less limiting of the factors driving globalization.

For instance, hyperglobalist authors believe that the power of national governments is waning. Skeptic authors argue that the power of national governments is growing. Transformationalist authors, however, view the nature of national governments as changing (being reconstituted and restructured) but a description of this change as merely growing or waning is oversimplified.

22. Agricultural/Cultural Hearths

The seven original culture hearths are:1) The Nile River Valley

2) The Indus River Valley3) The Wei-Huang Valley

4) The Ganges River Valley5) Mesopotamia6) Mesoamerica7) West Africa

These regions are considered culture hearths because such things as religion, the use of iron tools and weapons, highly organized social structures, and the development agriculture started and spread from these areas. In terms of religion for example, the area around Mecca is considered the culture hearth for the Islamic religion and the area from which Muslims initially traveled to convert people to Islam. The spread of tools, social structures, and agriculture spread in a similar manner from the culture hearths.

Agricultural Hearths

Area Representative PlantsEarliest

Domestication

Animals (later)

Middle East/SW Asia

Wheat, barley, garbanzos, lentils, peas, onions, sugar beets, cabbage, lettuce, olive, date, flax

 8500 BC sheep, goat, pig ~ 8,000 BCcattle ~ 6,000 BC 

horse ~ 4,000 BCcamel ~ 2,500 BC

China rice, millet, soybeans, citrus, 7500 BC pig, silkworm, cat, cattle, chicken

New Guinea sugarcane, banana, yams, taro, 7000 BC none

Mesoamerica corn, beans, squash, avocados cotton 7000 BC turkey

Ethiopia coffee, okra, teff ? none

Sahel sorghum, African rice 5000 BC guinea fowl

Andes and Amazonia

potato, manioc, peanut, strawberry, cotton 3500 BC llama, guinea pig,

turkey

Tropical West Africa African yams, oil palm 2500 BC none

Eastern US sunflower, goosefoot, squash 2500 BC none

Local Domestications Following Arrival of "Founder Crops" from Elsewhere

Area Plants Earliest Domestication Animals (later)

Indus Valleysesame, eggplant, cotton, mangoes, jute, indigo

7000 BC humped cattle

Egypt sycamore fig, chufa 6000 BC donkey, cat

Western Europe poppy, oat 6000 - 3500 BC none

23. Agricultural Revolutions

The First Agricultural RevolutionThe first agricultural revolution could best be described as the domestication of plants. It was this discovery that formed the foundation

of all other human discoveries and yielded human civilizations. There are a few other factors that may have led to the first agricultural revolution, namely, weather changes and the discovery of the notion of withholding seeds for future crops. When the Ice Age ended, the climate change in the world became much more hospitable for agriculture. More attention could be placed on what the land yielded instead of basic survival. When humans discovered that certain plants could be grown and domesticated, they also learned that they could hold back seeds for future seasons and store additional seeds for long-term use. Records of such practices can be found in the Bible during the story of Joseph in Egypt. The basic foot plow was also developed during this time, and it is one of the most important agricultural implements in history.

The Second Agricultural RevolutionAfter the end of the classical era and the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe went into a period of time known as the Middle Ages or the Dark Ages. It was during this medieval time that great advances were made in the use of water, and the shape of the plow also evolved, forming implements that could be pulled by animals. This resulted in the change of field shape from square fields to larger rectangular fields to make it easier to plow the land. Ultimately, this would culminate with the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. As farming techniques became industrialized, great advances were made in farming technologies, crop rotation, and drainage. The development of the internal combustion engine allowed for the invention of tractors, combines, and other farm equipment that changed the way people approached their fields and vastly increased productivity. Thus the second agricultural revolution paved the way for the modern era.

The Third Agricultural RevolutionAfter the second agricultural revolution, farming techniques did not chang significantly for many years. Though the machinery improved dramatically over the years, many of the techniques remained the same. However, the third revolution changed all that. From the beginning of agriculture, humans have learned to breed different strains of plant life. Sometimes this was done by grafting a limb from one tree into another tree. But during the 20th Century, humans learned how to take more direct control over plants by manipulating them on the genetic level. Crops were developed that could provide a much higher yield, thrive in more hostile environments, and resist parasites and predators. This revolution is widespread, as most of the world's crops are now genetically modified in some way.The gradual changes over the first and second agricultural revolutions were far surpassed by the abrupt and sudden development of the third agricultural revolution. The advent of genetically-modified crops has been both a blessing and a source of outrage for many people. Some critics have protested the way these crops have been developed and even assert a difference in taste and effect on the body. The debate over genetically-modified crops will continue as scientists and researchers alike work hard

to develop hardier crops and better techniques to get the most out of the land used.

24. Language Trees

25. Universalizing Religions, Ethnic, etc.

26. Primary Economic Activities (primary sector, secondary, tertiary sector)

Primary Sector

The primary sector of the economy extracts or harvests products from the earth. The primary sector includes the production of raw material and basic foods. Activities associated with the primary sector include agriculture (both subsistence and commercial), mining, forestry, farming, grazing, hunting and gathering, fishing, and quarrying. The packaging and processing of the raw material associated with this sector is also considered to be part of this sector.

In developed and developing countries, a decreasing proportion of workers are involved in the primary sector. About 3% of the U.S. labor force is engaged in primary sector activity today, while more than two-thirds of the labor force were primary sector workers in the mid-nineteenth century.

Secondary Sector

The secondary sector of the economy manufactures finished goods. All of manufacturing, processing, and construction lies within the secondary sector. Activities associated with the secondary sector include metal working and smelting, automobile production, textile production, chemical and engineering industries, aerospace manufacturing, energy utilities, engineering, breweries and bottlers, construction, and shipbuilding.

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Tertiary Sector

The tertiary sector of the economy is the service industry. This sector provides services to the general population and to businesses. Activities associated with this sector include retail and wholesale sales, transportation and distribution, entertainment (movies, television, radio, music, theater, etc.), restaurants, clerical services, media, tourism, insurance, banking, healthcare, and law.

In most developed and developing countries, a growing proportion of workers are devoted to the tertiary sector. In the U.S., more than 80% of the labor force are tertiary workers.

Quaternary Sector

The quaternary sector of the economy consists of intellectual activities. Activities associated with this sector include government, culture, libraries, scientific research, education, and information technology.

Quinary Sector

Some consider there to be a branch of the quaternary sector called the quinary sector, which includes the highest levels of decision making in a society or economy. This sector would include the top executives or officials in such fields as government, science, universities, nonprofit, healthcare, culture, and the media.

An Australian source relates that the quinary sector in Australia refers to domestic activities such as those performed by stay-at-home parents or homemakers. These activities are typically not measured by monetary amounts but it is important to recognize these activities in contribution to the economy.