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MIGRATION REALITIES AND STATE RESPONSES:
TURKEY – A NEW COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION?
PROF. DR. AHMET İÇDUYGU, MIREKOC, KOC UNIVERSITY
ISTANBUL, TURKEY
EUI-MPC Summer School, June 24th, 2013
Florence
OBJECTIVES: FROM A COUNTRY CASE TO
GLOBAL MIGRATORY QUESTIONS
to map out some new migratory forms and processes in
Turkey, that implies a migratory transition in the country,
with various global implications
in order to better understand these new forms and
processes of migration, to explore the historical roots of the
migratory transition in the country that goes hand by hand
with policy changes
to elaborate the thematic and methodological challanges of
how to approach their study, that is the future of research
agenda for Turkish international migration studies which
may will have reflections on wider migration researching
and theorizing 2
THEORETICAL AND ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK:
MIGRATION SYSTEM THEORY
CONTENT
Introduction
A Historical Synopsis: Turkey and International Migration
Migratory Transition: Formation of the Transnational Communities and Emergence of a Country of Immigration
Contemporary Turkish International Migration Studies: a Mapping
Concluding Remarks
4
INTRODUCTION
Significance of Turkish International Migration
Both in historical and contemporary contexts – domestically,
regionally, and globally
In terms of its economic, political, social, and cultuıral
implications for domestic, regional, and global settings
Emerging as a main actor in various international migratory
systems and/or regimes
Involving various types of migrations
Within the context of emigration, immigration, and transit flows
Provides us with a rich case study for empirical, analytical,
theoretical, and policy research
5
INTRODUCTION Significance of Turkish International Migration
EU CONTEXT: “Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Recommendation of the European Commission on Turkey’s progress towards accession” dated October 6, 2004
Turkey’s accession will be different from the previous enlargements due to its
population, size, geographical position…
... studies on the migration to occur following Turkey’s membership include various estimates… in order to prevent [migration from Turkey] from creating serious discomfort in the EU labour market… implementing permanent injunctions might be considered… however, Turkey’s population dynamics might provide benefits in terms of balancing the ageing population in the EU…
In terms of Turkey, managing the new and long external borders of the EU will constitute a significant political challenge and will require large investment… Closer cooperation before and after the accession shall make it easier… to handle migration and asylum issues in addition to… human trafficking…
6
INTRODUCTION
Significance of Turkish International Migration... Some examples... ...
Arrivals of Syrian refugees to Turkey...
Evacuation of Turkish workers from Libya...
Visa-free travel regime with Russia and other neighboring countries...
EU-Turkey Readmission Agreement Debate...
The Idea of Fence/Wall Construction at the Greek-Turkish Border...
FRONTEX’s RABBIT Operation at the Greek-Turkish Border...
Integration Difficulties of Turkish Migrants in Europe...
Success of the Turkish Migrants: Turkish ethnic businesses, Vural
Öger, Fatih Akın, Cem Özdemir and the others....
Islamophobia and the Swiss Ban Of Minarets ...
Irregular Turkish Construction Workers in Japan
7
INTRODUCTION
Significance of Turkish International Migration... Some examples... Posted pictures of M.K. Ataturk looking at Sydney’s famous Bondi
Beach
Aging of the European Population: Can Turkey be a remedy?...
When Turkey becomes a member state of the EU, and due to the free circulation of labour, if there will be mass migratory movements from the country...
Lobbying of Turkish migrants and transnational communities in the North America and Australia against the lobbies of Greeks and Armenians in those places...
Involvement of the Turkish migrants to the “fundamentalist Islamist” movements...
Involvement of the emigrants from Turkey to the “Kurdish nationalist/separatist” movements...
Suitcase-trader Russians in Turkey...
Sun or retirement migration of Europeans to Turkey...
8
INTRODUCTION
Main argument: In the last decade, there is a migratory transtion in Turkey as it is becoming a country of immigration --- in addition to, its
role as a country of emigration and “transit” as a factual development as a discoursive development as a policy development
this takes place in a period of transformation that is prone to a
dynamic tension between the nationalist legacies (the politics of the past) and the worldviews based on globalism, transnationalism, and EU-zation
as a part of the modernity project: initially dominated by a nation-building process (in a nationally divided world), and later (now) turned into a modern-state building (in a globally integrated world)
the Turkish State tends to adopt itself to the country’s emigration and immigration roles in the globalized world
9
INTRODUCTION
IM TRANSITION AND CHANGING STATE POLICIES IN TURKEY
10
1923-2000
Nationalism and Its Legacy
2000s
Legacy of Nationalism
and
Politics of Past
Versus
Globalism/
Transnationalism/
EU-zation
Migration-
related State’s
Worldview
1923-1950/60
IM
through
Nationalism
1950/60-1980
IM
through
Developmentalism
1980-2000
IM
through
Globalism/
Transnationalism
2000s
IM
through
EU-zation/Globalism/
Transnationalism
Dominant
Migratory
Flows
- Emigration of
non-Muslim
Turkish Citizens
- Immigration of
“Turks” and
“Muslims”
- Emigration of
Turkish Citizens
- Emigration of non-
Muslim Turkish
Citizens
-Emigration of
Turkish Citizens
- Immigration of
“non-Turks” and
“non-Muslims”
- Immigration of “non-
Turks” and “non-
Muslims”
-Emigration of Turkish
Citizens
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
A period of the last 100 years: from the early 20th century to the early 21st century
One country/”nation”/”state”, but so many migrations: a history of the modern Turkey
1. International Migration through Nationalism: 1923-1950/60
Emigration of non-Muslims Turkish citizens and immigration of “Turks/Muslims”
2. International migration through Developmentalism: 1950/60-1980
Emigration of “Turkish citizens”
3. International migration through Globalism/Transnationalism :1980-2000
Emigration of “Turkish citizens” and Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims”
4. International migration through EU-zation/Globalism/Transnationalism : 2000s
Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims” and Emigration of “Turkish citizens”
11
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION, NATION-STATE, AND
GLOBALIZATION: WHAT HAPPENED IN THE
TWENTIETH CENTURY
Phases of nation-building and discourses on immigration (Wimmer and Schiller, 2002) 1870-1918: a period of: intense nation-building, globalization, and wide
spread labour migration with little or no restriction --- later “non-national” citizens were seen as risk to national sovereignty
1919-1945: first ended the period of free movement of people and other aspects of globalization, and gave way to “ethnic cleansing”, and later to the emergence of newly-nationalizing states --- border controlling and assimilating immigrants, as migration and migrants were seen a challenge to nation-building
1946-1989: cold war period --- “nation-state”, “state boundaries” and “nationality” became very central, labour migration, both temporary and permanent, was planned and controlled; assimilation policies were transformed to integration policies (maintained national identities), temporary settlements turned to the permanent ones (increasing ethnic diversities)
1989 onwards: post-cold war, intense “globalization”, postnational,
transnational phase --- fascinated by various kinds of flows of people, ideas, objects, and capital across the borders of states, “intensifying debates on “globalization”; anti-immigration and restrictive trends versus need for migration
12
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
International Migration through Nationalism: 1923-
1950/60
Emigration of non-Muslims and immigration of “Turks”
(Historical Background): Deportation of Armenians in 1915-16
Population Exchange between Turkey and Greece in 1923
Immigration of Turks/Muslims from Balkans
Law of Settlement in 1934 Favouring immigrants and refugees with “Turkish descent and
culture”
13
14
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Population of Turkey by
Religion, 1914-91, (in thousands)
Numbers of people who migrated to Turkey
by regions, 1923-95
Total (1923-1945) : 846 638
Total (1923-1995) : 1 686 163
Year 1923-39 1940-45 1946-95
Bulgaria 198688 15744 603585
Greece 384000 - 25889
Romania 117095 4201 1264
Yugoslavia 115210 1671 188040 China - - 2878
Others 10029 - 17869
Total 825022 21616 839525
Year 1914 1927 1945 1955 1965 1991
Muslims 12941 13290 18511 23810 31139 56860
Greeks 1549 110 104 87 76 8
Armenians 1204 77 60 60 64 67
Other Christians 176 71 38 62 74 50
Jews 128 82 77 46 38 20
# of non-Muslims 3057 340 279 255 252 145
Total 15997 13360 18790 24065 31391 57005
% of non-Muslims 19,1 2,5 1,5 1,1 0,8 0,2
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
International migration through Developmentalism: 1950/60-1980 The ‘local’ consolidation phase of nation-building: 1950-1980
Five-year Development Plans since the early 1960s
a) lessening the tension arising from unemployment, (b) providing the country with the acquisition of skills in the foreign countries by the returning migrants, and (c) having the most important source of foreign exchange earnings.
Emigration of “Turkish citizens”
(initially, increasing mass internal (rural-urban) migration)
Labour migration (to Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, Australia, and North America)
Cold war tension/militarization: using “non-Muslims” as scapegoats (“tools”) in the international relations --- in particular, Greeks
15
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
16
Turkish Labour Migration by Destination, 1961-2005
Host Countries 1961-1974 1975-1980 1981-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000 2001-2005 Total
Europe 790017 13426 2612 9647 10465 16561 842728
Arab Countries 2441 74181 423208 208274 32195 57974 798273
Australia 5806 2647 2478 1324 515 176 12946
CIS Countries 115 65521 89623 155259
Others 12235 14792 4875 125238 4256 17533 178929
Total 810499 105046 433173 344598 112952 181867 1988135
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
17
010000200003000040000500006000070000
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Turkish Citizens Asylum Seeking in Europe, 1980-2005
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
18
Turkish Migrant Stock Abroad, mid-1980s, mid-1990s and mid-2000s Mid-1980s Mid-1990s Mid-2000s
Country x 1,000 % x 1,000 % x 1,000 %
Austria 75.0 3.2 136.4 4.2 130.0 4.2
Belgium 72.5 3.1 79.5 2.4 50.0 1.6
Denmark 22.0 0.9 37.0 1.1 35.0 1.1
France 146.1 6.3 198.9 6.1 208.0 6.7
Germany 1,400.4 59.9 2,049.9 63.4 1,912.2 61.6
Netherlands 156.4 6.7 167.0 5.1 100.2 3.2
Sweden 22.0 0.9 25.0 0.8 14.0 0.4
Switzerland 51.0 2.2 73.0 2.2 79.5 2.5
UK 10.0 0.4 29.0 0.6 52.0 1.3
Other European countries 42.0 1.8 87.0 2.7 120.0 1.9
Total Europe 1,997.4 85.4 2,852.7 88.3 2,700.9 87.1
Arab countries 200.0 8.6 127.0 3.9 107.0 3.4
Australia 35.0 1.5 45.0 1.4 50.0 1.6
CIS countries 0.0 0.0 50.0 1.5 36.0 1.2
North American countries 80.0 3.4 120.0 3.7 160.0 5.1
Other countries 25.0 1.1 35.0 1.1 50.0 1.6
Total 2,337.4 100.0 3,229.7 100 3,103.9 100.0
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
International migration through
Globalism/Transnationalism: 1980-2000
Emigration of “Turkish citizens”
Emigration of “Turkish citizens” to Europe (family reunion,
asylum and irregular migration)
towards the formation of Turkish transnational communities
Emigration of “Turkish citizens” to new destinations (MENA
and CIS countries)
Emigration from Turkey: diversified with the movement of
family members of labour migrants in Europe, plus with the
migration of asylum sekers, professionals, and students
19
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
International migration through Globalism/Transnationalism:
1980-2000
Immigration of “foreigners” (non-Turks, non-Muslims)
Irregular labour migration
Transit Migration
Regular labour migration (particularly professionals)
Asylum seekers
Immigration of “foreigners” (non-Turks, non-Muslims)
Asylum Flows/Irregular Flows from
Afganistan, since late 1970s (1980-2000: 15 000 – 20 000)
Iran, since early 1980s (1980-2000: 500 000 – 1 million)
Iraq, since late 1980s (1991: 400 000; and 1990-2000: over 100 000)
and various Asian and African countries
Irregular Labour migrants from
Former USSR and Eastern European countries (16-19 % of foreigners arriving in Turkey are from the CIS, late 1990s)
20
21
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
Iranians Iraqis Other Total
Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons Cases Persons
1997 746 1 392 1 275 2 939 83 117 2 104 4 448
1998 1 169 1 979 2 350 4 672 124 187 3 643 6 838
1999 2 069 3 843 1 148 2 472 184 290 3 401 6 605
2000 2 125 3 926 791 1 671 108 180 3 024 5 777
2001 1 841 3 485 497 998 372 709 2 710 5 177
2002 1 456 2 505 402 974 219 315 2 077 3 794
2003 1 715 3 092 159 342 373 514 2 247 3 948
2004 1 225 2 030 472 956 540 922 2 237 3 908
2005 1 021 1 716 490 1 047 753 1 151 2 264 3 914
2006 1 343 2 297 364 724 1 094 1 527 2 801 4 548
2007 1 024 1 668 1 784 3 470 1 651 2 502 4 413 7 604
2008 1 230 2 217 3 161 6 904 1 925 3 270 6 316 12 981
2009 1 981 3 763 1 140 7 834
Total
16 964 32 131 12 893 30 932 7 426 12 824 37 237 77 376
Asylum Applications in Turkey, 1997–2009
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY AND
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
22 .0
10000.0
20000.0
30000.0
40000.0
50000.0
60000.0
70000.0
80000.0
90000.0
100000.0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Figure 1: Irregular Migrants, Transit Migrants and Irregular
Labor Migrants in Turkey, 1995-2010
Irregular Migrants Transit Migrants Irregular Labor Migrants
A HISTORICAL SYNOPSIS: TURKEY
AND INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
23
Table 1: Irregular Migrants, Transit Migrants and Irregular Labor Migrants in , 1995-2009, Top Ten Source Countries
Irregular Migrants Transit Migrants Irregular Labor Migrants
COUNTRY
TOTAL
MIGRATION COUNTRY
TOTAL
MIGRATION COUNTRY
TOTAL
MIGRATION
Iraq 129 454 Iraq 129 454 Moldavia 55 022
Pakistan 69 660 Pakistan 69 660 Georgia 25 344
Afghanistan 59 281 Afghanistan 59 281 Romania 24 168
Moldavia 55 022 Iran 28 432 Russian Federation 20 470
Iran 28 432 Palestine 25 398 Ukraine 20 566
Palestine 25 398 Bengladesh 21 593 Azerbaijan 17 382
Georgia 25 344 Somalia 21 533 Bulgaria 12 831
Romania 24 168 Maruitania 15 690 Germany 7 929
Bangladesh 21 593 Syria 11 147 Armenia 6 805
Somalia 21 533 Myanmar 10 569 United Kingdom 5 998
Others 336 609 Others 79 746 Others 138 045
TOTAL 796 494 TOTAL 461 934 TOTAL 334 560
MIGRATORY TRANSITION: FORMATION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND EMERGENCE OF A COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION
International migration through EU-
zation/Globalism/Transnationalism : 2000s
Emigration of “Turkish citizens”:
the number of migrants to Turkey exceeds the number of
migrants from Turkey
incresed number of returnees
emigration/emigreants increasingly became an issue of
transnational (diaspora) communities
Immigration of “non-Turks” and “non-Muslims” intensified, diversified, consolidated...
drew international attention, particularly from the EU
required new legislation and administartive mechanisms for its
management
24
MIGRATORY TRANSITION: FORMATION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND EMERGENCE OF A COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION
25
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Irregular Migration 92 400 82 800 56 200 61 200 57 428 51 983 64 290 65 737 34 345
Illegal entries 57 300 44 200 30 348 34 745 26 046 18 876 30 120 45 462 22 975
Overstays 35 100 38 600 25 852 26 455 31 382 33 107 34 170 20 275 11 370
Asylum application 5 200 3 794 3 966 3 908 3 914 4 548 7 640 12 981 7 834
of which: Afghan 400 47 77 341 365 339 427 1 571 1 009
of which: 3 500 2 505 3 108 2 029 1 716 2 297 1 668 2 217 1 981
of which: 1 000 974 342 964 1 047 724 3 470 6 904 3 763
Residence Permit 161 254 157 670 152 203 155 500 131 594 186 586 183 757 174 926 163 326
of which: work 22 414 22 556 21 650 27 500 22 130 22 805 25 475 18 900 17 483
of which: study 23 946 21 548 21 810 15 000 25 240 24 258 22 197 28 597 27 063
of which: or 114 894 113 566 108 743 113 000 84 224 139 523 135 365 127 429 118 780
Indicative Number of Migration to Turkey, 2001–2009
MIGRATORY TRANSITION: FORMATION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND EMERGENCE OF A COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION
While Turkey was becoming a country of asylum,
immigration and transit in the period 1980-2000
Three main legal instruments, 1934 Settlement Law, 1950
Law on Residence and Travel of Aliens, and 1951 Convention
(and 1967 Protocol), were not able to respond to migratory
developments
Then, 1994 Regulation was made:
The 1994 Regulation on Procedures and Principles related to
mass influx and foreigners arriving in Turkey either as
individuals or in groups wishing to seek asylum either from
Turkey or requesting residence permits with the intension of
seeking asylum from a third Country. No: 94/6169, The Official
Gazette No: 22127. (30 November 1994)
first pro-active administrative/legislative attempt for migration
management in the globalizing world of 1990s in Turkey
it reflects the tension tension between the nationalist legacies (the
politics of the past) and the worldviews based on globalism and
transnationalism
26
MIGRATORY TRANSITION: FORMATION OF THE TRANSNATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND EMERGENCE OF A COUNTRY OF IMMIGRATION
New Legislations for Immigration and
Asylum in 2000s
2003 Law for Work Permits of
Foreigners
2005 Action Plan on Migration and
Asylum (EU-based)
2006 Law of Settlement
2013 “Law on Foreigners and
International Protection”
27
CONTEMPORARY TURKISH INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A MAPPING
(benefited from the typologies of King, 2001)
Deconstructing the Binaries of Migration ---
Blurring the Distrinction
Process and Product
Transnational communities and current emigratory
flows
Internal versus International Migration
Dynamics and mechanisms of mobility patterns
within and beyond national borders
Temporary versus Permanent Migration
Circularity, fluid migration
Regular (“Legal”) and Irregular (“Illegal”)
Migration
Changing types, dynamics and mechanisms
28
CONTEMPORARY TURKISH INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A MAPPING
(benefited from the typologies of King, 2001)
New Motivations and Settings for Migration
Globalization, new types of mobilities
Beyond economic considerations, some social,
cultural, political motivations
New space-time flexilities
Personal self-realization
Turkish case present an interesting case to
elaborate the cause, process and consequences of
international migration for empirical research
and theorizing
for comparative studies
for “old” and “new” migratoryflows and communities
29
CONTEMPORARY TURKISH
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION STUDIES: A
MAPPING
New Migration Migrations: Some Examples
Migration of Crisis: Refugees, Irregular (“Illegal”)
Migration
Growth in Independent Female Migration
Student, Skilled and Professional Migrants
Shuttle Migration, Circular or Fluid Migration
The Transnationalisation of Intimacy: Love and
Marriage Migrations
Migrations of Environmental Preferences --- Sun and
Retirement Migration
30
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is important to think of the Turkish case:
as a part of the modernity project: initially dominated
by a nation-building process (in a nationally divided
world), and later (now) turned into a modern- state
building (in a globally integrated world)
this takes place in a period of transformation that is
prone to a dynamic tension between the nationalist
legacies (the politics of the past) and the worldviews
based on globalism, transnationalism, and EU-zation
as a transforming one within the dynamic interplay of
various actors and processes both in Europe, Turkey,
and elsewhere
as an important one, which seems to keep its
importance, regardless of its EU membership prospect
as a country of immigration (in addition to, of
emigration and transit)
31
CONCLUDİNG REMARKS
Research is needed:
With “new” research questions
With “new” theorizing, but possibly knowing the
“old”research and theorizing issues
Critical of the “old” typologies
Comparative ones
Interdisciplinary, rather than a cross-disciplinary or
multidisciplinary
What Turkey-related migratory flows and
migrants provide us with a fertile ground for
such research that will also contribute to the
theorizing
32
“thank you…”
33