Military Psychology:LeadershipDr. Steven J. KassDr. (Major) Alan Ogle

Military Psychology Leadership DefinedLeadership Fiedler (1967)- Directing and coordinating the work of group membersBennis (1959) The process by which an agent induces a subordinate to behave in a desired mannerAir Force The art of influencing and directing people to accomplish the missionArmy The process of influencing others to accomplish the mission by providing purpose, direction, and motivationEffective Military Leadership Includes a degree of high flexibility, initiative, ability to lead in complex and ambiguous circumstances and ability deal with local populations and cultures.

Leadership Theories:McGregors Theory X / Theory YTheory X Leaders assume followers have an inherent tendency to avoid work, need to be directed, guided, or coercedDanger of self-fulfilling prophecy

Theory Y Leaders assume followers are capable of self-direction, accept and seek responsibility

Leadership Theories:Trait ApproachWhat traits or characteristics do good leaders possess?Bass (1990) 10 traits:Desire to achieveDesire to influence others for common goodHigh energy levelPersistenceTask competenceInterpersonal skillsSelf-confidenceWillingness to actTolerance for stressFlexibility

Correlates of leadershipIntelligence w/leader emergence (r = .50), not strongly associate with effectivenessLeadership effectiveness related to:Emotional stability, dominance, energy level (West Point)Conformity, self-discipline (US Naval Academy)Physical fitness, self-esteem, ability to tolerate stress (VMI) Integrity, loyalty, commitment, energy, decisiveness, selflessness (AF)Self-esteem, self-confidence, achievement-orientation, dependability, sociability, tolerance for ambiguity (others)Relationship between traits and leader emergence & effectiveness moderated by situational factors (e.g., education, experience, follower characteristics)

Leadership Theories:Trait Approach

Search for behaviors that differentiate effective from ineffective leadersPersonality traits are stable, but behavior can be trainedDerived from Post WWII Big 10 studies (U of Michigan, Ohio State U, U of Illinois)Two key dimensionsConsideration (people orientation)Friendly, supportive, show appreciation, caring about personal welfare of followersInitiating Structure (task orientation)Focus on direction and control of task accomplishmentBehaviors assessed viaSurveysInterviewsObservations

Leadership Theories:Behavioral Approach

Behavioral Approach ConclusionsBehavioral descriptions of leadership may include more than 2 or 3 dimensionsReliance on self-report surveys not sufficient to describe leadership behaviorsPerformance relationships are strongly influenced by follower experience and expectations, as well as situational factorsLimited support for approach it dependsLeadership Theories:Behavioral Approach

Contingency Approach Leaders can be trained to diagnose situational factors and select appropriate leadership styleSituational FactorsCharacteristics of followers intelligence, willingness, abilityCharacteristics of group group size, cohesivenessCharacteristics of situation task complexity, orgl cultureCharacteristics of leadership position level of authority4 theoriesNormative Decision ModelSituational Leadership TheoryContingency ModelPath-Goal Theory

Leadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Normative Decision Making Model (Vroom, Yetton, Jago) focuses on the optimal level of participation that followers should have in decision-making process 2 factorsImportance of making quality decisionImportance of followers accepting decision3 types of leadership behaviorAutocratic leader makes individual decision (little or no group input)Consultative leader asks for input, then makes decisionGroup leader shares info with group, group makes decision togetherLeadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Leadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) ApproachNormative Decision Making Model eight questions to help determine decision-making style1 Quality Requirement (QR): How important is the technical quality of the decision? 2. Commitment Requirement (CR): How important is subordinate commitment to the decision? 3. Leader's Information (LI): Do you (the leader) have sufficient information to make a high quality decision on your own? 4. Problem Structure (ST): Is the problem well structured (e.g., defined, clear, organized, lend itself to solution, time limited, etc.)? 5. Commitment Probability (CP): If you were to make the decision by yourself, is it reasonably certain that your subordinates would be committed to the decision? 6. Goal Congruence (GC): Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be attained in solving the problem? 7. Subordinate conflict (CO): Is conflict among subordinates over preferred solutions likely? 8. Subordinate information (SI): Do subordinates have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?

Situational Leadership Theory (Hersey & Blanchard) The appropriate leadership behavior is contingent on diagnosis of maturity level or readiness of followersLeadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) ApproachTaskOrientedRelationship OrientedLowLowHighHighDirecting / Telling2. Selling / Coaching4. Delegating3. Supporting / Participating Follower ReadinessUnable & Insecure/UnwillingUnable & Confident/WillingAble & Insecure/UnwillingAble & Confident/Willing

Contingency Model (Fiedler) Leaders style is fixed, so must select right leader for job based on situation favorabilityLeadership style (relationship-oriented vs. task-oriented) based on Least Preferred Coworker ScaleLow LPC motivated by task completionHigh LPC motivated by maintaining group relationshipsSituation favorability determined by:Leader-Member RelationsTask StructurePosition Power

Leadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Pleasant:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Unpleasant 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Friendly:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Unfriendly 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Rejecting:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Accepting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Tense:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Relaxed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Distant:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Close 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Hostile 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cold: ___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Warm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Boring:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Quarrelsome:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Harmonious 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gloomy:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Cheerful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Guarded 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Backbiting:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Loyal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Untrustworthy:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Trustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Inconsiderate 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Nasty:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Nice 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Agreeable:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Disagreeable 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Insincere:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Sincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:___:Unkind 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1Least Preferred Coworker ScaleLeadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Contingency ModelLeadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) ApproachIf situation is: Very favorable (good leadermember relations, structured task, strong position power) Very unfavorable (poor leadermember relations, unstructured task, weak position power) Then:The best leader is task-oriented (low LPC score) with a directive, controlling style If situation is: Moderately favorable (mixed variables)Then: The best leader is relationship-oriented (high LPC score) with a participative approach

Path-Goal Theory (House) Behavior of leader impacts follower satisfaction and motivationStyle of leadership dependsTask characteristics (complexity)Follower characteristics (ability, personality)Four styles of leadershipSupportive - Leader shows concern for the followers psychological well-being Appropriate when the followers lack confidenceDirective - Leader lets followers know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. Appropriate when the follower has an ambiguous job.Participative - Leader consults with followers and asks for their suggestions Appropriate when the follower is using improper proceduresAchievement-oriented - Leader sets challenging goals and expects followers to meet them Appropriate when the follower lacks challenging work

Leadership Theories:Contingency (Situational) Approach

Transformational Leadership Theory Leader raises followers to higher levels of morality, motivation, and performance above that from simply having power of authorityTransformational Leader:Creates and articulates visionBuilds trust by exhibiting self-confidence, personal exampleCreates emotional involvement with followersRaise level of awareness in followers about importance of outcomeGet followers to transcend own self interests

Transactional Leader:Simply exchanges rewards for performanceLeadership Theories:Transformational Leadership Theory

Leadership Theories:Transformational Leadership TheoryTransformational Leaders lead through: - Charisma - Individualized Consideration - Intellectual Stimulation - Inspirational Motivation

LeadershipDeveloping Leadership SkillsManagement Success Traits (Yukl) 6 traits that can be learned through trainingEnergy levelOrganizing and planning skillsInterpersonal skillsCognitive skillsWork-related motivationPersonal control of feelings & resistance to stress

Behavioral skills that cut across situationsAbility to communicate2-way comms, active listening, non-verbal cuesConstructive feedbackManage by walking aroundPay attention to HR management skillsSocialization process, training, fair appraisals, coachingMotivate followersPositive rewards, goal setting, empowermentNetworking & Political skillsKnow the right people/how to get things doneLeadershipDeveloping Leadership Skills

Military Training ProgramsFocus on contingency leadership principlesFollowership that precedes leadership activitiesLeadership experiences combined with feedbackFormal classroom training designed to provide the theoretical training for leadership experiencesLeadershipDeveloping Leadership Skills

Total Quality Management/Leadership (Deming) Management through EmpowermentInfo sharingParticipative decision makingContinuous commitment to quality/process improvementContinuous commitment to customer serviceFocus on teamwork/communication

LeadershipDeveloping Leadership Skills

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