Milizia Spinzi 2008 Politics Identities Corpus

International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 133 (2008) 322ndash350 doi 101075ijcl13305milissn 1384ndash6655 e-issn 1569ndash9811 copy John Benjamins Publishing Company

The lsquoterroridiomrsquo principle between spoken and written discourse

Denise Milizia and Cinzia SpinziUniversity of Bari University of Naples

This paper focuses on phraseology used within the domain of politics both in written and spoken discourse We concentrate on the lemma TERROR and on the recurrent sequences in which it is embedded reflecting how native speak-ers both American and British tend to use it in preferred environments making routinized blocks of language The data come from two corpora the spoken cor-pus includes speeches of George W Bush and Tony Blair and the written corpus is made up of articles from The Wall Street Journal and The Economist Since text is nothing but phraseology of one kind or another (Sinclair 2008) our attempt here is to uncover which of the two varieties lends itself more willingly to creat-ing phrases that are handled like single units The two pieces of software used to retrieve such units (n-grams and concgrams) are WordSmith Tools (Scott 2004) and ConcGram (Greaves 2005)

Keywords concgram clusters origin proto-typical canonical

1 Introduction

By the late 20th century lexis came to occupy the centre of language study previ-ously dominated by syntax and grammar (Francis et al 1996) and over the last two or three decades research in Corpus Linguistics has shown that lexis and grammar are closely interdependent Evidence accumulates daily to suggest that lexical and syntactic choices correlate and not that they vary independently of each other Some scholars go even further and argue that ldquoit is folly to decouple lexis and grammarrdquo (Tognini-Bonelli 2001)

In his early days of the study of lexis Sinclair (1966) felt that it would be neces-sary to modify the traditional concept of the word and later studies have proved that the unit of meaning is the phrase rather than the word Research has shown that words or phrases are co-selected not chosen one at a time (Sinclair et al

The lsquoterroridiomrsquo principle between spoken and written discourse 323

2004 xxi) Words are not randomly distributed they have preferred patterns they favour relationships with certain words and not others being attracted or indif-ferent to some words and repelled by others (Renouf amp Banerjee 2007a) All the same some words are found in each otherrsquos company more than would happen by chance and just like people they may be ldquofound 20 or more positions apart yet still within the same grouprdquo (Scott amp Tribble 200636) they collocate within the same group but keep away from each other According to Scott and Tribble the fact that we find two people close to one another does not tell us whether they like each other or not it suggests merely that they belong to the same set Conversely words may occur at a certain distance from one another and still be attracted and be part of the same concgram for this reason in this investigation we have used a search engine which manages to handle contiguous and non-contiguous collo-cations Stubbs (2007) uses the term lsquophrase-framersquo mdash an n-gram with a variable slot mdash which is very similar to lsquocollocational frameworksrsquo identified by Renouf and Sinclair (1991) ie discontinuous pairings which enclose characteristic groupings of words

The terminology we adopt here mdash concgram proto-typical canonical mdash is based on Cheng et alrsquos (2006) work but these concepts date back to 1970 when in the OSTI Report (Sinclair et al 2004) Sinclair spoke of the canonical form that would be the prototype of a phrase and the canonical form distilled by the com-puter with all the possible variations In this work we attempt to identify the pro-totype of some phrases and their possible variations around the lemma TERROR in spoken and written political corpora taking into account two varieties British English and American English

The outline of the present paper is as follows Section 2 starts with a theoretical basis of the study Section 3 explains the methodology we have adopted how our corpora have been assembled introducing the search engines that have guided our analysis WordSmith Tools 40 (Scott 2004) and ConcGram 10 (Greaves 2005) In Section 4 we show the distribution of the word forms of TERROR across the four sub-corpora and the kind of phraseological constraints the lemma is subject to in both spoken and written political discourse

The main findings are analysed in Sections 5 and 6 where we explore the be-haviour of our node word in spoken and written collections of texts and the clus-ters it is willing to create corroborating Stubbsrsquo assumption that different phrases occur with different frequencies in different text-types The aim is to compare the findings of the spoken medium with those of the written medium to find out which one is more inclined to create n-grams and concgrams bearing in mind that formal political speeches are written-to-be spoken hence they do not always reflect how people really speak

324 Denise Milizia and Cinzia Spinzi

2 Mapping the theoretical framework

It is a truism that grammatical and lexical phenomena are totally interdependent and that a large amount of language occurs in more or less fixed form Ranging from fillers to collocations and idioms and also to lengthy standardized chunks of language phraseologies can be very different in terms of lexical composition and function Adopting a very flexible definition phraseology can be seen as the ldquoco-occurrence of a form of a lemma or a lexical item and one or more additional linguistic elements of various kinds which is more frequent than expected on the basis of chance and which functions as one semantic unit in a clause or sentencerdquo (Gries 2008 6) It appears that two or more elements may build up a phrase which may include words or grammatical patterns where a larger distance is contem-plated together with the immediately adjacent elements Accordingly the phrase works as a single semantic unit

There has long been an interest in the role of multi-word units in language (Bolinger 1976) even though generative grammarians considered them as periph-eral in language Hymes (1968126) for instance maintained that a ldquovast propor-tion of verbal behaviour [hellip] consists of recurrent patterns of linguistic routinesrdquo but there was no means of proving that it was more than a marginal phenomenon It was only with the empirical support coming from corpus studies that the extent of our reliance on prefabricated language (prefabs) became clear and its block-like character has been labelled differently as lsquolexical bundlesrsquo (Biber et al 1999) pre-fabricated routines (Erman amp Warren 2000) formulaic language (Schmitt 2004) or concgrams (Greaves 2005)

Whatever designation is preferred the common thread is that words are not chosen freely but are placed on a cline between the open choice principle and the idiom principle (Sinclair 1991) The latter governs lsquoprefabsrsquo where content is not given by its individual item but is attached to the whole phrase Thus meaning is made either by the unit as a whole working in accordance with phraseological con-ventions or it is given by isolated words operating on the basis of grammar rules With Sinclair (1991) and Hunston and Francis (2000) grammar has been rede-fined as comprising information about lexis as well as about syntax casting doubt upon traditional orthodoxies such as the distinction between lexis and grammar or the rigid word-class categorisation Reinterpreting their findings Hoeyrsquos (2006) theory of lsquolexical primingrsquo argues that the ldquolexicon is complexly organized in the human mind and that grammar is an incomplete and leaky product of the lexicon and in principle different for every language userrdquo

Implications for phraseology as the crucial aspect of language have been worked out (cf Wray 200293ff) and relevant functions have been identified high-lighting how central these multi-word units are to language use and acquisition


Among the different roles pointed out such as supporting comprehension aid-ing fluency and thus language learning what is relevant for our research is the function lsquoprefabsrsquo perform in human communication As Wray argues (200272) lexical phrases are employed to signal group membership and more particularly for the promotion of the self In other words when we want to be perceived as a member of a certain group we do not trust to novel constructions but we rely on already known prefabricated lexical phrases

Further support for the prevalence and importance of prefabs in language comes from psycholinguistic theory according to which these phrases reflect the way language is acquired by the human brain (see eg the contributions in Robin-son amp Ellis 2008)

3 Data and methodology

This analysis is based on two corpora representing political language in its written and spoken forms The corpus of written political language the News Discourse Corpus (NDC) derives from two quality news-based journals The Wall Street Journal and The Economist the former representing American English the latter British English Neither contains the highly specialized language of economics and finance both are accessible to a wider readership and are all-inclusive in terms of topics Words related to the international political scenario such as Middle East Iraq Islam were typed into the ldquosearch boxrdquo of the political section and texts from June 2005 to June 2006 were downloaded The other corpus we used BBB is a 10-million-word collection that includes speeches of George W Bush Tony Blair and Silvio Berlusconi for the purpose of this paper speeches produced by the Ital-ian politician have not been taken into account We have looked only at Bushrsquos and Blairrsquos speeches delivered from June 2005 to June 2006 Table 1 gives details about the corpora we have investigated

The language of politics however and the language in formal speeches and statements in particular is clearly pre-prepared written-to-be-spoken as it were

Table 1 The written and spoken corpora of political English BBB and NDCBushrsquos speeches Blairrsquos speeches The Wall Street

JournalThe Economist

Size 601350 words 602175 words 522925 words 537269 wordsNumber of texts 292 178 401 504Medium spoken spoken written writtenPublication date June 2005 to

June 2006June 2005 toJune 2006

June 2005 toJune 2006



in some cases the written text may be prior to the spoken (Chilton amp Schaumlffner 20027) This implies that read-out written statements follow the norms of written language (Milizia 2007) hence they cannot be regarded as fully representative of spoken language In this respect Sauer (2002115) talks of ldquohybrid formsrdquo that is the written text of an oral performance BBB includes such formal speeches and statements but also press conferences and interviews which are certainly more extemporaneous or at least semi-spontaneous It is here that we usually find the most typical features of spoken discourse including false starts clearing of the throat repetitions swift changes of topic and structures which Eggins and Slade call ldquoabandoned clausesrdquo (in Halliday 200421) What we have noticed however is that the speeches delivered by ldquoourrdquo politicians have been purged of all ldquonoise and dirtrdquo (Ahmad 2005) before being posted on line transcripts have clearly been edited hence both Bushrsquos and Blairrsquos speech transcripts do not contain any pauses fillers or hesitations like er erm um typical of spontaneous talk The same can be said of the presence of rsquore the contraction of are in combination with they we and you common to spoken language and of contractions like wanna and gonna

As mentioned earlier the two pieces of software we have used to retrieve collo-cations and concgrams are WordSmith Tools 40 (Scott 2004) and ConcGram 10 (Greaves 2005) Scott (200147ndash48) compares WordSmith Tools to a Swiss army knife with its various components Concord is the tool most akin to the standard large penknife blade it provides concordance lines through which it is possible to ldquoget at parts the others cannot reachrdquo1 The second major tool WordList is perhaps the Swiss army knifersquos scissors After being pruned of all function words which have little lexical content and little referential meaning the list of nouns shown in Table 2 was obtained It is interesting to note how the four corpora we have inves-tigated contain the same content words with very similar ranking

Table 2 Nouns and their respective rankings in the four word lists provided by Word-Smith ToolsBush Blair The Wall Street Journal The Economistpeople (rank 19) people (rank 25) Bush (rank 51) government (rank 48)country (rank 64) world (rank 72) year (rank 54) American (rank 60)world (rank 69) countries (rank 78) President (rank 56) year (rank 63)government (rank 71) government (rank 83) oil (rank 58) America (rank 64)America (rank 74) Europe (rank 93) world (rank 61) Iraq (rank 66)American (rank 81) country (rank 97) Government (rank 65) oil (rank 72)Iraq (rank 97) European (rank 100) war (rank74) people (rank 74)security (rank 116) years (rank 111) military (rank 78) world (rank 75)war (rank 117) Iraq (rank 112) security (rank 79) war (rank 85)


A close look at the nouns in the four corpora will allow any reader to report who and what dominated the agenda in the UK and in the US over the period for which we have data

It is immediately evident that the major players of the agenda in the period in question are President Bush and the American government Other significant players are the situation in Iraq war (presumably in Iraq) and security The main concern of both Bush and Blair seems to be people (ranking 19 and 25 the first content word in both spoken corpora) Conversely Europe and European do not seem to be as consistent as the other nouns being at top of the list only in Blairrsquos speeches2

If it is accepted that word lists give us insights into what is important and what the text is about it is indeed KeyWords the screwdriver in Scottrsquos metaphor which gives a reasonably good clue as to ldquowhat the text boils down to once we have steamed off the verbiage the adornment the blah blah blahrdquo (Scott amp Tribble 200656) avoiding any trivia and insignificant detail Keyness is thus part of what Phillips (1989) calls ldquoaboutnessrdquo

Obviously none of the words in Table 2 would occur in a keyword list since they occur in all four corpora (with the exception of Europe and European) the frequency of these nouns is roughly the same in the four lists and as a consequence they will not seem as significant even if frequent They would get almost certainly filtered out most words would be filtered out but a few outstanding ones would remain

The other search engine we have used to access our corpora and retrieve n-grams and concgrams is ConcGram 10 The difference between lsquon-gramsrsquo and lsquoconcgramsrsquo lies in the fact that n-gram searches are helpful only in finding in-stances of collocations that are strictly contiguous in sequence whereas conc-gram searches identify also non-contiguous associations ConcGram 10 is able to handle constituency variation (ie AB ACB) namely even when one or more words occur in between the associated words as well as positional variation (ie AB BA) namely when the associated words occur in different positions relative to one another An example of constituency variation with ally and terror as origin is a phrase like a steadfast ally in the global war on terror as opposed to an ally in the war on terror only the latter would be identified with other search engines that only pull out contiguous word combinations Thus a phrase with one or more intervening words in this case two intruding adjectives mdash steadfast and global mdash would be overlooked In the study of the phrase fight against terrorism as used mainly by Tony Blair fight against organized crime and terrorism would go un-noticed because the three intervening words organizedcrimeand would cause turbulence Cheng et al (2006412) claim that this is a big limitation in that most collocations typically occur in non-contiguous sequences hence they risk going


undiscovered An example of positional variation is a phrase like in the war on ter-ror we have no better ally and a valuable ally in the war on terror

In a ConcGram search the node does not stand in a hierarchical position with respect to its collocates Rather than focusing on the node ConcGram highlights all of the associated words of a concgram in each concordance line this feature shifts the userrsquos focus of attention from the node to the concgram In other words word associations become the focus of attention and the node is not the ldquosunrdquo around which collocates orbit in a subordinate relationship (Cheng et al 2006) For this reason the term lsquooriginrsquo is used by Cheng et al as opposed to lsquonodersquo used by Scott the origin can be single double or triple (this will be discussed in further detail in Sections 5 and 6)

4 Distribution of the word forms of the lemma TERROR across corpora

A glance at Table 3 displays the discrepancy of usage between terror and terrorism across the two cultures and discourses The graph shows a strong preference for terror and terrorists in Bushrsquos language whereas terrorism seems to be the favourite word in Blairrsquos speeches In the written language terror and terrorism display the same frequency of usage while terrorist is more heavily used as an adjective

There is some consensus that frequent words have strong phraseological ten-dencies and the more frequent a word is the more likely it will appear in multi-word units Summers (1996262ndash63) and Sinclair (1992162) have pointed out that many words are frequent because of their strong collocational tendency they ap-pear in frequent phrases This is probably why terror in Bush (with 369 instances)

Table 3 Distribution of the different word forms of terror across spoken and written discourse

0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009

terror terrorism terrorist terrorists

BushBlaire EconomistWall Street Journal


tends to create so many clusters and the same is true in Blair with terrorism (511 instances) The word terror in fact creates 105 three-word clusters in Bush and the word terrorism 113 in Blair This is statistically measured and supported by the lsquoclustersrsquo feature provided in WordSmith Tools which shows that terror and its word forms do not lend themselves to creating three- four- five- and six-word clusters in an even manner across the four sub-corpora Tables 4 and 5 clearly il-lustrate our point

On the evidence so far our data seem to suggest that around the word terror a different type of phraseology has surfaced in the two politiciansrsquo speeches with respect to the written part

Of all the clusters that have emerged we have decided to focus our attention on the one which ranks first in all the four sub-corpora war on terror These days the word war has a strong tendency to co-occur with terror The phrase war on terror has become widely known and has been endlessly repeated throughout the world and if given the word war a hearer or reader can easily predict what the following words will be namely the preposition on and the noun terror We could of course expect other collocational features on the syntagmatic axis such as war on terrorism war against terrorism war against terror but they are nothing like as frequent as war on terror These multi-word units are not frequent in our data war on terrorism occurs only twice in Bush and 9 and 21 times respectively in The Economist and in The Wall Street Journal3

Words just like people may be attracted or indifferent or even ldquohostilerdquo to other words (Renouf amp Banerjee 2007b) for this reason in our data we find many instances of fight against terrorism in Blair and of war on terror in Bush but zero occurrences of fight on terror or fight on terrorism war against terrorism is almost non-existent in both the spoken and written corpora4 War seems to be indifferent to against and terrorism (Milizia 200655) although this three-word cluster forms what Chomsky would define ldquoa well-formed phraserdquo it does not seem to be typical in the four corpora This corroborates the idea that corpus linguistics is based pri-marily on typicality and on quantitative studies of language and is concerned with what speakers do say (cf Stubbs 200161) rather than with what speakers can say5

It seems that our data bear out Hymesrsquo (1972286) claim that ldquosomething may be possible feasible and appropriate and not occurrdquo formally possible (gram-matical) psycholinguistically realizable (feasible) sociolinguistically appropriate (for a fuller account of attraction indifference and repulsion between words in the language of Bush Blair and Berlusconi see Milizia (2006))

Following Hoey (2004386) ldquoeach lexical item is primed for colligational and collocational userdquo War is primed for collocational use with on and with terror and avoids keeping company with the other possible variants Not one instance was found of fight on terror and fight on terrorism only one of fight against terror in


Table 4 Three- four- five- and six-word clusters around the word forms of terror in American English Bush and The Wall Street Journal

Bushrsquos speeches The Wall Street Journalterror 3-word clusters = 105 3-word clusters = 10

4-word clusters = 76 4-word clusters = 95-word clusters = 51 5-word clusters = 96-word clusters = 14 6-word clusters = 2

terrorism 3-word clusters = 10 3-word clusters = 174-word clusters = 2 4-word clusters = 55-word clusters = 0 5-word clusters = 46-word clusters = 0 6-word clusters = 2

terrorist 3-word clusters = 70 3-word clusters = 454-word clusters = 23 4-word clusters = 325-word clusters = 10 5-word clusters = 176-word clusters = 4 6-word clusters = 8

terrorists 3-word clusters = 127 3-word clusters = 94-word clusters = 56 4-word clusters = 35-word clusters = 18 5-word clusters = 26-word clusters = 6 6-word clusters = 1

Table 5 Three- four- five- and six-word clusters around the word-forms of terror in British English Blair and The Economist

Blairrsquos speeches The Economistterror 3-word clusters = 10 3-word clusters = 8






the written corpus none in Blair vs four instances in Bush We can safely say that fight avoids keeping company with terror and seems to repel the preposition on altogether (Milizia 200660)

Fight against terrorism as mentioned earlier is Blairrsquos favourite cluster it oc-curs only once in Bush (four and five occurrences in The Economist and The Wall Street Journal) As Hoey (2006) has suggested ldquopriming is a property of the person and not of the word and corpora can only indirectly give us evidence about a per-sonrsquos likely primingsrdquo Furthermore priming is temporary and might over time be weakened ldquoto the point of unimportancerdquo (Hoey 2006)

It is of interest to notice that Blair in the period for which we have data uses the clusters war on terror and war against terror not even on one occasion6 nor the clusters war on terrorism and war against terrorism Fight against terrorism seems his ldquopreferred choicerdquo (Schmitt amp Carter 200410) or we would rather say his only choice occurring 22 times (fight as a verb together with combat and de-feat preceding terrorism are also heavily used) Nevertheless although the Prime Minister takes great care in trying to avoid the co-occurrence of certain words the cluster war on terror has migrated from American political discourse into British political discourse (Milizia 2007) and not all British politicians seem to be happy with this phraseologism borrowed from the Americans Recently there have been attempts in the British media to stigmatize the phrase war on terror as we read in The Observer (10 December 2006)

Cabinet ministers have been told by the Foreign Office to drop the phrase ldquowar on terrorrdquo and other terms seen as liable to anger British Muslims and increase tensions more broadly in the Islamic world ldquoItrsquos about timerdquo said Garry Hindle terrorism expert at the Royal United Ser-vices Institute in London ldquoMilitary terminology is completely counter-produc-tive merely contributing to isolating communities This is a very positive moverdquo Many senior British politicians and counter-terrorism specialists have always been uneasy with the phrase ldquowar on terrorrdquo coined by the White House in the week following the 911 attacks arguing that the term risked inflaming opinions worldwide Though Blair has not used the phrase ldquowar on terrorrdquo since June President Bush continues to employ it liberally hellip A spokesman for the US State Depart-ment told The Observer that there was no question of dropping the phrase ldquoItrsquos the Presidentrsquos phrase and thatrsquos good enough for usrdquo she said Not all British government figures are abiding by the advice Writing in the Sun recently Gordon Brown the Chancellor of the Exchequer referred to ldquoour police and armed forces in the front line of the war on terrorrdquo


In The Guardian Unlimited (24 January 2007) we read as follows7

hellip Sir Ken Macdonald head of the Crown Prosecution Service pointed to the rhetoric around the ldquowar on terrorrdquo mdash which has been adopted by Tony Blair and ministers after being coined by George Bush mdash to illustrate the risks hellip We need to be very clear about this On the streets of London there is no such a thing as a war on terror just as there can be no such thing as a war on drugs The fight against terrorism on the streets of Britain is not a war It is the prevention of crime the enforcement of our laws and the winning of justice for those damaged by their infringement

5 A search of concgrams in the environment of the lemma TERROR in the spoken corpus (BBB)

As mentioned before in ConcGram the notion of lsquooriginrsquo is highlighted with re-spect to the notion of lsquonodersquo in that it better foregrounds the fact that associated words are at the heart of every search As clearly illustrated by Cheng et al (2006) the primary function of ConcGram is to perform fully automated searches The absence of any intervention by the user makes the search a truly corpus-driven analysis (Tognini-Bonelli 200184) The software works automatically or can carry out user-nominated searches In this paper user-nominated searches have been performed namely we specified the words we wished to investigate ie the lemma TERROR and the words associated with our origin

Let us start with the word ally in the vicinity of the lemma TERROR As Table 6 clearly shows we found positional variation and constituency variation With re-spect to positional variation mdash allyterror and terrorally mdash only a few instances of terrorally (line 1ndash4) have emerged eg terrorist allies (line 1ndash3) and in the global war on terror we have no better ally than Australia (line 40) The most frequent positional variation is allyterror The two words of course never appear contigu-ously line 5 displays the only example of an ally of terror and from line 9 to line 29 an ally in the war on terror appears on 21 occasions8 Therefore we take this seven-word cluster as the structure which constitutes the base form carrying the proto-typical meaning (cf Cheng et al 2006) We can safely say that the plural form allies in the war on terror from line 30 to line 33 is basically as stable as the singular form and adds minimal or maybe zero turbulence to the canonical form In a few instances ally is modified by strong steadfast important new other ca-pable and valuable Following Cheng et al (2006) with anything from two to four intervening words the instances still conform to the proto-typical meaning and display minimal turbulence in their adherence to the base formrsquos meaning


With respect to constituency variation we found minimal turbulence in lines 35ndash38 with one intervening word global in an ally in the global war on terror These instances would not have been picked up if we were to look only at adjacent sequences Many collocational patterns do not occur contiguously all the time and searches which focus on contiguous collocations present an incomplete pic-ture of the attraction between words

Greater turbulence is displayed in line 44 (a steadfast ally of the United States in the war against terror) where four intervening items between ally and in the war can ldquodilute the collocationrdquo (Sinclair amp Warren 2006) Nevertheless ally and terror

Table 6 Terrorally in Bush1 at have been attacked by al Qaeda and its terrorist allies since September the 11th 20

2 errible cost in lives Bin Laden and his terrorist allies have made their intentions as

3 ss destruction to outlaw states and their terrorist allies We are working to prevent a

4 istan and Iraq have been transformed from terrorist states into allies in the war on terror

5 government that chooses to be an ally of terror has also chosen to be an enemy of civil

6 ocationrdquo for al Qaeda and its allies The terrorists fought this moment with all their

7 king with our friends and allies to seize terrorist assets and choke off their funding


9 and defend itself an ally in the war on terror and someone who will deny that which

10 will be an important ally in the war on terror will serve as a devastating defeat for

11 end themselves be an ally in the war on terror and deny safe haven to al Qaeda That

12 racy we will gain an ally in the war on terror By helping Iraqis build a democracy w

13 hat will enable a new ally in the war on terror to govern itself sustain itself and

14 gion and a steadfast ally in the war on terror With the emergence of this government

15 in Iraq is to have an ally in the war on terror and to help that young country establis

16 democracies and as an ally in the war on terror Today as Iraqis look to their new go

17 achieve a goal of an ally in the war on terror that can defend itself sustain itself

18 e do they will be an ally in the war on terror and theyrsquoll be an example for others to

30 rengthening two new allies in the war on terror and yoursquore bringing hope to millions

31 rrorist states into allies in the war on terror And the nation of Libya has renounced

32 f our most valuable allies in the war on terror These countries are joined by the larg

33 and that serve as allies in the war on terror Afghanistan and Iraq are taking their

34 ates and other allies helped break up a terror cell in London Working together we f

35 ng and capable ally in the global war on terror The new government in Iraq is also a

36 ted a valuable ally in the global war on terror I donrsquot know if you remember this

37 ate a valuable ally in the global war on terror Our mission must be to stay on the of

38 region and an ally in the global war on terror The terrorists understand the threat a

39 le and our allies Information from the terrorists in this program has helped us to

40 ble to all nations In the global war on terror we have no better ally than Australia

41 our allies will not be shaken And the terrorists will fail mdash because the American

42 our allies will not be shaken And the terrorists will fail because the American mil

43 an ally in the global war on terror The terrorists understand the threat a democratic

44 ally of the United States in the war against terror Irsquove made that clear on every


are still collocates and can be termed lsquoendocentricrsquo in that they are seen as combin-ing to create a single semantic entity (Sinclair amp Warren 2006) Following Sinclair and Mauranen (200624) while in endocentric relations the items involved col-laborate in the construction of a single linguistic entity in exocentric relations the items related have quite different syntactic roles and extend the expressive possibilities of the language

In the speeches Bush delivered in the period for which we have data 45 in-stances of ally in the vicinity of terror emerged vs one only in Blair

hellip allies because we believe that their fight against terrorism is our fight toohellip

In the instance above ally and terrorism are collocates despite the fact that the British Prime Minister employs the noun fight rather than war and the preposi-tion against rather than on There has of course been some sort of ldquodiversionrdquo (Sinclair amp Warren 2006) from the configuration that we have defined as canoni-cal but what is typical and recurrent in one culture is not necessarily the same in another let alone idiolects that characterize an individual speaker As mentioned earlier priming being a property of the person and not of the word it came as no surprise that two cultures and as a consequence two speakers use two different clusters which share the meaning but not the form

A recurrent associate of ally is friend in both its singular form friend and ally and in its plural form friends and allies Only six occurrences of ally and friend were spotted hence friend and ally appears to be the proto-typical form Turbu-lence is therefore minimal In line 1 of Table 7 the two nouns appear contiguously without the conjunction and typical of binomials whose function is to connect two roughly synonymous words9 The same turbulence is found in the lines 46ndash51 below where friend and ally are not always linked by means of the conjunction and something from one to four intervening words intrude in between

46 intact And thatrsquos why wersquore working with friends with allies with Security Council mem

47 friends Romania and the United States are friends and wersquore allies And as such wersquove ha

48 Wersquore working with France France is a friend France is an ally France has got a grea

49 ESIDENT BUSH Itrsquos good to be here with my friend and close ally We just had a wide-rangin

50 Iraq will result in a democracy that is a friend or America and an ally in the war on terr

51 with you Mr President Yoursquore a staunch friend yoursquore a faithful ally yoursquore a strong

Table 7 displays greatest turbulence relative to the proto-typical form where the noun ally becomes alliance and friend becomes friendship like in instances 47 52 53 61 and 63ndash65 below

47 r leadership And we are very proud of our friendship and alliance with Hungary PRIME MIN

52 wersquore glad yoursquore here Thanks for your friendship thanks for your alliance and thank


53 friend Mr Prime Minister our strong friendship has grown out of the strong alliance

61 have built a strong alliance and a close friendship Decades ago our two fathers lo

63 ally And so it is in the spirit of respect and friendship that I would like to offer a toa

65 Germany is a valued ally Wersquove got a friendship thatrsquos important We share commo

64 and strengthen with our friends and allies around the world Americarsquos alliance

It cannot be denied that the strength of attraction between words declines with the growing distance from each other and that intervening words can dilute the collo-cation but our nodes here are certainly collocates comprising a single component

Table 7 Friendally in Bush1 sult you But diplomacy is out talking to friends allies and others about a common objecti

2 ly what yoursquod expect I would say from a friend and ally THE PRESIDENT Well first of

3 any means that we want them as a strong friend and ally But I also made it clear that we

4 stated publicly before Israel is a close friend and ally of the United States and in the

5 Irsquom able to call Prime Minister Koizumi friend and ally is because Japan became a democra

6 garian people that wersquore proud to be your friend and ally And so it is in the spirit of res

7 our bilateral relations with a strategic friend and ally in the Middle East region The

8 lso thank you Lithuania has been a great friend and ally for the United States a full mem

9 ent Basescu of Romania Romania is a good friend and ally a NATO partner now and has been

30 e got a lot to talk about because wersquore friends and allies And so I welcome you glad

31 wersquore going to continue to work with our friends and allies to present a united front to th

32 always felt like itrsquos best to work with friends and allies to solve the problems And so

33 ety And itrsquos up to us working with our friends and allies to defeat the ideology of hate

34 g forward on a number of fronts with our friends and allies at the United Nations Security

35 are common values and together as close friends and allies are tackling of a wide variety

36 e security of the United States and our friends and allies and why it deserves the suppor

37 honor to offer a toast to you and to our friends and allies the people of Japan (A toast

38 self succeed everyplace unless wersquove got friends and allies willing to participate in the

39 iddle East (Applause) As we work with friends and allies it is important to remember

40 partners in the Security Council and our friends and allies elsewhere to address this in a

41 the things I will continue to remind our friends and allies is the danger of a nuclear-arme

42 t five others So wersquore talking with our friends and allies on the subject Q Mr Presiden

43 ur government must constantly remind our friends and allies the nature of the enemy and the

44 rtant for the United States to work with friends and allies to accomplish our objectives A

45 ursquoll find that we will work closely with friends and allies to come up with the best candid

54 their way in the future to be strategic friend and partner of all of us and that they wil

56 nister has brought to our close ally and friend We had a lot of discussion on important

57 iki and Irsquom proud to call him ally and friend (Applause) Iraqrsquos new government has

58 ieties But we will work with allies and friends to achieve this objective And part of

59 eace Irsquom going to remind our allies and friends in the neighborhood that the United

60 he United States working with allies and friends is to send a clear message that spon

62 ect when yoursquore talking to an ally and a friend and a good strategic thinker The

65 k Germany is a valued ally Wersquove got a friendship thatrsquos important We share common

62 ation with our allies We will work with friends Wersquoll bring people to justice In the


in the discourse and can be termed lsquoendocentricrsquo (cf Cheng et al 2006) Ally and friend in the vicinity of the lemma TERROR do not seem to attract each other in Blairrsquos speeches as they do in Bushrsquos We managed to find only three instances of this binomial and we noticed that the British Prime Minister has a different favou-rite way of expressing the concept of lsquoan ally in the war on terrorrsquo as the citations in Table 8 clearly illustrate

As the evidence of the data shows cooperation in the fight against terrorism seems to be the British counterpart of an ally in the war on terror Cooperation is often substituted by other nouns or noun groups such as full support solidarity unity

Another very frequent associate of the lemma TERROR is harbor it occurs so frequently mdash often with terror in the form of harbor a terrorist mdash that it was easy to determine the canonical form Obviously the plural harbor terrorists or the dif-ferent forms of the verb harbors harbored and harboring are as stable as the base form The only diversion from the base form was noticed in the first four lines in Table 9 which display both positional and constituency variation with consider-able turbulence In the base form you was the subject and terrorists was the object consistently throughout the concordance lines Here terrorist regimes those and the countries are the subjects which harbor weapons or harbor and support them

Table 8 Cooperation in the fight against terrorism in Blair3 nternational solidarity in our fight against terrorism If you remember after the attacks

4 between European countries in fighting this terrorism is essential In respect of the cit

5 cooperating strongly now on the fight against terrorism and we also support very closely th

6 ve a full fledged ally in the fight against terror against radicalism against fanaticism

7 can really be our ally in the fight against terrorism Prime Minister Well there a

8 urther our unity in our fight against terrorism Question Prime Minister given all

9 nhance the cooperation in the fight against terrorism and there will be a strong stateme

10 eaffirm our solidarity in the fight against terrorism The meeting of the G8 leaders and A

11 to our conviction And in the fight against terrorism we see a lot of uncertainty We have

12 efforts in struggling and fighting against terrorism And there are still people who have

13 standing together again to fight the war on terror to secure democracy and freedom in Ira

14 action and co-operation in the fight against terrorism We welcomed the agreement rea

15 e of Spain Cooperation in the fight against terrorism in Europe was stepped up after Sep

16 l continue to cooperate in the fight against terrorism I would like to thank the Pres

17 enhance the cooperation in the fight against terrorism and there will be a strong state

18 years the cooperation in the fight against terrorism and all the issues to do with c

19 detail our cooperation in the fight against terrorism and I would like to pay tribute

20 dged their full support in the fight against terrorism Can the Prime Minister update the

21 -operating strongly now on the fight against terrorism and we also support very clos

22 because we believe that their fight against terrorism is our fight too because if t

23 be a part of that coalition to fight against terrorism We in our own sub-continent


Line 41 in Table 9 shows a minimal constituency variation with two interven-ing words or and support and lines 39 and 40 employ the use of the determiners the and these in place of the canonical indefinite article

Not one instance was found of the concgram terrorharbor in Blairrsquos speeches bearing in mind that harbor is the American spelling of the word (harbour never oc-curs in all the 602175 words spoken by Blair in the period for which we have data)

In the written corpus there does not seem to be a great strength of attraction be-tween these words either The cluster has emerged only once each in both corpora

1 must confront regimes that continue to harbor terrorists and pursue weapons of mass murder

1 in Nairobi they strongly deny harbouring terrorists disavow terrorism and invite diplomat

Table 9 Terrorharbor in Bush1 going to be tough when it comes to terrorist regimes who harbor weapons On the other hand

2 between those who commit acts of terror and those that harbor and support them because

3 ld not distinguish between the terrorists and those who harbor or support them So we

4 no distinction between the terrorists and the countries that harbor them If you

5 overnments that support or harbor terrorists are complicit in the murder of the innocent

6 lear to all nations if you harbor terrorists yoursquore as guilty as the terrorists yoursquore

7 lear to all nations if you harbor terrorists you are just as guilty as the terrorists

8 at supports protects or harbors terrorists is complicit in the murder of the innocent


10 and when I said if you harbor a terrorist yoursquore equally as guilty as the terrorist I

11 ghanistan I said if you harbor a terrorist yoursquore as guilty as a terrorist I know full

12 the doctrine that if you harbor a terrorist yoursquore equally as guilty as the terrorist

13 ooting at our aircraft harbored terrorists The world is better off without Saddam

14 when I said that if you harbor a terrorist yoursquore as guilty as the terrorists the


32 making it clear if you harbor a terrorist mdash the short-term strategy of dealing with

33 d States of America He harbored terrorists He had used weapons of mass destruction He

34 our duty I said if you harbor a terrorist yoursquore equally as guilty as the terrorist

35 mind which is to stop harboring terror and to help the Iraqi democracy evolve They know

36 y country that if they harbored a terrorist they would be held to account And when the


38 if we find somebody harboring a terrorist theyrsquore just as guilty as the terrorists And

39 vicious tyranny that harbored the terrorists who planned the September the 11th attacks

40 young girls mdash had harbored these terrorists they provided safe haven These folks were

41 e Nations that harbor or support terrorists are equally guilty as the terrorists and

42 that harbor them If you harbor a terrorist you are just as guilty as the terrorists and

43 harbor a terrorist yoursquore as guilty as a terrorist I know full well that when the Preside

44 harbor terrorists yoursquore as guilty as the terrorists yoursquore an enemy of the United States

45 harbor a terrorist yoursquore as guilty as the terrorists the Taliban didnrsquot take me seriousl

46 harbor terrorists you are just as guilty as the terrorists yoursquore an enemy of the United

47 harbor a terrorist yoursquore just as guilty as the terrorist and yoursquore an enemy of the Unit


Another highly frequent two-word concgram occurring in the American English part of the spoken corpus concerns terrorhaven with 34 instances in Bush (and zero occurrences in Blair)

A close look at Table 10 shows that both configurations giveprovidedeny the terrorists a safe haven and denybecomeprovide safe haven for terrorists appear to constitute the proto-typical form in that they are both prominent in terms of frequency Terror and haven are collocates in this configuration and they combine as a single component in Bushrsquos discourse indeed we can safely claim that terror

Table 10 Terrorhaven in Bush1 to topple moderate governments and establish terrorist safe havens Imagine a world in whic

2 unched operations across the world to remove terrorist safe havens and capture or kill terrorists

3 two nations claim their freedom and deny the terrorists safe havens from which to launch fur

4 itions that create terror It would give the terrorists a safe haven from which to launch attacks

5 Iraqis build a democracy we will deny the terrorists a safe haven to plan attacks against Amer

6 achieving victory in Iraq we will deny the terrorists a safe haven from which to plot and

7 itself and govern itself That will deny the terrorists a safe haven You know al Qaeda ha

8 defend themselves be an ally in the war on terror and deny safe haven to al Qaeda Thatrsquos

9 are beaten for missing prayer meetings and terrorists have a safe haven to plan and launch

10 ppressed young girls mdash had harbored these terrorists they provided safe haven These fol

11 e at home I also said that if you harbor a terrorist if you provide safe haven to a terrorist

12 ubled region will have a better future The terrorists will lose their safe havens and thei

13 desire to change the conditions that create terror It would give the terrorists a safe haven

14 at by allowing states to give safe haven to terrorist networks that we made a grave mistake

15 zens and when Iraq is not a safe haven for terrorists to plot new attacks against our nati

16 ure it never becomes again a safe haven for terrorists We also discussed recent developme

17 that will never again be a safe haven for terror that will be a model of freedom in a tr

18 et worse Iraq will become a safe haven for terrorists Theyrsquoll use it in order to launch attacks

19 the Middle East will provide safe haven for terrorists and extremists It will embolden tho

20 aken down regimes that were safe havens for terrorists or that we had reason to believe we

21 a terrorist if you provide safe haven to a terrorist yoursquore equally as guilty as the terrorist

22 states are attractive safe havens for terrorists and tyrants and international criminals

23 a country that will deny safe haven to the terrorists I disagree with the assessment tha

24 derstand the need to deny safe haven to the terrorists who have caused such turmoil and hav

25 rutalized women and gave safe haven to the terrorists who attacked America Today the terror

26 we are determined to deny safe haven to the terrorists Since the day our country was attacked


28 Iraq that will not be a safe haven for the terrorists And of all the countries in the Middle

29 when Iraq is no longer a safe haven for the terrorists Victory is mdash will be achieved when

30 untry that we must deny safe haven to these terrorists whorsquod like to do us harm And so I s

31 ere Iraq is not a safe haven from which the terrorists mdash al Qaeda and its affiliates mdash ca


33 terrorist safe havens and capture or kill terrorist operatives and leaders Working with

34 that it doesnrsquot become a place from which terrorists can plot and plan So wersquore wat


and safe haven are collocates in that not one occurrence of haven alone was found in the 601350 words uttered by the President of the United States The only in-stances that display some degree of diversion from the base form are lines 31 and 32 (which seem to be two repeats) Iraq is not a safe haven from which the terrorists can plot and plan and line 34 The absence of the adjective safe in the four in-stances we found in The Economist and its presence in the hapax in the The Wall Street Journal (Table 11) would seem to suggest that this concgram may be more characteristic of American English than of British English

6 The phraseological environment of terror in the written corpus (NDC)

Since the media tend to interpret the language of politicians and ldquofashions it into a familiar media frame and then transmits it to the wider publicrdquo (Jackson 200520) we would expect to find similar patterns in written political discourse

A glance at the cluster distribution in the written corpus (Tables 4 and 5) re-veals how in the American newspaper terror attracts more words than in the Brit-ish journal on the contrary terrorism clusters prevail in The Economist whereas the word form that gives birth to the highest number of multiword units is terrorist in The Wall Street Journal

Terror has independent existence as a single item but it tends to change its meaning when found embedded in strings of language A study of the denotative meaning of terror as a noun points to the meaning of lsquogreat fearrsquo lsquoviolencersquo lsquodis-approvalrsquo (cf Cobuild Dictionary 2001) when interpreted according to the open-choice principle

will not allow a despotic Tehran that exports terror and threatens its neighbors

Do they want to live in terror or do they want to live in peacerdquo

(from The Wall Street Journal)

e small minority of foreign militants intent on exporting terror around the region anto western in

telligence services mdash can more easily transport terror to the United States

Stifling its economy will feed resentment and terror not a peace-friendly

(from The Economist)

Table 11 Terrorhaven in The Economist and in The Wall Street Journal1 Whatever the new rulers say international terrorists may seek a haven in their domain

2 and becoming a haven for international terrorists The government is right that cla

3 may seek a haven in their domain Jihadist terrorists of Somali origin have been active

4 haven for all manner of hustlers gangsters and terrorists Alan Doss the UNrsquos special env

1 people and when Iraq is not a safe haven for terrorists to plot attacks against our country


As mentioned earlier the most frequent cluster found in the written discourse having terror as origin is war on terror where the abstract noun terror names not a nation but an emotion and the acts that create it Thus when faced with it as a lsquochunkrsquo (Sinclair amp Mauranen 2006) a language user decodes the concgram metaphorically and there is a blending of the two meanings of lsquofearviolencersquo and lsquoterrorismrsquo

One of the most surprising aspects of this comparison across the spoken and the written language is the level of consistency in some phraseological patterns (eg war on terror and fight against terrorism) of the discourse and the complete absence of others in the written corpus compared to the spoken There is little de-viation from the central phraseological formations around our lemma unless con-sidered in terms of frequency As Carruthers (2000191) argues ldquostudies back the view that the media takes its cues from officials in framing and describing violent events often using the exact same wordsrdquo In fact even in the written discourse the concgram war on terror though less frequently occurring exhibits a degree of inflexibility and appears as an element of more or less long standardized phrases as in positive adjective + allyies in the war on terror

Major turbulence is displayed in line 1 (The Wall Street Journal) in Table 12 where lexical variation (alliance) makes the concgram formally different but nev-ertheless it adheres to the canonical meaning of the base form

When preceded by the preposition against terror allows a syntagmatic rela-tion with war but there is usually a choice on the paradigmatic level where items belonging to the semantic field of lsquowarrsquo surface

saying the nation remains ldquoon the offensive against terror networksrdquo

ldquoSingapore yields to no one in the fight against terror

ldquoThey are not happy Mauritania is active in joining the war against terrorrdquo

nations in the worldrdquo into ldquoan organization that says itrsquos against terrorrdquo

the NSA program as an e ssential element in his campaign against terror

(from the WSJ)

Table 12 Terrorwarally in The Wall Street Journal and in The Economist1 remain such useful allies in the ldquowar on terrorrdquo Even the Poles who take Americarsquos

2 tween two important allies in his ldquowar on terrorrdquo spoke to the Pakistani president

3 AErsquos status as an American ally in the ldquowar on terrorrdquo (it has arrested several senior

1 rong alliance with the US during the war on terror in contrast to France and Germany The

2 of the USrsquos strongest allies in the war on terror and rejected speculation that ties betw

3 UAE had been an important ally in the war on terror in a part of the world where we need allies

4 the UAE as an important ally in the war on terror since 911 it has been involved in ar


This paradigmatic relation does not seem to characterize the cluster war on terror which is then processed as a single lexical phrase whereas the search for conc-grams shows that the lemma and its word forms attract various collocates when in company of against as shown in the following tables

Table 13 Terroragainst in The Economist1 when he accused Israel of practising ldquostate terrorismrdquo against Palestinians But still

2Iraq mdash denounced the events at the mosque as ldquoterrorismrdquo against ldquoinnocentsrdquo This fiery lang

3 the past few years have committed numerous terrorist acts against Israeli civilians as wel

4 hifted dramatically after the September 11th terror attacks against the United States While

5 ilitants succeeds in mounting a spectacular terrorist attack against foreign interests in

6 many Muslims had come to equate the war on terrorism with a war against Islam This is an

7 coalition governmentrsquos recent draconian anti-terrorism laws are really directed against them

8 of casualties or doubt that the war on terror is as important as the struggle against

9 of casualties or they doubt that the war on terror is as important as the struggle against

10 are depressing support for the wider war on terrorism How to turn your best weapon against

11een states but part of the amorphous war on terror that America had been prosecuting against

12 in Iraq or in the broader struggle against terrorism Articles by subject Topics

13 k the tide Jun 2nd 2005 The war against terror can be won Alamy Get article backgro

14 ation to re-enhancing their systems against terrorist attacksrdquo he says Meanwhile the com

15 ld focus more on a broader strategy against terrorism one that might include fostering dem

16 ng defended the massacre as a blow against terrorism and called for enhanced regional secu

17 a better job of protecting America against terrorism and military threats while 45 prefe

18 s that Mr Abbas is not doing enough against terror have followed every previous violation o

19 a applauds Andijan as part of a war against terror because it has long represented its cond

20 the moral high ground in their war against terrorism As for the behaviour of the Iraqi go

21 armoury of legal and other weapons against terrorism no one should be under any illusions


23 pported the international coalition against terrorism and efforts to re-kindle the Middle E

24 re the price of increased vigilance against terrorism The long long half-life Jun 8th 200

25 try to justify harsher retaliation against terrorist attacks as self-defence against aggr

26 e staid faction in the global fight against terror gathered in one of the resortrsquos luxury

27 that ministers say are wielded only against terrorists and drug-runners Foreign visitors

28 are the burden in the global fight against terrorism When the Islamic insurgents have lar

29 tline state in Americarsquos global war against terror President Taya had made it an important

30 he Economist print edition The war against terror can be won Alamy Get article

31 ential ally in its campaign against Islamic terrorism China quietly acquiesced in a

32 ational matters especially against Israel terrorist groups sponsored by Iran have

33 hrough the global campaign against Islamist terrorism But this intrusion was in

34 tional matters especially against Israel terrorist groups sponsored by Iran have

35 West as a whole in its war against Islamist terrorism it comes far below Iraq on Mr

36 am itself must be turned against Pakistanrsquos terrorists In a speech this week Ge

37 forces will intervene against the pawns of terrorism no matter if they are women or child

38 e a heavy blow against al-Qaeda and Islamic terrorism in general Unfortunately the issue

39 used only against those with known links to terrorist groups and only international calls


Table 14 Terroragainst in The Wall Street Journal1 effect in the Muslim world could be volcanic Terror against America would increase Islam c

2 fighting Russian rule but denies any tie to a terrorist plot against the US mdash or knowing

3 Chirac warned that any state considering using ldquoterrorist means against usrdquo might face a nucle

4 tension between the two sides that could fuel terrorist strikes against Western targets in I

5 Americarsquos ties to Israel have escalated terrorist attacks against the US undermined


7 decide if they wish to work with us to prevent terrorist attacks against their own country or



10 he wiretapping program is central to combating terrorism and warned against public disclosure

11 the wiretapping program is central to combating terrorism and warned against public disclosure


13 Washington to foster a popular front to fight terrorism by lifting restrictions against the

14 drug and human smugglers are using Americarsquos terrorist concerns to exact revenge against ri

15 and drain them of support And as we fight the terrorists must know the world stands united

16rdquoSingapore yields to no one in the fight against terror Would being located in a region where

17 eace and democracy They stand together against terrorism These shared values resonate deeply

18 Mauritania is active in joining the war against terrorrdquo Mr Taya survived overthrow attempts

19 rebuild the Gulf region while guarding against terrorists The key they said is that Washin

20 the nation remains ldquoon the offensive against terror networksrdquo and citing ldquodramatic progress

21thinkers too accept now that the fight against terrorism is a real warrdquo UN Talk Bush Urg

22 rips with the shadowy 21st century wars against terrorists and guerrillas The Army and Marine

23 with US diplomatic initiatives against terrorism and nuclear proliferation In

24 they arerdquo mdash Sen John McCain ldquoThe war against terrorism is a new kind of war[Geneva Convent


26 eficits and hampered the broader fight against terrorism Ms Farrell told the group that the

27 Just 18 cite the presidentrsquos efforts against terrorism 10 his response to Hurricane Katrin

28 ips with the shadowy 21st century wars against terrorists and guerrillas The Army and Marine

29 Of Presidentrsquos Authority In Fight Against Terrorism By JOHN D MCKINNON Staff Reporter o

30 battle of ideas is crucial for winning against terrorism Click to format this article for

31 into ldquoan organization that says itrsquos against terrorrdquo US and Israeli intelligence officia

32 change in order to defend the nation against terrorists who could acquire a nuclear weapon o

33 power to launch pre-emptive strikes against terrorists and their supporters He molded a th

34 be a higher priority than guarding against terrorist attacks He agreed they were ldquothe mor

35 of this momentrdquo in the larger war against terrorism as described by Rep Tom Cole (R Ok

36 the rule of lawrdquo and weaken the fight against terrorism Swedish Foreign Minister Jan Eliasso

37 in the Bush administrationrsquos fight against terrorism hellip that bit players often have been

38Mauritania is active in joining the war against terrorrdquo Mr Taya survived overthrow attempts i

39as an essential element in his campaign against terror adding that ldquoit was a shameful act for

40 many other countries are waging a war against terrorism For our country this war often takes

41 of the world and we strike a blow against the terrorists who feed on anger and resentment O

42 contribution to the defense against global terrorism NATOrsquos mission in the age of terror

43 overseas have much value against an Islamic terrorist target or any hard target protected b

44 windows to protect them against vandalism Terror Trials Torture Policy Take Center Stage


45 offers no protection against the forces of terror as evidenced by recent warnings from

46 the American people against the threat of terrorismrdquo White House officials see Thursdayrsquo

47 on the offensive against critics of his war on terrorism The event beginning little more tha

48 ourselves against ruthless enemies And these terrorists are some of the most ruthless enemie

49 evidence against them prevent further acts of terrorism or hold them for legal proceedings

50against continuing efforts to aid extremist and terrorist groups and against pursuing a nuclear

If we analyse the left associates of against terrorism in both tables we notice that in both corpora there are war-related words such as struggle fight offensive strategy efforts coalition We then have different instances (see for example lines 31 and 33 in Table 13 or line 42 in Table 14) with some intervening words in most cases an adjective (Islamic Islamist global) or a noun (the pawns of terrorism in line 37 Table 13) and despite the minimal turbulence we can argue that this configura-tion warfare noun + against + terrorism constitutes a single discourse component and hence the base form with the proto-typical meaning Conversely in lines 47ndash49 (Table 14) the single components of the same congram are not associated as a single phrase in discourse and they are not collocates

When in company of the preposition against the word terrorist seems to be em-bedded in a phraseological environment constituting the phrase terrorist + noun + against An intervening noun (plot means attacks strikes) intrudes between ter-rorist and the preposition against contributing to the proto-typical meaning of the configuration lsquoterrorist againstrsquo usually followed by the name of a country

In Table 15 terrorist is mainly used as an adjective and is primed for collo-cational use with attacks The two words are included in a prepositional phrase which shows other frequent associates The phrase performs the function of intro-ducing a time reference with terrorist as word form since only one occurrence of terror with the same function has been registered in The Wall Street Journal

Table 15 TerrorSeptember in The Economist1 First after the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 civic and public

2 regime In the wake of the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 America and its

3 nation especially since the terrorist attacks of September 2001 One exhibit contains a

4 background EVER since the terrorist attacks of September 2001 George Bush has been

5 official scrutiny after the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 Figures from the

6 rity two months after the terrorist attacks of September 11th 2001 the Doha round

7 Francis Fukuyama If the terrorist atrocities of September 11th 2001 changed the world

8 Amazoncouk If the terrorist atrocities of September 11th 2001 changed the world

9 n the wake of the terrorist attacks in America of September 11th 2001 No

10 before the September 2001 terrorist attacks America had 28000 troops in the region

11 ents as the September 11th terrorist attacks the Iraq war (even though France opposed

This concgram (terrorterrorist + noun + of + September 2001) which allows both constituency variation and positional variation (September 2001 terrorist attacks)


organizes and functions as a discourse signal In this case the concgram encodes the temporal background against which the process takes place As Hoey argues (200513) lexical items tend to prefer or avoid certain grammatical structures or functions Thus this concgram identified as a collocation is primed to colligate with definiteness

The major deviation from the spoken data discussed above is given by the tendency of the lemma to form compounds with the prefix anti- in the written corpus more precisely in the Economist (see Table 16)

Table 16 Antiterror in The Economist1 to calls to intervene in failed states while an anti-terrorist special forces unit will be

2 the 10000-man exercise in eastern China an anti-terrorist operation But it is hard to

3 expulsion More police are to be deployed on anti-terrorist duties Checks on mosques and

4 measures The opposition feared a draconian new anti-terrorist law but Mr Pisanu reassured

5 have seen was a move to improve co-ordination of anti-terrorism efforts Italy has three poli

6 police forces each with a unit responsible for anti-terrorist investigations Individual

7 with the Interior Ministry but want a chief anti-terrorist prosecutor A former president

8 of Silvio Berlusconi plans to strengthen anti-terror laws (see article) In Spain the

9 IMF and World Bank says countriesrsquo action on the anti-terror recommendations lags efforts to

10to calls to intervene in failed states while an anti-terrorist special forces unit will be

11 coalition governmentrsquos recent draconian anti-terrorism laws are really directed

12 fear retribution under Americarsquos long-reaching anti-terrorism laws have so far come to

13 it would be the fourth attempt to toughen anti-terror laws since 2000 More legislation

14 has moved quickly to tighten Britainrsquos anti-terrorism laws Of the three new laws

15 That more than any tight-lipped statement from anti-terrorism officers suggests more attack

16 Karimov was quick to join the American-led anti-terror coalition Within weeks American

17 The French government has promised a new anti-terrorism law by the end of this month

18 European countries considering tougher anti-terrorism measures are increasingly

19on cue the French government has promised a new anti-terrorism law by the end of this month

20same lines as France Britain is considering new anti-terrorism laws (see article) Germany

21 costly pursuit The total cost of complying with anti-terror financing regulations is difficu

22 Times by Populus shows strong support for new anti-terrorism measures 89 of those polled

23 which resisted several of the measures in the anti-terrorism law Mr Blair struggled to pass

24 outside the Home Office after agreeing that new anti-terrorism measures should be sped throug

25America and other allies to reconsider their own anti-terrorism laws On Monday President

26 kept out of the deal with Mr Clarke to speed up anti-terror legislation Mr Blair on the

27week the government was talking of toughening an anti-terror law that had been defanged to fit

28wants to limit free speech even further in a new anti-terror bill This would reintroduce jail

29 to defence spending Mr Gul insists that the anti-terror law is needed to deal with the

30 Turkeyrsquos laws are harsh enough They see the anti-terror law as part of a bigger battle


32 While Britainrsquos security services have strong anti-terror powers and London has among the

33 have arrived in Uzbekistan to build an ldquoanti-terrorism centrerdquo there and Russian


34 attack This week its government announced new anti-terrorism legislation including a

35 to speed up the implementation of proposed anti-terrorism measures including the

The origin is here associated with words suggesting the idea of reinforcing the ex-isting laws against terrorism The phraseological environment highlights the pres-ence of an adjective (new strong) or a verb with the same referential meaning (to strengthen toughening) in the left co-text of the compound immediately followed by a noun in most cases law or a semantically-related noun

Table 17 Antiterror in Bush and in Blair1 as found in 2000 by British police during an anti-terrorist raid in London mdash a grisly al Qa

2 tep back Wersquore going to continue to conduct anti-terrorist operations in Afghanistan as we

1 a defeat in parliament or in the courts The anti-terrorism legislation of course passed in

2 has already been stated there will be new anti-terrorism legislation in the Autumn This

3 He spoke about the south Asia earthquake anti-terror legislation the lsquoRespectrsquo agenda

4 idence that came out of torture in cases of anti-terrorism hellip where one wouldnrsquot include

5 etropolitan Police Commissioner the head of anti-terrorist policing the Association of Chi

6 o compromise in ways I didnrsquot want to on the anti-terrorism legislation but let me make it

7 Question Prime Minister given all the anti-terror measures that you are considering

8 as possible by agreement with people These anti-terrorist measures are necessary not in t

9 situation Question Just going back to the anti-terror laws is there a sense in which Cha

10 mbrance There is then the issue of further anti-terrorist legislation During the passage

11 e Wersquove had the Terrorism Act of 2000 the Anti-terrorism and Security Act 2001 the most

12 s from terrorism or organised crime or just anti-social behaviour in the streets and I am

What is noteworthy is that anti-terrorismist abounds in The Economist com-pared to The Wall Street Journal (two instances) whereas twelve occurrences were found in Blairrsquos language and only two in Bushrsquos speeches (see Table 17) As Hoey (2004393) has observed collocational priming is not a feature of the word but it is connected to each new encounter and the media contribute to harmonizing the priming of linguistic communities reinforcing as in this case the individual use of language

The occurrences of the item anti-terrorismist in the British part of our cor-pora may be due to the meta-narrative of defending civilization by the use of le-gal measures aiming to maintain the sense of belonging to an exclusive political community since ldquoa shared identity is a prerequisite for nationhoodrdquo (Jackson 200561)


7 Conclusion

This paper has attempted to illustrate how the use of a search engine like Conc-Gram has been crucial in highlighting all the possible word associations found in a corpus contributing to the elucidation of the phenomenon of phraseology Coming a long way from the presumption that the word constitutes the unit of meaning our attention has focused on the lexical phrase as the primary carrier of meaning and not on the node a term replaced by lsquooriginrsquo in concgram searches (cf Cheng et al 2006) Not only has the identification of all the patterns contributed to the study of extended units of meaning uncovering the full extent of the idiom principle (Sinclair 1991) it has also improved our understanding of political lan-guage across language and cultural varieties confirming that what is typical and recurrent in one language variety is not necessarily so in another (eg to harbor a terrorist and safe haven for terrorists as parts of Bushrsquos idiolect)

As to the clusters found in the written discourse where relatively analogous distribution patterns may be partly explained by the similar ideological slant of the two selected journals the phrase war on terror may be seen as a formula intended as a fixed unit that is both institutionalized and metaphorical The use of different phrases (war on terror in Bushrsquos language and fight against terrorism in Blairrsquos) re-flects two different political ways of facing the dangers of the post-911 world In-deed the two ldquopre-cookedrdquo (Partington 199820) expressions are used mainly for signalling a different cultural and political identity Bush assumes a more overtly warlike style with respect to his counterpart This would seem to be corroborated by Bushrsquos repeated use of the binomial allies and friends in close proximity to the expression war on terror whereas Blair tends to choose nouns such as co-opera-tion solidarity unity and support when speaking of the fight against terrorism

The evidence that the spoken corpus appears to be more governed by the idi-om-principle (for instance to harbor terrorists occurs only twice in the written dis-course) supports the theory of saving processing time (Partington 1998) and effort when listening to a conversation In written political media discourse fixed expres-sions represent meaningful choices from the writer performing a text-organizing function (cf Moon 1998) Accordingly prefabs are less common in the written language of our corpora though they do occur above all because they contribute to balancing the new information with what is already known Thus ldquowritten lan-guage just as spoken draws from a stock of ready-made phrases which exist in a continuum from the entirely fixed to the more variablerdquo (Nattinger amp DeCarrico 199281)


Notes

For practical purposes Denise Milizia is responsible for the introductory part and Sections 3 and 5 whereas Cinzia Spinzi is responsible for Sections 2 6 and the conclusion Section 4 is the result of a cooperative work

1 Scott seems to have borrowed the phrase from the lager firm Heineken which in 1972 launched the following slogan lsquoHeineken refreshes the parts other beers cannot reachrsquo It was so successful that it became possible for the firm within a very short time to assume everybody knew it The early success of the slogan gave it the status of a catch phrase and enabled copy-writers to begin playing with its language knowing that people would readily bring to mind the original version (cf Crystal 2002389)

2 A consistent item is one which is to be found in many texts (Scott 200157) Not surprisingly Europe and European in Bush rank respectively 420 and 837 and America and American in Blair rank respectively 218 and 100

3 It seems that war on terrorism is the terminology preferred by the Pentagon (The Observer 10 December 2006)

4 It has been stated that a pattern has to occur at least three times to be worthy of consideration (Sinclair 2005)

5 Conversely Chomskyan linguistics is only concerned with a very idealized man-in-the street an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogenous speech-community who knows his lan-guage perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limi-tations distractions shifts of attention and interest and errors (random or characteristic) in ap-plying his knowledge of the language in actual performance (Chomsky 19653)

6 As Table 5 illustrates the word terror in Blairrsquos speeches is not willing to create a large num-ber of clusters this clearly shows that the Prime Minister uses the word mainly with its original meaning of lsquofearrsquo (24 occurrences) as in the impact of bloodshed and terror or despite it all despite terror violence kidnapping The most frequent cluster around the word terror in Blair is politics of terror

7 We are very grateful to John Sinclair and Christopher Williams for providing us with these two articles and more importantly for their precious and constant suggestions

8 For reason of space lines 19ndash29 have been deleted

9 It has been stated that although binomials are usually made up of two synonymous words ldquoat least a slight difference in emphasis is always there The second term is perhaps felt to carry more weight even semanticallyrdquo (Koskenniemi 1968 in Bugaj 2006) The existence of reversible binomials (eg friends and allies and allies and friends) has been noticed mainly in legal writings by Bugaj and Wlodarczyk (200692ndash93)


References

Ahmad K (2005) Notes distributed at the Tuscan Word Centre International Workshop Cer-tosa di Pontignano University of Siena Italy 25 June mdash 2 July 2005

Biber D Johansson S Leech G Conrad S amp Finegan E (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English London and New York Longman

Bolinger D (1976) Meaning and memory Forum Linguisticum 1 1ndash14Bugaj J (2006) The language of legal writings in 16th century Scots and English an etymologi-

cal study of binomials ESP Across Cultures 3 7ndash22Bugaj J amp Wlodarczyk M (2006) At lsquothe wylle and plesurrsquo of lsquokyng and souerainersquo in search of

motivations for binomials as markers of legal discourse In K Dziubalska-Kolaczyk (Ed) Ifatuation A Life at IFA A Festschrift for Prof Jacek Fisiak on his 70th Birthday (pp 85ndash98) Poznan Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu im Adama Mickiewicza

Carruthers S (2000) The Media at War Communication and Conflict in the Twentieth Century London Macmillan

Cheng W Greaves C amp Warren W (2006) From n-gram to skipgram to concgram Interna-tional Journal of Corpus Linguistics 11 (4) 411ndash433

Chilton P amp Schaumlffner C (2002) Themes and principles in the analysis of political discourse In P Chilton amp C Schaumlffner (Eds) Politics as Text and Talk Analytic Approaches to Political Discourse (pp 1ndash41) Amsterdam John Benjamins

Chomsky N (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax Cambridge MA MIT PressCollins COBUILD English Dictionary (2001) Glasgow HarperCollins PublishersCrystal D (2002) The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English (2nd ed) Cambridge Cam-

bridge University PressErman B amp Warren G (2000) The idiom principle and the open choice principle Text 20 (1)

29ndash62Francis G Hunston S amp Manning E (1996) Grammar Patterns 1 Verbs London HarperCol-

lins Birmingham University of Birmingham PressGreaves C (2005) ConcGram Version 10 Hong Kong HKUSTGries S (2008) Phraseology and linguistic theory a brief survey In S Granger amp F Meunier

(Eds) Phraseology An Interdisciplinary Perspective (pp 3ndash25) Amsterdam John Benja-mins

Halliday M A K (2004) The spoken language corpus a foundation for grammatical theory In K Aijmer amp B Altenberg (Eds) Advances in Corpus Linguistics Papers from the 23rd Inter-national Conference on English Language Research on Computerized Corpora (pp 11ndash38) Amsterdam Rodopi

Hoey M (2004) Lexical Priming and the property of text In A Partington J Morley amp L Haarman (Eds) Corpora and Discourse (pp 385ndash410) Bern Peter Lang

Hoey M (2005) Lexical Priming A New Theory of Words and Language London RoutledgeHoey M (2006) Notes distributed at the Exploring the Lexis-Grammar Interface Conference

Leibniz University of Hanover 5ndash7 October 2006Hunston S amp Francis G (2000) Pattern Grammar Amsterdam John BenjaminsHymes D (1968) The ethnography of speaking In J A Fishman (Ed) Readings in the Sociol-

ogy of Language (pp 99ndash138) The Hague and Paris Mouton


Hymes D (1972) On communicative competence In J Pride amp J Holmes (Eds) Sociolinguis-tics (pp 269ndash93) Harmondsworth Penguin

Jackson R (2005) Writing the War on Terrorism Manchester Manchester University PressMilizia D (2006) Classifying phraseology in a spoken corpus of political discourse ESP Across

Cultures 3 41ndash65Milizia D (2007) Migration of n-grams and concgrams in political speeches Paper delivered at

the XXIII AIA Conference University of Bari Italy 20ndash22 September 2007Moon R (1998) Fixed Expressions and Idioms in English A Corpus-Based Approach Oxford

Oxford University PressNattinger J R amp DeCarrico J S (1992) Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching Oxford Oxford

University PressPartington A (1998) Patterns and Meanings Amsterdam John BenjaminsPhillips M (1989) Lexical Structure of Text Discourse Analysis Monographs 12 Birmingham

University of BirminghamRenouf A J amp Banerjee J (2007a) Lexical repulsion between sense-related pairs International

Journal of Corpus Linguistics 12 (3) 415ndash443Renouf A J amp Banerjee J (2007b) The search for repulsion a new corpus analytical approach

In T Nevalainen I Taavitsainen M Korhonen amp P Pahta (Eds) Towards Multimedia in Corpus Studies Vol 2 Available at http wwwhelsinkifivariengjournalvolumes02re-nouf_banerjee

Renouf A J amp Sinclair J McH (1991) Collocational frameworks in English In K Aijmer amp B Altenberg (Eds) English Corpus Linguistics (pp 128ndash143) London Longman

Robinson P amp N C Ellis (Eds) (2008) A Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics and SLA London Routledge

Sauer C (2002) Ceremonial text and talk a functional-pragmatic approach In P Chilton amp C Schaumlffner (Eds) Politics as Text and Talk Analytic Approaches to Political Discourse (pp 111ndash142) Amsterdam John Benjamins

Schmitt N amp Carter D (2004) Formulaic sequences in action an introduction In N Schmitt (Ed) Formulaic Sequences (pp 1ndash22) Amsterdam John Benjamins

Scott M (2001) Comparing corpora and identifying key words collocations frequency dis-tributions through the WordSmith Tools suite of computer programs In M Ghadessy A Henry amp R L Roseberry (Eds) Small Corpus Studies and ELT Theory and Practice (pp 47ndash67) Amsterdam John Benjamins

Scott M (2004) WordSmith Tools Version 40 Oxford Oxford Publishing HouseScott M amp Tribble C (2006) Textual Patterns Keywords and Corpus Analysis in Language

Education Amsterdam John BenjaminsSinclair J McH (1966) Beginning the study of lexis In C E Bazell J C Catford M A K

Halliday amp R H Robins (Eds) In Memory of J R Firth (pp 410ndash430) Oxford Oxford University Press

Sinclair J McH (1991) Corpus Concordance Collocation Oxford Oxford University PressSinclair J McH (1992) Trust the text In M Davies amp L Ravelli (Eds) Advances in Systemic

Linguistics (pp 5ndash19) London PinterSinclair J McH (2003) Reading Concordances London Longman


Sinclair J McH (2008) The phrase the whole phrase and nothing but the phrase In S Granger amp F Meunier (Eds) Phraseology An Interdisciplinary Perspective (pp 407ndash410) Amster-dam John Benjamins

Sinclair J McH Jones S Daley R amp Krishnamurthy R (2004) English Collocation Studies The OSTI Report London and New York Continuum

Sinclair J McH amp Mauranen A (2006) Linear Unit Grammar Integrating Speech and Writing Amsterdam John Benjamins

Sinclair J McH amp Warren M (2006) Interview with Martin Warren Notes distributed at the Tuscan Word Centre International Workshop Certosa di Pontignano University of Siena Italy 27ndash31 October 2006

Stubbs M (2001) Words and Phrases Corpus Studies of Lexical Semantics Oxford BlackwellStubbs M (2007) An example of frequent English phraseology distributions structures and

functions In R Facchinetti (Ed) Corpus Linguistics 25 Years On Selected papers of the 25th International Conference on English Language Research on Computerized Corpora Verona Italy May 2004 (pp 89ndash105) Amsterdam and New York Rodopi

Summers D (1996) Computer lexicography the importance of representativeness in relation to frequency In J Thomas amp M Short (Eds) Using Corpora for Language Research (pp 260ndash266) London Longman

Tognini-Bonelli E (2001) Corpus Linguistics at Work Amsterdam John BenjaminsWray A (2002) Formulaic Language and the Lexicon Cambridge Cambridge University

Press

Authorsrsquo addresses

Denise MiliziaFaculty of Political ScienceUniversity of BariCorso Italia 2370123 BariItaly

dmiliziascienzepoliticheunibait

Cinzia SpinziFaculty of Political ScienceUniversity of Naples Federico IIVia L Rodinograve 2280138 NaplesItaly

cinziaspinziuninait


2004 xxi) Words are not randomly distributed they have preferred patterns they favour relationships with certain words and not others being attracted or indif-ferent to some words and repelled by others (Renouf amp Banerjee 2007a) All the same some words are found in each otherrsquos company more than would happen by chance and just like people they may be ldquofound 20 or more positions apart yet still within the same grouprdquo (Scott amp Tribble 200636) they collocate within the same group but keep away from each other According to Scott and Tribble the fact that we find two people close to one another does not tell us whether they like each other or not it suggests merely that they belong to the same set Conversely words may occur at a certain distance from one another and still be attracted and be part of the same concgram for this reason in this investigation we have used a search engine which manages to handle contiguous and non-contiguous collo-cations Stubbs (2007) uses the term lsquophrase-framersquo mdash an n-gram with a variable slot mdash which is very similar to lsquocollocational frameworksrsquo identified by Renouf and Sinclair (1991) ie discontinuous pairings which enclose characteristic groupings of words

The terminology we adopt here mdash concgram proto-typical canonical mdash is based on Cheng et alrsquos (2006) work but these concepts date back to 1970 when in the OSTI Report (Sinclair et al 2004) Sinclair spoke of the canonical form that would be the prototype of a phrase and the canonical form distilled by the com-puter with all the possible variations In this work we attempt to identify the pro-totype of some phrases and their possible variations around the lemma TERROR in spoken and written political corpora taking into account two varieties British English and American English

The outline of the present paper is as follows Section 2 starts with a theoretical basis of the study Section 3 explains the methodology we have adopted how our corpora have been assembled introducing the search engines that have guided our analysis WordSmith Tools 40 (Scott 2004) and ConcGram 10 (Greaves 2005) In Section 4 we show the distribution of the word forms of TERROR across the four sub-corpora and the kind of phraseological constraints the lemma is subject to in both spoken and written political discourse

The main findings are analysed in Sections 5 and 6 where we explore the be-haviour of our node word in spoken and written collections of texts and the clus-ters it is willing to create corroborating Stubbsrsquo assumption that different phrases occur with different frequencies in different text-types The aim is to compare the findings of the spoken medium with those of the written medium to find out which one is more inclined to create n-grams and concgrams bearing in mind that formal political speeches are written-to-be spoken hence they do not always reflect how people really speak




































0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait




































0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait






























0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


















0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait














0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait








0

001

002

003

004

005

006

007

008

009





























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait



























































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait




















































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait







































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


































































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait




























































































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait
























































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait









































































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait
































































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait







































































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


































































(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait





























(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait











(from the WSJ)













































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait






































































































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait





























































































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait
















































































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


























































7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait






















7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


7 Conclusion





Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


Notes












References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait


References
















































Press





cinziaspinziuninait






























Press





cinziaspinziuninait










Press





cinziaspinziuninait

Documents

Milizia Spinzi 2008 Politics Identities Corpus