Mitrovic Big State Issues

8/10/2019 Mitrovic Big State Issues

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Introduction ......................................................................................................................... - 7 -

Research Problem, Questions and Strategy .................................................................... - 7 -

Concepts and Delimitations ............................................................................................ - 9 -

Methodological Remarks .............................................................................................. - 11 -

Method ...................................................................................................................... - 11 -

Sources ...................................................................................................................... - 11 -

The Growth and Definition of Paramilitaries ................................................................... - 15 -

A short introduction into the paramilitary phenomenon ............................................... - 15 -

The variety of paramilitary experience in the Yugoslav state-making ......................... - 20 -

Mercenaries ............................................................................................................... - 20 -

Constabulary forces .................................................................................................. - 29 -

Militias ...................................................................................................................... - 35 -

Private military firms ................................................................................................ - 38 -

Security Intelligence Agencies ................................................................................. - 45 -

Big state issues behind the small arms .............................................................................. - 46 -

Establishment of a monopoly over the means of coercion: the essence of state .......... - 46 -

Contemporary state-building: a process under external constrain ................................ - 53 -

The Principle of Plausible Deniability .......................................................................... - 63 -

Paramilitaries and the post-Yugoslav statecraft ................................................................ - 66 -

Failed experiment of building new Serbian army ......................................................... - 67 -

The launch of an unauthorized paramilitary program................................................... - 69 -


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Territorial demarcation ............................................................................................. - 77 -

Revenue extraction.................................................................................................... - 80 -

Communal mythology .............................................................................................. - 82 -

Institutional design .................................................................................................... - 83 -

Military Line (Vojna Linija) ......................................................................................... - 84 -

Secretive policy group .............................................................................................. - 89 -

Patronage Network.................................................................................................... - 90 -

Nationalistic party militias ............................................................................................ - 93 -

Private paramilitary agents with official patron (1991-1996)....................................... - 94 -

Frenkis Boys the Red Berets the Unit for Special Operations (JSO) ......... - 94 -

Scorpions ............................................................................................................... - 96 -

Draftees ............................................................................................................................. - 99 -

Opportunists .................................................................................................................. - 99 -

Criminals ..................................................................................................................... - 101 -

Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... - 107 -

Bibliography ................................................................................................................... - 111 -


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1 Tribunal has a policy of grouping the cases with the same crime base, and its Trial Chambers run multi-accused

proceedings; for that reason the number of accused oversize the number of indictments. Up to July 2006, trial proceedings

against 94 out of 161 charged individuals have been concluded.

2Rule 54 bis of the ICTYs Rules of Procedure and Evidence stipulate that Trial Chamber may order the state to disclose

information or document which is regarded necessary for conduct of particular trial; but the state in question may respond

by requesting protective measures with the argument that its national security interests would be prejudiced by the


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production of the document/data in question. For this reason, several key witnesses and documents were discussed behind

the closed door and the issuing results are kept away from public. See Grant Dawsan and Joakim Dungel, Compulsion of

Information from States and Due Process in Cases before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia,

Leiden Journal of International Law, 20 (2007), 122.

Reporters without Borders, Press Freedom Day by Day: Serbia-Montenegro/Kosovo-2006 Annual Report,

http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=17478&Valider=OK, accessed on 27 August 2007; Napadi na

novinare: Srbija sedma u Evropi po ubistvu novinara [Attacks on journalists: Serbia ranking 7thin Europe by

the number of assassinated journalists], Tanjug, 24 April 2007. Just in 2007, there have been more than 100

recorded attacks on journalists, political activists and NGOs which publish on war-crimes and related

misdeeds; including a hand-grenade attack on the Belgrade home of journalist Dejan Anastasijevic, who

covers war crimes and underworld activity for the independent weekly paper Vreme and the U.S. Time.

Reporters without Borders, Eight ex-paramilitaries arrested for grenade attack on journalists home 10 May

2007, http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=21723


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4Mary Kaldor,New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999);

Dietrich Jung Shadow Globalization, Ethnic Conflicts and New Wars: A Political Economy of Intra-State War,

ed., (Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003); Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: the Merging

of Development and Security, (London and New York: Zed Books, 2001); Peter Andreas,.Criminalizing

Consequences of Sanctions: Embargo Busting and Its Legacy. International Studies Quarterly 49, no. 2

(2005): 335-360.


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5Dorron Zimmermann,Between Minimun Force and Maximum Violence: Combating Violence Movements

with Third-Force Options," The Quarterly Journal, Spring (2005): 43

6Berry Buzan , Ole Waever, Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis, eds., (Boulder: Lynne

Rienner Publishers, 1998).

7Derek Lutterbec, Between Police and Military: The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries,

Cooperation and Conflict 39, no. 1 (2004), 5.

8Zimmerman, ,Between Minimun Force and Maximum Violence, 45.

9Sunil Dasgupta, Understanding Paramilitary Growth: Agency Relations in Military Organization (paper

presented at the conference Curbing human rights violations by non-state groups, University of Vancouver,13-15 November 2003), 1.


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10 John Meller, The Banality of Ethnic War. International Security 25, no. 1 (2000): 42-70; Larry, Jay

Diamond and Marc F. Plattner, Civil-Military Relations and Democracy, (Baltimore and London: John

Hopkins University Press, 1996); Charles H., Jr. Fairbanks, The Post communist Wars, Journals of

Democracy 6, no. 4 (1995): 18-34.

11Andrew Scobell and Brad Hammitt, Goons, Gunman, and Gendarmerie: Towards a Reconceptualization of

Paramilitary Formations,Journal of Political and Military Sociology26, no. 2, (1998): 220.12Dasgupta, op.cit., 4.


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14Alec Cambell, Where Do All the Solders Go? Veterans and the Politics of Demobilization, Armed Forces

and Their Role in Politics and State Formation, eds. Diane E. Davis and Anthony W. Pereira (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 2003), 97.15Ibid.


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16Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990-1992(Cambridge and Oxford: Blackwell,

1990), 36.

17The International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenarie s, para 1.

Available from http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/mercenaries.htm

18The third key international treaty regulating the subject was signed in 1977. Under the impression of heavy

mercenary involvement in warfare in Africa, the Organization of African Unity introduced the Convention on

the Elimination of Mercenarism in Africa. There have been calls from within the UN institution to update the

norms in question, as it became apparent that do not adjust to new forms of mercenaries.

19

The United Nations, General Assembly, Fifty-eight sess. 2003, A/58/115 The Use of Mercenaries as a

means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determinationpara 7.


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20The United Nations, General Assembly, Fiftieth sess. 1995, A/50/390/Add.1, The Use of Mercenaries as a

means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination .;

Helena Smith, Helena Smith@Athens: Greek Paramilitaries in Srebrenica, The Guardian, August 1, 2005.

Ali, Koknar, Russian Mercenaries at War in the Balkans,Bosnian Institute, July 14, 2003.21 The Russian mercenary agents, for instance, receive regularly payments, and were promised Serbian

citizenship and households. Ibid.

22In regard to the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, the UN personnel concluded that belligerent governments

used fraudulent means to camouflage mercenaries, by their rapid naturalization or employment in the frontcompanies.


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23Mary Kaldor,New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era , (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999);

Joshua Kaldor-Robinson, The Virtual and the Imaginary: The Role of Diasporic New Media in the

Construction of a National Identity during the Break-up of Yugoslavia, Oxford Development Studies30, no. 2

2002 , 178 179. Wolfram Zunzer, Diaspora Communities and Civil Conflict Transformation, Occasional

paper no. 26, (Berlin: Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 2004); Edward

Newman, The New Wars Debate: A Historical Perspective is Needed, Security Dialogue.35, (2), 2004: 173-

189;

24 The United Nations, General Assembly, Fifty-eight sess. 2003, A/58/115 The Use of Mercenaries as a

means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination ., par24.


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25Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven and London: Yale

University Press, 2000), 184.

26 The treatment of emigrants, scattered across Australia, the U.S., and Western Europe, as potentially

subversive elements to socialist Yugoslavias constitutional order is evident from professional trajectory of

Gen Vasiljkovic, top military counter-intelligence officer. Upon his entry to intelligence service, he infiltrated

the leadership of 1968 student protest in Sarajevo to report of eventual anti-regime sentiment of respective

student movement; and then spent 12 years in Australia overlooking Yugoslav emigrant communities,

attentive to their political engagements. In addition, from 1950 to late 1980s, several prominent political

activists proceeding from Yugoslavia were assassinated in Chicago, Germany, and Valencia. For the details

on the 1969 assassination of the Croat nationalist and ex-war camp official , protected and re-settled in

Valencia by the Frankos regime, in: Francesc Bayarri, Cita a Sarajevo, (Tavernes Blanques: Eixam, 2006).

27 Dejan Anastasijevic, Zovem se Jovica, Vreme807, June 22, 2006.


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28 When SRJ was formed, MUP was charged with providing citizenships. The practice of facilitating migrs

to re-gain citizenship was formalized in 2001 Citizenship Law;

29 Paul HockenosHomeland Calling: Exile Patriotism and the Balkan Wars (New York: Cornell University

Press, 2003). The study was named after Kosovo Albanians fund established for financing alternative

governing, educational, medical infrastructure, and later on, an armed insurgency in Kosovo.

30 Ivan Vejvoda, Why Did the War Happened, in Miroslav Hadzic ed., The Violent Dissolution of

Yugoslavia: causes, dynamics, and effects (Belgrade:Centre for Civil-Military Relations, 2004): 67.

31 In is nonetheless important to note that nationalists were only one faction of Yugoslav migratory

phenomenon. 10 percent of labor force left the country in decades of 1960s and 1970s to settle in Germany,Switzerland, Austria and Sweden.


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32Ognian Shentov et al.Partners in Crime: The Risk of Symbiosis Between the Security Sector and Organized

Crime in Southeast Europe.(Sofia:Center for the Study of Democracy (CSD), 2004), 69-72.

33

General Assembly, Fifty-eight sess. 2003, A/58/115 The Use of Mercenaries as a means of violating human

rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination, para 2.


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39 Koknar , op.cit.


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40Anthony W. Pereira, State Formation and Violence in Diane E. Davis and Anthony W. Pereira Irregular

Armed Forces and Their Role in Politics and State Formation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

2003), 391.

41 The U.S. Department of Defense, for instance, differentiates between two types of secretive special operations

clandestine, designed in such a way as to ensure concealment, but which are not necessary covert, as to say, concealing the

identity of sponsor state is not a priority.

42 Doron Zimmermann, Between Minimum Force and Maximum Violence: Combating Political Violence Movements

with Third-Force Options, PfP Consortium Qarterly Journal, Spring (2005):43-60


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43Martha K. Huggins Modernity and Devolution, in: eds., Bruce B. Cambell and Arthur D. Brenner, Death Squads in

Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability(New York : Palgrave, 2002), 204.44

Zimmermann, op.cit, 44.45 John Andrade, World Police and Paramilitary Forces(New York: Stockton Press, 1985), xi


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46Zimmermann, op.cit. 51.

47Richard A.Best and Andrew Feickert, Special Operations Forces (SOF) and CIA Paramilitary Operations:

Issues for Congress, Congressional Research Service of the Library of Congress, January (2004), 5.

48Derek Lutterbeck, Between Police and Military: The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries,

Cooperation and Conflict 39, no.45 (2004), 51-52.49Ibid.


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50

Andrew Scobell and Brad Hammitt,Goons, Gunman, and Gendarmerie: Toward a Reconceptualization ofParamilitary Formations,Journal of Political and Military Sociology 26, no.2 (1998), 291.


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53David J. Francis. Defining and Conceptualizing Civilian Militias in David J. Francis (ed.) Civil Militia:

Africas Intractable Security Menace? (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005): 1-2.

54This is the case of the United States, among others. The Article 1, section 8 of the U.S. Constitution and the

co responding Amendment, gives Congress the power to draft, arm and organize civil militia in the case of

need, such to buffer off occupation. In this case, citizen militias are viewed and legitimized as necessary to

ensure a free state. For the account of early U.S. militia, 20th century neo-militiamen movement and the

American units which misinterpreted the legislation in vigor, see: Stan Weeber and Daniel G. Rodeheaver.

Militias in the New Millennium:A Test of Smelsers Theory of Collective Behavior(Lanham: University Pressof America, 2004).


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55Ibid.


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56 Gani Joses Yoroms ,Militias as a Social Phenomenon: Towards a Theoretical Construction, in Civil

Militia: Africas Intractable Security Menace?, ed. David J. Francis (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005): 45.

57 William Reno, Warfare and State-Building in Africa, in Irregular Armed Forces and Their Role in

Politics and State Formation,eds. Diane E. Davis and Anthony W. Pereira (Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2003), 340.


39/121

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58 The United Nations, General Assembly, Final report of the United Nations Commission of Experts

established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), 1994, S/1994/674/Add.2 (Vol. I): Annex III:

The military structure, strategy and tactics of the warring factions, B. para2.

59SALW Annual Survey.The Rifle Has the Devil Inside: Gun Culture in South Eastern Europe. Belgrade:

South Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Small Arms and Light Methods, 2006: 33

60

Besides private military companies, the private security sector entails private security companies, internalsecurity divisions, and non-lethal service providers.


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61British-American Security Information Council (BASIC), Research Report 2004.4:A Fistful of Contractors:

The Case for Pragmatic Assessment of Private Military Companies in Iraq (2004).

62Shearer David. Privatizing Protection, The World Today, August/September, 2001: 30.

63

Mark Duffield, Global Governance and the New Wars: the Merging of Development and Security,(Londonand New York: Zed Books, 2001),70.


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64Anna Richards and Henry Smith,Addressing the Role of Private Security Companies within Security Sector

Reform Program. (SAFEWORLD, 2007).

65 Musah Abdel-Fatau and J. Kayode Fayemi (eds.), Mercenaries: An African Security Dilemma (London:

Pluto Press, 2000), 2.

66 The United Nations, General Assembly, Fifty-eight sess. 2003, A/58/115 The Use of Mercenaries as a

means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination, para4.


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16, 1997.

68Mile Bjelajac and Ozren Zunec,The War in Croatia: (1991-1995) in The Scholars Initiative: Confronting

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available from:http://www.cla.purdue.edu/si/Team_7_Full_Text_Report.phd, 35.


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Interview with Susan Woodward, cited from: Yugoslavia: the Avoidable War, Documentary, Produced byGeorge Bogdanich and Martin Lettmayer.Available fromhttp://www.avoidablewar.com


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