DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

GURU GHASIDAS VISHWAVIDYALAYA BILASPUR

EVEN SEMESTER EXAMINATION- 2015

MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK 2nd SEMESTER

MODEL ANSWER

PAPER CODE: MS-205

TRIBAL DEVELOPMENT

I. ATTEMPT ALL QUESTIONS EACH CARRY EQUAL MARKS 10X2= 20.

1. According to the G. S. Ghurey Scheduled Tribes are constituted as…

Answer: Backward Hindus

2. Tribes or Tribal Communities deemed to be as Scheduled Tribes.

a) Under Article 330 of the Indian Constitution

b) Under Article 342 of the Indian Constitution

c) Under Article 332 of the Indian Constitution

d) All of the above

Answer: b) Under Article 342 of the Indian Constitution

3. In the states of Assam, Meghalaya Tripura and Mizoram

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a) Fifth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration of tribal areas

b) Sixth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration of tribal areas

c) Provision for grant-in aid

d) All of the above.

Answer: b) Sixth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration of tribal areas

4. The approaches for tribal development as

a) Assimilationist approach

b) Integrationist approach

c) Isolationist approach

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

5. Verrier Elwin Supported the

a) Telangana movement

b) Establishment of a sort of 'National park' or 'specimens in a human Zoo’

c) Tribal sub plan

d) All of the above

Answer: b) Establishment of a sort of 'National park' or 'specimens in a human Zoo’

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6. Shifting cultivation is not one of the major problems faced by tribal community (True/False).

Answer: False

7. Scheduled Areas are notified as per the Sixth Schedule under

a) Article 244 (1) of Indian Constitution

b) Article 244 (2) of Indian Constitution

c) Both a and b

d) None of the above

Answer: b) Article 244 (2) of Indian Constitution

8. Gramsabha has got the special rights and provisions under

a) Village panchayat

b) Gram panchayat

c) PESA, Act 1996

d) All of the above

Answer: c) PESA, Act 1996

9. Animatism means worshipping the …………

Answer: Worshipping any non-living body like stone or wood

10. Integrationist approach was a legacy of the British regime (True/False).

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Answer: False

II. ATTEMPT ANY FIVE QUESTIONS (Write your Answers 150- 200Words) 7X5=35.

1. Elaborate the Telangana movement in detail?

Answer: The Telangana people’s movement is rooted in a historical context and a developmental

model that the Indian rulers have been pursuing. The regional disparities-economic, social,

cultural -are a part of this process.

Telangana movement for a separate statehood and counter movement in the Andhra region for a

status quo, one of the lively debates relates to the history of the Telugu speaking people. Such

debates have the propensity to go to the root or origin of the problem: the Telangana leaders and

activists are arguing that Telangana has had a distinct history and to lump their history in the

common history of the Telugu people is more an attempt to marginalize its uniqueness and

distinctness.

It is true that Telugu speaking people have had twists and turns in their history, but the origins of

the ongoing movement could be traced to separation of the people when the coastal Andhra and

later the ceded districts of Rayalaseema were surrendered by the then Asafjahi rulers to the

British in the last quarter of eighteenth century. From 1776 to 1956 till the linguistic states were

created as a part of Reorganization of the States on the recommendations of States

Reorganization Commission popularly known as Fazal Ali Commission, the Telugu speaking

people of Telangana were a part of feudal princely State of Hyderabad and the people of the

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Andhra region were a part of the Madras Presidency under the British. These two different

political and administrative regions-one feudal the other colonial-shaped the history of people in

terms of economic changes, political developments and cultural consciousness. This is more so

in the case of coastal Andhra comprising Krishna, Guntur, and the two Godavari districts that are

vociferous in arguing for the status quo.

It was sheer economic compulsions of the colonial regime and chronic problems of the delta

districts to go for anicut across the Krishna and Godhavari rivers in the year 1852 just before the

crown had taken over the governance of India from the East India Company. This construction of

anicut, in a way, marks the beginning of modern Andhra. The wonders of water made a

significant difference to the politics, economics and culture of the region. Economically the

coastal belt experienced rise of the productive forces, the land that was prone to chronic floods,

problems of water logging and drainage or famines, became a land capable of generating surplus.

This led to urbanization, spread of education and rise of entrepreneurial peasant castes. The land

witnessed a range of political and social movements influencing the consciousness of the people,

this could be in a classical Marxist framework change in relations of productions though of a

quantitative nature as they were not very radical and revolutionary, but reformist.

Thus, with the struggle of the people and sacrifices as the outcome of the movement, Telangana

state formed independently.

2. Explain the constitutional provisions in the context of Scheduled Tribes?

Answer: The Government has special concern and commitment for the well-being of the

Scheduled Tribes Recognising the special needs of STs, the Constitution of India made certain

special safeguards to protect these communities from all the possible exploitation and thus ensure

social justice. While Article 14 confers equal rights and opportunities to all, Article 15 prohibits

discrimination against any citizen on the grounds of sex, religion, race, caste etc; Article 15(4)

enjoins upon the State to make special provisions for the advancement of any socially and

educationally backward classes; Article 16(4) empowers the State to make provisions for

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reservation in appointments or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens, which in the

opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in the services under the State; Article 46

enjoins upon the State to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the

weaker sections of the people and, in particular, … the STs and promises to protect them from

social injustice and all forms of exploitation. Further, while Article 275(1) promises grant-in-aid

for promoting the welfare of STs and for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled

Areas, Articles 330, 332 and 335 stipulate reservation of seats for STs in the Lok Sabha and in

the State Legislative Assemblies and in services. Finally, the Constitution also empowers the

State to appoint a Commission to investigate the conditions of the socially and educationally

backward classes (Article 340) and to specify those Tribes or Tribal communities deemed to be

as STs (Article 342).

The Fifth Schedule to the Constitution lays down certain prescriptions about the Scheduled

Areas as well as the Scheduled Tribes in states other than Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and

Mizoram by ensuring submission of Annual Reports by the Governors to the President of India

regarding the Administration of the Scheduled Areas and setting up of Tribal Advisory Councils

to advise on matters pertaining to the welfare and advancement of the STs (Article 244(1)). The

Sixth Schedule to the Constitution also refers to the administration of Tribal Areas in the states

of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram by designating certain tribal areas as Autonomous

Districts and Autonomous. Regions and also by constituting District Councils and Regional

Councils (Article 244(2)). To ensure effective participation of the tribals in the process of

planning and decision-making, the 73rd and 74th Amendments of the Constitution are being

extended to the Scheduled Areas through the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act,

1996.

3. Elaborate the bonded labour and Indebtedness among tribal community?

Answer: Bonded labour is the most widespread yet the least known form of slavery in the world.

A person becomes a bonded labourer when their labour is demanded as a means of repayment for

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a loan. The person is then tricked or trapped into working for very little or no pay. The value of

their work becomes invariably greater than the original sum of money borrowed. Often the debts

are passed onto the next generations. Many bonded labourers are forced to work to repay debts

their employer says they owe, and they are not allowed to work for anyone else. Violence and

threats can be used to coerce them to stay, and in some cases they are kept under surveillance –

sometimes under lock and key.

Bonded labor, which is characterized by a long-term relationship between employer and

employee, is usually solidified through a loan, and is embedded intricately in India’s socio-

economic culture—a culture that is a product of class relations, a colonial history, and persistent

poverty among many citizens. Also known as debt bondage, bonded labor is a specific form of

forced labor in which compulsion into servitude is derived from debt. Categorized and examined

in the scholarly literature as a type of forced labor, bonded labor entails constraints on the

conditions and duration of work by an individual. Not all bonded labor is forced, but most forced

labor practices, whether they involve children or adults, are of a bonded nature. Bonded labor is

most prevalent in rural areas where the agricultural industry relies on contracted, often migrant

laborers. However, urban areas also provide fertile ground for long-term bondage. Characterized

by a creditor-debtor relationship that a laborer often passes on to his family members, bonded

labor is typically of an indefinite duration and involves illegal contractual stipulations. Contracts

deny an individual the basic right to choose his or her employer, or to negotiate the terms of his

or her contract. Bonded labor contracts are not purely economic; in India, they are reinforced by

custom or coercion in many sectors such as the agricultural, silk, mining, match production, and

brick kiln industries, among others.

Indebtedness: The problem of indebtedness amongst tribals is not only an indication of their

poverty but also reflects the wider economic malaise, i.e., lack of education, low

purchasing/bargaining power and lack of resources for engaging in gainful activity and meeting

emergent expenditure. Therefore, the problem continues to persist with increasing menace as the

indebtedness pushes the tribals further into extreme conditions of poverty and forces them to

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dispense with their meager resources, including the small bits and pieces of land to pay off the

loans at exorbitant rates of interest. The initiation of commercial vending of liquor in tribal areas

has started impoverishing the tribal population, making them victims of indebtedness and

exploitation.

Lack of a sound policy to support consumption credit to tribals has tended to make them

dependent on usurious money-lenders, resulting in debt-bondage. The problem of tribal

indebtedness often gets aggravated and compounded with the government subsidy cum loan

schemes which further lead the tribals into deep indebtedness.

4. Describe the linguistic classification among tribal communities in India?

Answer: Language also helps in classifying people. But since language is a learned behaviour,

unlike race, which is genetically inherited, it is not coterminous with race. People of the same

race can speak different languages and people speaking the same language can belong to different

races.

Most of the tribal communities speak non Aryan languages. In India, the situation is further

complicated by the fac The Indo-European, particularly its Indo-Aryan branch; The Dravidian;

The Austro-Asiatic: the Munda and Kol branches, and The Sino-Tibetan: the Tibeto-Burman

branch.

Among the Indian tribes, there is a preponderance of the last three types. Languages belonging to

the Dravidian family are spoken by the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, Khonds of Orissa (who speak

Kui), Malto in Rajmahal Hills, and the Toda in the Nilgiri Hills. These languages are

‘agglutinative’ in structure. The Santal, Munda, Ho, Kharia, Bhumij, Korku, Khasi, Gadaba,

Savra, and the Nicobarese speak Austro-Asiatic languages.

These are Santhali, Gondi, Bhili, Oraon (or Kurukh), Lambadi, Ho, Mundari, Vagdi, Meithei (or

Mainpuri), Banjari (or Labhani), Kondh, Bhilali, Savra, Garo, Khasi, Kui, Korku, Bara Bodo,

Lushei, Paraja, Maria, Koya, and Mikir. Santhali has the largest number of speakers, followed by

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Mikir. Other languages fall between these extreme tribes in the Himalayan region and Eastern

India speak Sino-Tibetan languages.

Their phonetic systems have been affected and their vocabulary has been greatly enlarged with

the incorporation of many alien words. Many tribal languages are on the verge of extinction. t

that most people speak more than one language. Due to contact with the languages of the rest of

the country, and particularly with English, many tribal languages have lost their purity.

5. Discuss tribal sub plan in detail?

Answer: The strategy of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) is in force since 1974, to ensure adequate flow of

plan resources for the development of Scheduled Tribes while the strategy of Scheduled Caste

Sub Plan (SCSP) (earlier known as Special Component Plan for Scheduled Castes) is in force

since 1979-80, to ensure proportionate flow of plan resources for the development of Scheduled

Castes. The current name, i.e. Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SC Tribal Sub-Plan Strategy, efforts in

the Tenth Plan will be to motivate and gear up all the concerned Ministries/Departments both at

the central and state levels to play their due roles meaningfully in the socio-economic

development of the tribals through effective earmarking of funds/ benefits, not merely on the

basis of the proportion of tribal population, but on the basis of their actual needs. Also, the

support mechanisms and institutions such as Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDPs),

Integrated Tribal Development Agencies (ITDAs) and PRIs, Gram Sabhas will be activated with

all the necessary support of both technical and manpower resources to perform their role

effectively in bringing about the most wanted socio-economic development/empowerment of

tribals. In this context, rationalisation of the Scheduled Areas in states having Scheduled Areas

and declaration of tribal majority areas as Scheduled Areas in other states will be contemplated in

the SP is in force since 2006.

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6. Explain the Santhal movement?

Answer: The Santhal movement (1855-56) was primarily a revolt against oppression of

landlords, village money-lenders etc. It was directed against the 'outsider namely landlords,

traders and government officers.

On 30 June 1855, about 10,000 Santals met at Bhagnadihi and decided to address letters to the

Officers, darogas and zamindars, in which they express,’ their determination to fight the Bengali

and bania money lenders, and to “take possession of the country and set up a government of their

own.” Sidu and Kanhu, two brothers of a poor peasant family, claimed that they had received

divine message and were accepted by the Santals as their leaders. One of the first casualties of

the Santal rebellion was Mahesh Datta, who worked as a suzawal (Collector of rent) for twenty

one years. As the revolt spread, a few moneylenders were killed and the Barhait market place,

which was the residence of the moneylenders, was raided. Railway communications between

Bhagalpur and Rajmahal were suspended.

As evident, the movements were spread over large part of the country. A noteworthy feature of

these tribal movements, separated in space and time from one another, was that they occurred not

in one or two pockets but were spread out across the country. It must be understood, that the

Santhal movement were born out of deep dissatisfaction and often discontent against socio-

economic policies of the British Government, which adversely affected their lives. Whether it be

the question of encroachment of tribal lands by money-lenders backed by the Govt., the

acquisition of tribal forest, high taxation or enhancement of rent, every one of these policies

created among the tribes and nomadic communities extreme distrust of the authorities and turned

them against the rulers - often against outsiders in general, since that was how the tribal mind

perceived the situation to be and had at the root, common or similar issues.

7. What do you understand by the term tribe? Elaborate the various characteristics of

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the tribal community?

Answer: According to G.S. Ghurye, (1963) “The Scheduled Tribes are neither called the

‘Aborigines’, nor the ‘Adivasis’, nor are they treated as a category by themselves. By and large,

they are treated together with the Scheduled Castes and further envisaged as one group of the

Backward Classes.

D.N. Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous with no

specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary or otherwise, united in language or

dialect recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes. According to Ralph Linton tribe is

a group of bands occupying a contiguous territory or territories and having a feeling of unity

deriving from numerous similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a certain community of

interests.

L.M Lewis believes that tribal societies are small in scale are restricted in the spatial and

temporal range of their social, legal and political relations and possess a morality, a religion and

world view of corresponding dimensions. Characteristically too tribal languages are unwritten

and hence the extent of communication both in time and space is inevitably narrow. At the same

time tribal societies exhibit a remarkable economy of design and have a compactness and self-

sufficiency lacking in modern society.

The characteristics of a tribe are the following:

• Common definite territory, common dialect, common name, common religion and

common culture.

• They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.

• All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a

chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of

young boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.

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• Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and

fetishism i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or

a peculiar strange animal.

• A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common

name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists

entry of any outsiders inside their territory.

• Kinship as an instrument of social bonds.

• A lack of hierarchy among men and groups.

• Absence of strong, complex, formal organization.

• Communitarian basis of land holding.

• Segmentary character.

• Little value on surplus accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading.

• They are having scientific knowledge about forest produce and herbal medicine.

• Their forms of religion are known as animism such as animatism means worshipping any

non-living body likes stone or wood.

• Totemism worshipping a tree or any animal as the founding ancestor.

III. ATTEMPT ANY TWO QUESTIONS. 10X2=20

1. Critically examine the forest policies and laws in the context of tribal communities?

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Answer: The history of centralized control of forests can be traced to the enactment of the Forest

Act of 1864, which empowered the colonial government to declare any forest land as government

forest; a process strengthened in the 1878 Act, which classifi ed forests into ‘protected forests’,

‘reserved forests’ and ‘village forests’; the National Forest Policy of 1894, which re-iterated the

regulation of rights and restriction of privileges of ‘users’ in forest areas for the public good; the

Land Acquisition Act of 1894, which permits compulsory acquisition of land for a ‘public

purpose’; and the 1927 Act, which remains the main legal basis for depriving forest dwellers of

their user rights to forest resources. Under the banner of scientific management of forests, the

intended objective of these policy formulations was to maximize profits, encourage conservation

and discourage forest dwellers from ‘exploiting’ forest resources.

The formal and ‘legal’ appropriation and enclosure of forests inevitably led to the

‘criminalization’ of normal livelihood activities of millions of forest-dependent people,

conferring on them the legal status of ‘encroachers’, The post-colonial Indian state reinforced

centralized control of forests with its National Forest Policy of 1952, which focused on

protecting forest resources while commercially exploiting minor forest produce (MFP), and the

Forest Conservation Act of 1980, which placed all forests under the control of the central

government. It also continued utilising other colonial land acquisition laws for the ‘public good’

in the name of development. The displacement of forest dwellers thus continued, the most recent

manifestation being their eviction from their traditional homesteads by forest departments

seeking to consolidate the enclosure process under the Wild Life Protection Act of 1972 and its

1991 amendment, which severely restricted the rights of forest dwellers in wildlife sanctuaries

and curtailed their rights in national parks. It was this enclosure process that finally united social

movements working with forest users across the country, mobilising them to raise their voice

against the denial of democratic right to life and livelihoods to the vast tribal population.

Ownership of Minor Forest Produce (1976): The National Forest Policy of 1952 faced strong

criticism in the 1960s because it was seen as a vehicle to gift community rights as subsidies to

commercial enterprises in the private sector while depriving traditional forest-dwellers of these

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rights, including rights to Minor Forest Produce. As a follow up to this policy, the Government of

Madhya Pradesh (which then included Chhattisgarh) took the initiative of recognising forest

dwellers as ‘owners’ of MFPs instead of ‘workers’ in forest landscapes. While there were some

uncertainties about the definition of MFPs, the initiative was one of the most progressive steps in

the direction of recognising ownership of forest resources by forest dwellers.

Forest Conservation Act (1980): The passing of the Forest Conservation Act (FCA) in 1980 put

an abrupt end to the initiatives of the Madhya Pradesh government, negating its efforts to provide

rights to forest resources to the forestdwelling community. The FCA was the culmination of a

process that had started after independence when the government began converting forest land

into revenue land for development purposes. Prior to independence, several forest areas were

under the jurisdiction of the erstwhile princely states, many of which had no legal framework for

sustainable management of forest resources, which led to their rapid depletion across the country.

In order to address this problem, forests were removed from the jurisdiction of the states and

included in the central list, with the FCA eventually being passed in 1980 to conserve forest

resources.

National Forest Policy (1988): Since the 1952 policy did not protect the interests of the tribal

community that traditionally depended on forest resources for its livelihood, a new forest policy

was formulated in 1988 to include elements of community ownership of resources. The National

Forest Policy of 1988 recognised for the first time the relation between forest resources and tribal

communities.

Guidelines on replenishing forest resources (1990): In 1987-88, the Commissioner – SC & ST

sent a report to the Government of India on conflicts arising between forest dwellers and the

forest department. The report analysed the reasons and issues underlying these conflicts. On

September 18, 1990, the government issued directives for addressing these conflicts and

formulated guidelines for replenishing forest resources. People’s participation was a key element

in these initiatives. Guidelines were also issued to convert all forest villages to revenue villages

subject to two conditions. First, there should be no violation of the FCA and second, the

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government should make adequate provisions for compensation and re-forestation before

changing the status of the villages. The directions and guidelines were expected to help address

and amicably settle the conflicts between the forest department and forest dwellers. Also,

people’s participation was expected to ensure the strengthening of the forest economy.

Unfortunately the initiative, which saw several joint forest management (JFM) programmes

being taken up by the forest department and village communities, met with limited success

because it did not materialise into a large-scale effort and also because the ‘jointness’in JFM was

missing. One pertinent reason could be the set notions about forest conservation in the forest

department and its attitudinal problems with traditional forest dwellers.

Panchayat Extension to Scheduled Areas (PESA) Act (1996): The Government of India enacted

the Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas Act (PESA) on the recommendations of the Bhuria

Committee to ensure that traditional governance systems in scheduled areas were conserved.

PESA conferred significant powers on the Gram Sabhas, specifically mentioning that these local

governance bodies should have the control over natural resources within their jurisdiction.

The PESA recognized traditional rights of tribals to community resources (land, water and

forests) and decentralized existing approaches to forest governance by bringing the Gram Sabha

at the center stage for managing MFPs and social forestry. Some of its key provisions spell out

the extent to which the Gram Sabha can exercise control over community resources and MFPs.

Most states have yet to formulate rules to implement the Act. As a result, its implementation is

rather limited and Gram Sabhas have not been able to exercise adequate control over the forest

resources as per its provisions.

Forest Rights Act (2006): The strident opposition led to the formulation of a new Scheduled

Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Act which was passed in December 2006 and came

into force on January 1, 2008 with the notification of its administrative rules The FRA provides

for restitution of traditional forest rights to forest dwellers across India, including individual

rights to cultivated land in forested landscapes and collective rights to control, manage and use

forests and its resources as common property. It also stipulates the conditions for relocation of

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forest dwellers from ‘critical wildlife habitations’ with their ‘free informed consent’ and their

rehabilitation in alternative land. The introduction of the FRA represents a seminal moment in

India’s highly contested forest politics, recognizing for the first time the ‘historical injustice’

perpetrated by the state on a significant segment of its population when it states: … the forest

rights on ancestral lands and their habitat were not adequately recognized in the consolidation of

state forests during the colonial period as well as in independent. India resulting in historical

injustice to the forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers (FRA

2006). The Act, which inherently recognises that a healthy ecosystem is compatible with social

justice technically, holds precedence over all other forest and wildlife-related laws. Although its

provisions for restoring the rights of forest-dependent households may not cover all rights

deprivations they hold the promise of improving the lives and livelihoods of more than 100

million of India’s poorest citizens. The FRA is a fundamental reform that represents a ‘critical

juncture’ in the relationship between forest dwellers and the state.

However, it is important to remember that the FRA is only an enabling legislation and the ‘prize’

the actual allocation of user rights at the local level – crucially depends on its implementation.

2. Explain the various approaches for tribal development?

Answer: In a democratic state, one group of people should not remain outside the mainstream

society. Tribals have to be involved in all the matters concerning their country. After

independence, planned development started and broadly three different approaches were

advanced

(1) Isolationist

(2) Assimilationist

(3) 1ntegrationist.

The first approach was a legacy of the British regime, and is usually described as 'leave them

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untouched'. The policy was to isolate the tribal population from the masses The British took

deliberate efforts not to develop communication in the tribal areas. Tribals were kept away from

the rest of the population. Verrier Elwin (1934) supported the establishment of a sort of 'National

park' or 'specimens in a human Zoo' of the tribals and advised that their contact with the outside

should be reduced to the minimum. But this approach was not followed for long.

The assimilationist' approach is the approach which paved the way for the tribal people to mingle

with the neighbouring non-tribals. In India, the process of assimilation took place in different

parts of the country, resulting in the gradual acceptance of Hindu culture by the tribals. The main

criticism against this approach was that this tried to change the tribals by imposing the non –

tribal customs and traditions. The Advocates of this view supported a direct assimilation without

waiting for a slow and long-drawn change over. The approach is also considered to be a failure.

The past experience of the policies of isolation and assimilation, forced the planners to take the

middle way between the two, which is called the integrationist approach. This approach was

mainly the brain child of Jawaharlal Nehru. The policy of integration consists of two types of

measures for tribal development.(l) Protective (2) Promotional measures.

The former consists of land polices, forest policies and the policies to protect tribal culture and

traditions, while the latter is the same as development and welfare programmes undertaken by the

government (through plans ) and other voluntary agencies to make the tribal life better through

the integrationist approach. the policy of protection and development is undoubtedly same in

itself, but it remains to be seen whether development is possible without upsetting the harmony

that exists in the placid tribal life"." The constitution of India initiated the tribal welfare

programmes by incorporating important provisions. These provisions not only put an end to the

policy of indifference which had been followed during the pre-independence period, but also

gave testimony to tribal welfare programmes, making them a constitutional obligation for the

future governments of the country.

Constitutional Provisions

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(a) Statutory recognition of tribal communities.

(b) Creation of scheduled areas for the thorough development of the tribals.

(c) Special representations in the parliament, in the legislative assemblies and local bodies.

(d) Special privileges in the form of reservation of a certain percentage of posts in government

services and seats in educational institutions.

(e) Recognition of the right to use local language for administration and other purposes and to

profess one's faith.

In addition to the above, three provisions of the constitution deserve special mention. According

to the fifth schedule, Union Executive is given the power of giving direction to the States in

matters relating to the administration of scheduled areas. The sixth schedule designates tribal

areas in Assam and Meghalaya where autonomous district councils and regional councils have

been constituted with powers to make laws for management of land, forests, shifting of

cultivation, appointment or succession of chief and headman, inheritance of property, rnaniage

and divorce, social customs and matters relating to village or town administration. Article 275 (1)

of the constitution provides for grant-in-aid from the Union to the States for promoting the

welfare of the Scheduled Tribes or for raising the level of administration of the Scheduled Areas.

The constitution also provides for the appointment of a commission for Scheduled Tribe's for

safeguarding their interests. Thus, tribal development in the true sense and in the present context

of India is in fact a post independence concept and draws the spirit from the constitution itself.

The Five Year Plan and tribal development: has outlined a positive policy for assisting the

tribals as under assisting them to develop their natural resources and to evoke a productive

economic life wherein they will enjoy the fruits of their own labour and will not be exploited by

more organized economic forces from outside; It is not desirable to bring about changes in their

religions and social life, except at the initiative of the tribal people themselves and with their

willing consent; It is accepted that there are many features in tribal life which should not only be

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retained but also developed;

The qualities of their dialects, and the rich content of their arts and crafts also need to be

appreciated and preserved.

The travails of tribal development need to be understood properly. The programmes should be

related to the specific needs of the tribal community. Also, tribal development programmes

should be integrated with the ongoing rural development programmes meant for poverty

alleviation. A pragmatic and holistic approach to tribal development alone can produce good

results.

3. Discuss the different problems faced by the tribal communities in India?

Answer: Tribal communities continue to be vulnerable even today, not because they are poor,

asset-less and illiterate compared to the general population; but often their distinct vulnerability

arises from their inability to negotiate and cope with the consequences of their integration with

the mainstream economy, society, cultural and political systems, from all of which they were

historically protected by their relative isolation.

Displacement: Displacement or forced/voluntary eviction of tribals from their land and their

natural habitats and subsequent rehabilitation has been a serious problem that remains to be

addressed by the Government. As per the information readily available, a population of 21.3

million have been displaced between 1951 and 1990 in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,

Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa. Of whom, 8.54 million (40 per

cent) are tribals and of those only 2.12 million (24.8 per cent) tribals could be resettled, so far.

Displacement took place mainly on account of development projects, which include large

irrigation dams, hydro-electric projects, opencast and underground coal mines, super-thermal

power plants and mineral-based industrial units. In large mining projects, tribals lose their land

not only to the project authorities, but even to non-tribal outsiders who converge into these areas

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and corner both land and the new economic opportunities in commerce and petty industry. The

incomplete rehabilitation of the displaced tribals has further of tribals and their rehabilitation

being a matter of great concern, the Tenth Plan will try to expedite the finalisation of the

National Policy for Rehabilitation of the Displaced Persons with a special focus on the displaced

tribals, ensuring that there is no deterioration in their living conditions by providing them ‘land

for land’ and ‘item for item’ – last possessed before displacement. Further, towards protecting

the interests of the tribals who are under the threat of displacement, The requirements of planned

development brought with them the dams, mines, industries and roads, all located on tribal lands.

With these came the concomitant processes of displacement followed by conflict between

development and protection of tribal rights and interests. Tribal institutions and practices were

forced into uneasy co-existence, which paved the way to market or formal State institutions.

Also, the tribals found themselves at a great disadvantage in the face of an influx of better

quipped outsiders into tribal areas. The repercussions for the already fragile socio-economic

sustenance base of the tribals were devastating ranging from the loss of livelihoods and land

alienation on a vast scale to hereditary bondage.

Land Alienation: Land is not only the most important productive resource base for the tribals, but

also occupies an important place in their psyche as the mainstay of their social and religious

practices. Over a period of time, this resource base of the tribal communities has tended to get

eroded not only through acquisition for public purposes but also through fraudulent transfers,

forcible eviction, mortgages, leases and encroachments. As per the information available with the

Ministry of Rural Development, as many as 4.65 lakh cases of alienation of tribal land covering

an area of 9.17 lakh acres were registered in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat,

Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Tripura in

January 1999.

Bonded labour: is the most widespread yet the least known form of slavery in the world. A

person becomes a bonded labourer when their labour is demanded as a means of repayment for a

loan. The person is then tricked or trapped into working for very little or no pay. The value of

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their work becomes invariably greater than the original sum of money borrowed. Often the debts

are passed onto the next generations. Many bonded labourers are forced to work to repay debts

their employer says they owe, and they are not allowed to work for anyone else. Violence and

threats can be used to coerce them to stay, and in some cases they are kept under surveillance –

sometimes under lock and key.

Bonded labor, which is characterized by a long-term relationship between employer and

employee, is usually solidified through a loan, and is embedded intricately in India’s socio-

economic culture—a culture that is a product of class relations, a colonial history, and persistent

poverty among many citizens. Also known as debt bondage, bonded labor is a specific form of

forced labor in which compulsion into servitude is derived from debt. Categorized and examined

in the scholarly literature as a type of forced labor, bonded labor entails constraints on the

conditions and duration of work by an individual. Not all bonded labor is forced, but most forced

labor practices, whether they involve children or adults, are of a bonded nature. Bonded labor is

most prevalent in rural areas where the agricultural industry relies on contracted, often migrant

laborers. However, urban areas also provide fertile ground for long-term bondage. Characterized

by a creditor-debtor relationship that a laborer often passes on to his family members, bonded

labor is typically of an indefinite duration and involves illegal contractual stipulations. Contracts

deny an individual the basic right to choose his or her employer, or to negotiate the terms of his

or her contract. Bonded labor contracts are not purely economic; in India, they are reinforced by

custom or coercion in many sectors such as the agricultural, silk, mining, match production, and

brick kiln industries, among others.

Shifting Cultivation: which is not ecologically sound, is still being practised by the

tribals living on the higher slopes of hilly areas of the country. As estimated, more than 6 lakh

tribal families in the North Eastern states, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Himachal Pradesh practise

shifting cultivation on a continuous basis. This shifting cultivation is integrally linked to the

tribal economy in the areas where it is practised and their social

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and economic activities and rituals are also centred around this practice. The problem of shifting

cultivation is a very complex one, involving economic, social and psychological aspects of the

tribal communities. Although shifting cultivation is one of the prime sources of living for the

tribals, yet the same has been severely restricted. The Ministry of Agriculture has been

implementing a scheme for control and transformation of Shifting Cultivation in the North

Eastern states, but the pace of its implementation has been very slow.

Deprivation of Forest Rights: Forests and Tribals share a symbiotic relationship. Tribals continue

to live in forest areas, though in isolation, yet in harmony with environment. Recognising this

dependency, the National Forest Policy, 1988, stipulated that all agencies responsible for forest

management should ensure that the tribal people are closely associated with the regeneration,

plantation, development and harvesting of forests so as to provide them gainful employment.

Despite these special safeguards, tribals continue to struggle for mere survival as they face

formidable problems and displacement due to development of national parks and wild-life

sanctuaries and other environmental restoration projects, lack of development in forest villages

etc. The protection of rights of tribals in forests is key to the amelioration of their conditions.

Indebtedness: The problem of indebtedness amongst tribals is not only an indication of their

poverty but also reflects the wider economic malaise, i.e., lack of education, low

purchasing/bargaining power and lack of resources for engaging in gainful activity and meeting

emergent expenditure. Therefore, the problem continues to persist with increasing menace as the

indebtedness pushes the tribals further into extreme conditions of poverty and forces them to

dispense with their meager resources, including the small bits and pieces of land to pay off the

loans at exorbitant rates of interest. The initiation of commercial vending of liquor in tribal areas

has started impoverishing the tribal population, making them victims of indebtedness and

exploitation. Lack of a sound policy to support consumption credit to tribals has tended to make

them dependent on usurious money-lenders, resulting in debt-bondage. The problem of tribal

indebtedness often gets aggravated and compounded with the government subsidy cum loan

schemes which further lead the tribals into deep indebtedness.

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Low Literacy and High Drop-out Rates: Despite the programme of Universalization of Primary

Education, which has been in effective operation since 1986, the literacy rate of STs remained as

low as 29.6 per cent, while the general literacy rate reached 52.2 per cent in 1991.

Nutritional Deficiencies and Diseases: Malnutrition is fairly common amongst the tribals,

especially their children and women, debilitating their physical condition and lowering their

resistance to disease, leading at times even to permanent brain impairment. As most tribal

women suffer from anemia which lowers resistance to fatigue, this affects their working capacity

and increases susceptibility to disease particularly for those having closely-spaced frequent

pregnancies. The nutritional status of tribal women directly influences their reproductive

performances and the birth weight of their children, which is crucial to the infant’s chances of

survival, growth and development. Almost all the tribals in the country do not have a satisfactory

dietary pattern as their diets are frequently deficient in calcium, Vitamin A, Vitamin C,

Riboflavin and animal protein. The tribals are thus caught in a vicious cycle of malnutrition and

ill-health.

Inadequate and Inaccessible Health Services: Although the National Health Policy, 1983 accords

high priority to extending organized services to those residing in the tribal, hilly and backward

areas as well as to the detection and treatment of endemic diseases affecting tribals, yet the tribals

continue to be one of the fragile population, mainly due to their poor health and nutritional status.

Tribal health is one of the important areas for action in the health sector. The major contributors

to the increased disease risk amongst tribal communities include - i) poverty and consequent

under-nutrition; ii) poor environmental sanitation, poor hygiene and lack of safe drinking water

leading to increased morbidity from water and vector-borne infections; iii) lack of access to

health care facilities resulting in the increased severity and duration of illnesses; iv) social

barriers and taboos preventing utilisation of available health care services; v) vulnerability to

specific diseases like G-6 PD deficiency, Yaws, and other endemic diseases like malaria etc.

Also, the tribal population, being heterogeneous, there are wide variations in their health status,

access to and utilisation of health services.

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These are the various problems faced by the tribal communities.

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