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H I S T O R I A M A T H E M A T I C A 2 2 (1 99 5) , 3 4 7 - 3
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Models an d M aps fro m the M arshall Is landsA Case in
Ethnomathematics
M A R C I A A S C H E RI t h a c a C o l l e ge I t h a c a N e
w Y o r k 1 4 8 5 0
S t ic k c h a r t s a r e a s i g n if i c a n t p a r t o f t
h e M a r s h a l l e s e n a v i g a t i o n t r a d i t io n . H
e r e w e f o c u so n t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l i d e a s o f
m o d e l i n g a n d m a p p i n g e m b o d i e d i n t h e s e c
h a r ts a s w el l a s o nt h e i d e a s a b o u t w a v e d y n
a m i c s t h a t t h e y i n co r p o r a te . T h e s e p l a n a
r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s w e r e u s e dt o t e a c h p r o
s p e c t i v e n a v i g a t o r s t h e p r i n c i p le s a n d
s p e ci f ic s o f th e u n i q u e M a r s h a l l e s e s y s t
e mof w a v e p i lo t in g . ' 1995 A c ademicPress, Inc.
L e s c a r t e s m a r i n e s ~ t b r i to n s c o n s t i t u
e n t u n e p a r t i e i m p o r t a n t e d e s t r a d i t i o n
s d e l a n a v i g a t i o na u x i le s M a r s h a l l . C e t a
r t ic l e p o r t e s u r l es id E e s m a t h E m a t i q u e s
p o u r l a p r o d u c t i o n d e c a r t e se t m o d u l e s r
E d u i t s q u e c e s c a r t e s h b g t to n s r e n f e r m e
n t . I1 p o r t e E g a l e m e n t s u r l e s id E e sc o n c e
r n a n t l a d y n a m i q u e d e s v a g u e s q u i s ' y t r o
o v e n t i n c o r po r E e s. C e s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s
p l a n e ss e r v a i e n t h e n s e i g n e r a u x f u t u r s
n a v i g a t e u r s l e s p r i n c i p e s e t l e s d e ta i l
s d e c e s y s t b m e d e
p i l o t a g e d e s v a g u e s , u n i q u e a u x ~ le s M a
r s h a l l . 1995 A ca de micPress, Inc.S t a b k a r t e n s i n
d e in b e d e u t s a m e r T e i l d e r O b e r l i e f e r u n
g e n z u m N a v i g i e r e n b e i d e n M a r -
s h a l li n s u l an e r n . I n d i e s e m A r t i k e l k o
n z e n t r i e r e n w i r u n s s o w o h l a u f d ie m a t h e
m a t i s c h e nI d e e n d e s M o d e l l i e r e n s u n d d e
s k a r t o g r a p h i s c h e n E r f a s s e n s , d ie i n d e
n S t a b k a r t e n s t e c k e n ,a ls a u c h a u f d ie G e d
a n k e n i ab er W e l l e n d y n a m i k , d i e si e e n t h a
l te n . D i e e b e n e n S t a b k a r t e nw u r d e n b e n u t
z t , u m k t i n f t i g e n S e e f a h r e r n d i e P r i n z i
p i e n u n d S p e z i f i k a d e s e i n z i g a r t i g e nS y
s t e m s d e s , , W e l l e n l o t s e n s d e r M a r s h a l l
i n s u l a n e r z u v e r m i t t e l n . 1995 A ca dem icPress.
Inc.
M S C 1 9 9 1 s u b j e c t c l a s s i f ic a t i o n s : 0 0 A
7 1 , 7 6 - 0 3 , 0 1 A 0 7 , 0 1 A 1 3 .K E y W O RD S: M a p s ,
m o d e l s , M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s , e t h n o m a t h e m
a t i c s , n a v i g a t i o n , w a v e d y n a m i c s .
I N T R O D U C T I O NT h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s t i
ck c h a r t s f ir st c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f W e
s t e r n e r s i n a n
1 86 2 r e p o r t b y a n A m e r i c a n m i s s i o n a r y [
18 , 3 04 ]. I n h is b r i e f p a r a g r a p h a b o u tt h e m
, h e s a y s t h a t t h e y w e r e u s e d t o r e t a i n a n d
i m p a r t n a v i g a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e b u tw e r e
s o s e c r e t t h a t h is i n f o r m a n t , a l t h o u g h t
h e h u s b a n d o f a c h ie f , w a s t h r e a t e n e dw i t h
d e a th . D u r i n g t h e n e x t 5 0 y e a r s , a b o u t 7 0
c h a r t s a n d s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u tt h e m w
e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m M a r s h a l l I s l a n d n a v i g
a t o r s o r t h o s e w h O c l a i m e d t ou n d e r s t a n d
t h e s e n a v i g a t io n a l a i ds . ( S e e A p p e n d i x f
o r so u r c e s o f p u b l i s h e d c h a r ts . )
H e r e , a s a c a s e i n e t h n o m a t h e m a t i c s , w
e e x a m i n e t h e s e ch a r t s a n d th e k n o w l e d g et
h e y e m b o d y i n o r d e r t o i n c r e a s e o u r u n d e r
s t a n d i n g o f t h e s c ie n ti fi c a n d m a t h e m a t i
-c a l i d e a s o f t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d e r s . O u
r d i s c u s s io n p l a c e s t h e s e i d e a s w i t h i n th
e i rc u l t u r a l a n d i d e a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s . T
o m a k e t h e m c o m p r e h e n s i b l e , w e d r a w u p o
nw h a t i s f a m i l i a r t o u s w h i l e t a k i n g c a r e
t o d i s t i n g u i s h o u r i d e a s w h i c h a r e b e i n
gu s e d to c la r if y o r e x p l a i n f r o m t h o s e o f t h
e M a r s h a l l I s la n d e r s. B y o u r id e a s I m e a nt h
e i d e a s n o w t a u g h t t o t h o s e s c h o o l e d in t h
e m o d e r n s c ie n ti fi c a n d m a t h e m a t i c a lt r ad
i ti o n s . A s w i t h m o s t c a s es in e t h n o m a t h e m
a t i c s , t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e i d e as
3 4 70 3 1 5 - 0 8 6 0 / 9 5 $ 1 2 . 0 0
Copyright 1995 by Academic Press Inc.All rights of reproduction
in any form reserved.
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348 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 22o f th e M a r s h a l l I s
la n d e r s c a u s es u s t o t h i n k f u r t h e r a b o u t s
o m e o f o u r m o s t b a s icc o n c e p t s . I n t h i s c a s
e , w e f o c u s o n i d e a s a b o u t m o d e l s a n d m a p s
.
A s t a n d a r d d i c t i o n a r y d e f i n i t i o n o f a
m a p i s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , u s u a l l y o n a f i
ats u r f a c e , o f a p o r t i o n o f s p a c e [ 37 , 7 0 1 ].
G e n e r a l l y i t s p u r p o s e i s t o l o c a t e s p e c
if i cp l a ce s in r e la t i o n s h ip t o o t h e r p l a c es
. N u m e r o u s c o n v e n t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o
p e dt o g i ve m e a n i n g t o t h e w o r d l o c a t e a n d
to m a k e a m a p m o r e t h a n a p e r s o n a lm n e m o n i c
d e v ic e . A m a p i n a n a tl a s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n c
lu d e s l o n g i t u d e s a n d l a t i t u d e sp r o v i d i n
g a g r i d s y s t e m t h a t c a n b e u s e d t o s p e c i f y
a n y p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t - - t h a t i s ,w e l o c a t
e a p o i n t a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t w o l i ne s
. M o s t m a p s a l s o i n c l u d e f o ro r i e n t a t i o n
t h e d i r e c t i o n s N o r t h , S o u t h , E a s t , a n d W
e s t a n d , u s u a l l y , d i s t a n c e sb e t w e e n p o i
n t s a r e s m a l l e r t h a n , b u t p r o p o r t i o n a l t
o , d i s t a n c e s i n t h e s p a c e b e i n gd e p i c t e d
. T h e s e c o n v e n t i o n s , h o w e v e r , a r e n o t t h
e o n l y o n e s p o s s i b l e. I n f a c t ,b e c a u s e t h e
e a r t h is r o u n d , w h e n a s u f f ic i e n t ly l a r g e
p o r t i o n o f it i s d e p i c t e d o n af i a t s u r f a c e
, d i r e c t i o n a n d d i s t a n c e c a n n o t b o t h b e p
r e s e r v e d . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h ef a m i l i a r m
a p s b a s e d o n M e r c a t o r p r o j e c t i o n s , d i r e
c t i o n s a r e p r e s e r v e d b u t , a s ar e s u l t, s h a
p e a n d d i s t a n c e a r e d i s t o r t e d . E v e n f o r s
m a l l r e g i o n s , q u i te d i f f e r e n tc o n v e n t i o
n s c a n b e u s e d . O n m o d e r n s u b w a y m a p s , fo r
e x a m p l e , n a m e d s t a t io n sa r e c o n n e c t e d b y
v a r i o u s l y c o l o r e d s t r a i g h t li n es . W h i l e
q u i t e i m p r e c i s e w i t h r e s p e c tt o d i s t a n c
e o r d i r e c ti o n s , t h e y c o n t a i n a ll w e n e e d t
o k n o w i n o r d e r t o g e t f r o mh e r e t o t h e r e w i
t h i n t h e s u b w a y s y s t e m . T o a s u b w a y r i d e
r, t h e f a c t t h a t a s to p i sf o r l oc a l r a t h e r t h
a n e x p r e s s t r a i n s , o r t h a t i t is w h e r e o n e
c a n c h a n g e f r o m o n el in e t o a n o t h e r , i s f a r
m o r e s i g n if i c an t t h a n t h e s h a p e o f t h e l a n
d m a s s e s o r t h ee x a c t d i s t a n c e s b e i n g t r a
v e r s e d .
M a p s , t h e r e f o r e , m u s t b e v i e w e d b r o a d
l y a n d , w i t h a b r o a d v ie w , w e c a n b e t t e ra p p
r e c i a t e t h e m a s p r o d u c t s o f m a t h e m a t i c a
l a b s t r a c t i o n s . M a p s , f i r st o f a ll , a r ea n
a l o g i c a l s p a c e s - - t h a t i s, o n e s p a c e is s u
b s t i t u t e d f o r a n o t h e r . S e c o n d l y , p h y s i
c a le n t i t ie s s e l e c t e d a s s ig n i f ic a n t a r e s
y m b o l i c a l ly r e p r e s e n t e d . A n d , m o s t i m p
o r t a n t ,r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t m a y n o t b e s e
e n d i r e c t l y i n t h e o r i g i n a l s p a c e a r e m a d
e v i s u a ll ye x p l i c i t i n t h e a n a l o g i c a l s p a
c e . I t i s i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e r e l a t i o n
s h i p s t h a t s c i e n ti f ick n o w l e d g e i s u s e d (
o r c r e a te d ) ; m a t h e m a t i c a l i d ea s a r e a n i n
t eg r a l p a rt o f t h e w a yi n w h i c h t h e s e r e l a t
i o n s h i p s a r e f o r m u l a t e d a n d e x p r e s s e d .
E s s e n t i a l l y , t h i s v i e wo f m a p s a n d m a p p i
n g is t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l u s ag e o f t h e t e r m b u
t n a r r o w e d t o af o c u s o n p h y s i c a l s p a c e
.
I n t h e h i s t o r y o f W e s t e r n c a r t o g r a p h y
, a d i s t in c t io n w a s m a d e b e t w e e n m a p s a n dc
h a rt s . C h a r t s r e f e r r e d t o t h e d e p i c t i o n
u s e d b y m a r i n e r s w h i c h c o n t a i n e d v a r i e
dt y p e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e d o n t h e i r e x p
e r i e n c e a n d s p ec i fi c t o t h e i r p u r p o s e s . M
a p s ,o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e l a rg e l y a c a d e
m i c , c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e w o r l d a s a w h o le .E
a r l y c a r to g r a ph e r s , s u ch a s P t o l em y , d e f i
n ed w h a t t h e y d i d a s g e o g r a p h y - - ar e p r e s e
n t a t i o n i n p i c tu r e s o f t h e w h o l e k n o w n w o
r l d t o g e t h e r w i th th e p h e n o m e n aw h i c h a r e
c o n t a i n e d t h e r e i n . H e d i s t in g u i s h e d t h
a t fr o m c h o r o g r a p h y w h i c h h ed e e m e d r e g i o
n a l a n d s e le c t iv e , e v e n d e a l i n g w i t h th e s
m a l l e s t c o n c e i v a b l e lo c a li -t i es , s u c h a s
h a r b o r s , f a r m s , v i l la g e s , r i v e r c o u r s e
s , a n d t h e l i k e [ 6, 6 1]. O u r b r o a d e rd e f i n it
i o n o f m a p s f o l lo w s m o r e m o d e r n w r i te r s w h
o v i e w w o r l d - w i d e m a p s a n dl o ca l m a p s a s d i
f fe r e n t s tr e a m s h a v i n g a n u n d e r l y i n g c o n
c e p t u a l u n i t y a n d e v e n t u a l l y
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I SL A N D S 349m e
r g i n g [ 2 0 ] . D i f f e r e n c e s i n t e r m i n o l o g y
, h o w e v e r , h a v e p e r s i s t e d . H e n c e , m a p ss
p e c if i ca l ly f o r m a r i n e r s a r e s t il l c a l l e d
c h a r t s a n d s o t h e u n i q u e o b j e c t s c r e a t e d
b yt h e M a r s h a l l I s l an d e r s a r e c o m m o n l y r e
f e r r e d t o a s s ti ck c h a rt s.
M a d e o f p a l m r ib s t ie d w i t h c o c o n u t f i be r
s a n d s o m e t i m e s w i th a f e w s h e ll sa t t a c h e d
, t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s t i ck c h a r t s a r e g e
n e r a l l y o f t w o t y p e s . T h e y a r es i z a b l e o b
j e c t s , g e n e r a l l y a b o u t 6 0 t o 1 2 0 c m b y 6 0 t
o 1 2 0 c m . M a n y a r e m a p ss h o w i n g a fe w o r m a n y
a t o l l s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e a c h o t h e r a n d
t o s i g n if ic a n t f e a t u r e so f t h e e n v i r o n m e
n t . T h e s e a r e n a m e d m e d d o a n d rebbe l i t h t h e
f o r m e r h a v in g f e wa to ll s a n d t h e l a t te r r e p
r e s e n t i n g a l a r g e r a r e a . T h e s e c o n d t y p e
, n a m e d ma t t a n ga r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t a n d a r
e n o t w h a t w e c l a ss i fy a s m a p s a t all . T h e y a r
e , h o w e v e r ,e v e n m o r e a b s t r ac t a s th e y m o d
e l t h e d y n a m i c g e o m e t r y t h a t u n d e r p i n s t
h e w a v ep i l o t i n g s y s te m o f t h e M a r s h a l l I s
l a n d n a v i g a t o r s . I t is t h e s e t h a t c a p t u r
e d m yi n t e r e s t a n d w i ll b e o u r m a j o r f o c u s .
U s e d a s t r a i n in g d e v i c e s , t h e y s h o w t h e i
n t e r p l a yo f o c e a n o g r a p h i c p h e n o m e n a a n
d l a n d m a s s es . T h a t i s, t h e y a r e s t at ic , id e
a l iz e dr e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f sh a p e s a n d m o t
i o n s i n th e s e a a n d a t t h e l a n d / s e a i n t e r f
a c e .T h e y i n t r o d u c e t h e p r o s p e c t i v e M a r
s h a ll I s l a n d n a v i g a t o r t o t h e f e a t u r e s o
f t h ee n v i r o n m e n t t h a t w i ll b e i n c l u d e d o n
t h e m a p s . J u s t a s w i t h a n y m a p , o n e m u s tf ir
st u n d e r s t a n d w h a t o f t h e o r i g i n a l s p a c e
w i l l b e p r e s e r v e d a s si g n if i ca n t in t h ea n a
l o g o u s s p a c e . A n d , o f c o u r s e , a s o n e l e a r
n s w h a t i s s i g n if ic a n t, o n e is l e a r n i n gw h y
i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t o r w h a t r o l e i t p l a y s i n
t h e s y s t e m .
T H E E N V I R O N M E N TL y i n g b e t w e e n 4 3 0 ' a n d
1 5 la t i t u d e a n d 1 6 0 a n d 1 7 5 l o n g i t u d e , t h
e M a r s h a l l
a r c h i p e l a g o c o n s i s t s o f a b o u t 2 9 c o r a
l a t o l l s a n d 5 s m a l l c o r a l i s l a n d s f o r m e d
i n t ot w o p a r a l l e l c h a i n s r u n n i n g a b o u t 9
6 0 k m i n a n o r t h w e s t - s o u t h e a s t d i r e c t i o
n ( s e eF i g. 1 ). E a c h a t o l l c o n s i st s o f a l a g o
o n s u r r o u n d e d b y a n a r r o w r i n g o f c o r a l r e
e fa n d s m a l l is la n d s . L a g o o n s o f l a r g e r a t
o ll s a r e f r o m 3 2 t o 4 8 k m l o n g a n d 8 t o 1 6k m a c
ro s s. B i k in i , t h e n o r t h e r n m o s t a t o ll in o n
e o f t h e c h a i ns , w a s m a d e f a m o u sa s t h e s i t e
o f n u c l e a r b o m b t e s ts a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I. I
t, f o r e x a m p l e , c o n s is t s o f ar i n g o f 5 1 s m a
l l is l a n d s w i t h a to t a l l a n d m a s s o f 7 .7 s q u
a r e k m s u r r o u n d i n g a 6 3 0s q u a r e k m l a g o o n
. B e f o r e t h e y w e r e m o v e d i n 1 94 6, t h e B i k i n
i p o p u l a t i o n w a s 1 7 0p e o p l e [ 27 ]. A n o t h e r
e x a m p l e is t h e s o u t h e r n , m o r e d e n s e l y p o
p u l a t e d M a j u r o a t o ll ,a ri n g o f 6 1 s m a l l i s
la n d s w i t h l a n d a r e a t o t a l i n g a b o u t 8 .5 s q
u a r e k m s u r r o u n d i n g a2 6 0 s q u a r e k m l a g o o
n w i t h a 1 9 4 6 p o p u l a t i o n o f a b o u t 1 6 0 0 p e o
p l e [ 36 ]. I n a ll , t h eM a r s h a ll I s la n d s h a v e a
l a n d a r e a o f j u s t u n d e r 1 80 s q u a r e k m s c a t
t e r e d o v e r a b o u t9 7 0, 00 0 s q u a r e k m o f o c e a
n . A t t h e t i m e t h e y b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e U . S .
T r u s tT e r r i t o r y , t h e r e w a s a p o p u l a t i o n
o f a b o u t 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p l e . T h e a r c h i p e l a g o
is s i t u a te di n t h e w a r m e s t p a r t o f t h e P a c i
fi c O c e a n , w h e r e t h e r e is a f a ir ly u n i f o r m m
e a na n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e o f 2 7 C w i t h o n l y a
b o u t a 5 .5 d i f f e r e n c e f r o m d a y t o n i g h t.
B e c a u s e t h e r e i s s o l i t t l e l a n d , m u c h c
o m m u n i t y a t t e n t i o n f o c u s e s o n h o w l a n dis
t r a n s m i t t e d , h o w i t is u s e d , a n d h o w i t s f
r u it s a r e d i s t ri b u t e d . A l t h o u g h t h e r e a r
ev a r i a t i o n s i n f o r m a l i t y a n d d e t a i l s f r
o m a t o l l t o a t o l l , t h e r e a r e c l e a r s o c i a l
c l a s s e sa n d , w i th i n t h e se , k i n a n d c l a n d e
l in e a t i o n s . O n M a j u r o , f o r e x a m p l e , a b o
u t 1 0o f t h e p e o p l e a r e n o b i l i t y w h i l e th e o
t h e r s a r e c o m m o n e r s . L a n d is n e v e r s o ld o
r
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350 M A R C I A A S C H E R1 6 4 1 6 8
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1 6 4
B i k i n i~ , ' 2 ' R o n g e l a p. c 2A i l i n g i n a e
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0 8 0 1 6 0k i l o m e t e r s
~ o R o n g e r ik . ~ , U t i r ik~-,FA Tak a
~./ A"ok~ ~ '(@ . k i k i e p - 8 : M e j i tK w a j a l e i n C
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, - - E r i k u b ' ~ O ~ . ~ . . ~ M a l o e , ,
N a m u ~ ' 3 A i l i n g l a p l a p< ~A r l
M a j u r oK - - I -N a m o r i k t . ~ J a l u i t M i li F
Kill
E bon1 6 8 1 7 2
F I c . 1 . T h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d s ( a d a p t e d
f r o m [ 13 ]) .
1 2
p e r s o n a l l y o w n e d . A l t h o u g h w o r k e d b y
t h e c o m m o n e r s , r i g h t s t o t h e p r o d u c e o fa
n y p i e c e o f l a n d a r e s h a r e d b y t h e p a r a m o u
n t c h i e f , a n o b l e l i n e a g e , a n d a c o m -m o n e
r l i n ea g e . C o c o n u t p al m s , p a n d a n u s a n d b r
e a d f r u i t t re e s , s o m e t r o p i c a l h a rd -w o o d
s , a n d t a r o a r e o f p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e f o r
f o o d a s w e ll as f o r c o n s t ru c t io n ,w e a v i n g m
a t e r ia l s , a n d f u e l . A n d c o p r a ( d r i e d c o c
o n u t m e a t ) h a s b e e n a n e x p o r ts in c e th e c o m
i n g in 1 86 0 o f th e A m e r i c a n s , t h e n t h e G e r m
a n s , t h e n t h e J a p a n e s e[27; 33; 36].
W i t h s o m u c h o f th e e n v i r o n m e n t d o m i n a t
e d b y w a t e r , s ai li n g a n d b o a t s a r e a ne s s e n
t ia l a n d i n t e g r a l p a r t o f l if e. O n a n a t o l l
, w i t h i n t h e l a g o o n , s a i l in g c a n o e s a r eu s
e d f o r f i s h i n g , f o r t r a v e l i n g t o v i s i t f r
i e n d s , a n d f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f f o o d a n
dc o p r a . A n d , o f co u r s e , b o a t s a r e u s e d f o r
o p e n s e a f i sh i n g, i n t h e v i c i n i ty o f t h ea t o
l l a n d f o r o p e n s e a t r a v e l t o o t h e r a t o l l s
. S o m e s m a l l s a i l i n g c a n o e s o f a b o u t 5m , w
h i c h c a n a ls o b e p a d d l e d o r r o w e d , a r e f o r
u s e a r o u n d t h e e d g e s o f t h e r e e f s.B u t t o c r
o s s t h e l a g o o n a n d t o c a r r y p a s s e n g e r s a n
d c a r g o , t h e b o a t s a r e 7 t o 9 ml o n g a n d r e q u
i r e a c r e w o f 2 o r 3 p e o p l e . T h e s e , a n d s ti ll
l a r g e r b o a t s , a r e f o r t r a v e lt o o t h e r a t o
l l s i n t h e M a r s h a l l A r c h i p e l a g o a n d b e y o
n d . V e r y l o n g d i s t a n c e s a i l i n gt r ip s t o , f
o r e x a m p l e , t h e C a r o l i n e I s l an d s , t h e P a
l a u s , a n d S a i p a n w e r e s ti ll t a k e ni n t h i s c
e n t u r y b u t t h e y ar e , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t, r e c
a ll e d a s b e l o n g i n g to t h e o l d e nd a y s [ 36 , 2
55 ]. T h e 1 8 62 r e p o r t o f a n A m e r i c a n m i s s i o
n a r y [ 18 ] d e s c r i b e s b o a t s
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8/12/2019 Models and Maps From the Marshall Islands
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I SL A N D S 351t h
a t c o u l d c a r r y 50 t o 1 00 m e n i n th e o p e n s e a a
n d a l s o r e c o u n t s t h e f e s t i v e r e t u r nf r o m
s o m e n o r t h e r n a t ol ls t o E b o n o f 80 0 p e o p l e
i n a f le e t o f 40 b o a ts . I n a n o t h e r1 9 t h - c e n t
u r y a c c o u n t [3 9], w e r e a d o f 1 8.3 m l o n g b o a t
s c a r r y i n g 4 0 t o 5 0 p e o p l ee a c h a n d f l o t il l
a o f u p t o 1 0 0 b o a t s .
T h e s e l a r g e s a il in g e x p e d i t i o n s w e r e l
e d b y c h i e f s b u t t h e i r s u c c e s s a n d t h e s u c
c es so f th e m o r e c o m m o n t ri p s w i t h i n th e a t o
l l c h a in s , d e p e n d e d o n t h e n a v i g at o r s. T h
en a v i g a t o r s , u s u a l l y r e l a t iv e s o f t h e p a
r a m o u n t c h i e f, w e r e s p e c i al l y s e l e c t e d a
n ds p e c ia l ly t r a i n e d . T h e i r k n o w l e d g e a n
d t e c h n i q u e s w e r e h i g h l y p r i z e d a n d w e l l
k e p ts e c re t s. I n g e n e r a l , k n o w l e d g e w a s v
i e w e d a s a p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i o n c a r r y i n g
w i t hi t t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i ty f o r it s p r e s e r
v a t i o n a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n [3 0]. T h e n a v i g a
t o r s p a s s e dt h e ir k n o w l e d g e a n d p e r s o n a l
l y d e v e l o p e d s y s te m s o n t o o n e o f t h e i r c h
il d r e n o rt o s o m e o n e s p e c if i ca l ly a d o p t e d
b e c a u s e o f sp e c ia l i n t e r e s t o r a p t i t u d e .
S o m e w h ow e r e c o n s i d e r e d m a s t e r n a v i g a to
r s o v e r s a w t h e t e a c h i n g o f o th e r s i n t h e ir
e x t e n d e df a m i l y , g i v in g r is e t o s h a r e d s y
s te m s a n d o n g o i n g s c h o o l s t h a t t r a c e d b a
c k t o am a s t e r . I t is p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r
t h y t h a t t h e c h i ld s e l e c t e d b y a n a v i g a t o
r t o c a r r yo n t h e k n o w l e d g e c o u l d b e a m a l e
o r a f e m a l e ; a t l e a s t t w o m a s t e r s c i t e d b y
t h eM a r s h a l l I s la n d e r s w e r e w o m e n [1 4, 7 6 -
7 8 ; 2 9 , 2 1 5 - 2 1 6 ]. E v e n t u a l l y , s o m e o f t h
isn a v i g a t i o n a l k n o w l e d g e w a s t o l d t o W e s
t e r n e r s . H o w e v e r , w h a t w a s t o l d w a s f a rf
r o m c o m p l e t e a s th e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d te l l e
rs n e v e r i n t e n d e d t o g iv e f u l l u n d e r s t a n d
-i n g t o o t h e r s . S i n c e t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n
d e r s h a d n o i n d i g e n o u s w r i t i n g s y s t e m , w
eh a v e o n l y w h a t w a s e v e n t u a l l y r e c o r d e d
b y o t h e r s.
T H E M TT NGT h e s t i c k c h a r t s i d e n t i f i e d a s
mattang b y t h e M a r s h a l l e s e w e r e u s e d i n t h e t
r a i n i n go f n a v i g a to r s . A t y p i c a l o n e i s s h
o w n i n F ig . 2 . T h a t t h e s e a r e n o t s i m p l y p e
r s o n a l
i d i o s y n c r a t i c d e v i c e s b u t , i n s t e a d ,
f o r m a l i z e d a n d s t a n d a r d i z e d m o d e l s c a n
b e s e e nb y c o m p a r i n g t h e m w i t h o t h e r , a l m
o s t i d en t ic a l , rnattang t h a t w e r e s e p a r a t e l
y r e -p o r t e d a n d c o l l e c t e d ( s e e F i g . 3 ) . S
o m e o t h e r e x a m p l e s a r e s h o w n i n F i g . 4 . W h
e nl o o k i n g a t th e s e , s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s a r e
s t r ik i n g . O n e , o f c o u r s e , is t h e i r s y m m e t
r y .A n o t h e r is t h e i n t e r p l a y o f g e o m e t r i c
f o r m s b r i n g i n g t o m i n d f a m i l i a r w o r d s s u
c ha s t ri a n g l e , s e c to r , a r c , p e r p e n d i c u l
a r b i s e c to r , a n g l e o f i n t e r s e c t i o n , p o i
n t o f i n t e r-s e c t io n , a n d s o o n . A l s o , t h e r
e is t h e i r d i a g r a m - l i k e cl a r it y . T o e m p h a
s i z e t h a t t h i si s, i n d e e d , t h e n a t u r e o f t h
e a r t i fa c t a n d n o t t h e r e s u l t o f o u r r e n d e
r i n g , w e n o t ei n p a r t i c u l a r t h a t F i g . 2 i s
a p h o t o g r a p h w h i l e F i g s . 3 a n d 4 a r e d r a w i
n g s . T h el e t t e r e d l a b e l s , h o w e v e r , a r e o
u r s u p e r i m p o s i t i o n s .
T h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e mattang h a v e b e e n
d i f f e r e n tl y d e s c r ib e d b y d i f f e r e n tw r i t
e r s w h o s p o k e w i t h M a r s h a l l I s la n d e r s . F
r o m t h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s , i t is c l e a r t h a tt
h e mattang a r e g e n e r a l i z e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s
c o n t a i n i n g i d e a l i z e d s h a p e s a n d f o r m st
h a t w e r e u s e d t o e x p l i c a t e t h e p r i n c i p le
s o f sw e l l a n d l a n d i n t e r a c t i o n . W h a ts o m e
t i m e s a p p e a r e d t o i n t e r v i e w e r s a s c o n f u
s i o n o r i n c o n s i s t e n c y w a s , i n s t e a d , ap r
o b l e m c r e a t e d b y t h e i r o w n p e r s is t e n ce i n
b e l ie v i n g t h a t t h e mattang w e r e s p e c i f i ca n d
c o n c r e t e . I n a t e l l i n g e x c h a n g e , w e r e a d
, f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t a M a r s h a l l I s l a n d e rf
i r s t a s s o c i a t e d s o m e p o i n t w i t h J a l u i t a
t o l l a n d l a t e r w i t h N a m o r i k a t o l l . W h e nf
a c e d w i t h th i s c o n t r a d i c t i o n t h e n a t i v e
s w e r e q u i c k to e x p l a i n t h a t i t d i d n ' t
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352 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 22
FIG 2 A typicalmattang.(In the collection of the Sm ithsonian
Institution, De partmen t o f Anthropo l-ogy, Catalog N o. 206187.
Pho tographed from [39].)
m a t t e r - - t h e c h a r t w a s n o t w h e r e J a l u i
t i n p a r t i c u l a r l ay , b u t w h e r e l a n d w a s . T
h e ys t o u t ly m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i t c o u l d b e s o
m e i s la n d i n a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e w o r l d , o n
et h e y h a d n e v e r s e e n [1 2, 10 ]. T h i s , o f c o u r
s e , is w h a t w e d e e m a n i d e a l i z e d m o d e l .W h a
t i s m o r e , a s a g e n e r a l i z e d i l lu s t r a ti v e c
o n f i g u r a t i o n , p a r t s o f th e mattang w e r er e f e
r r e d to in d i f fe r e n t w a y s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h
e p o i n t b e i n g m a d e . R a t h e r t h a ni n c o n s is t
e n c y , th e v a r i o u s d e s c r ip t i o n s , t a k e n t o
g e t h e r , c o n v e y a c o r p u s o f id e a s.
B e f o r e l o o k i n g a t th e mattang s p ec if ic a ll y ,
w e m u s t i n t r o d u c e s o m e o f th e o c e a n o -g r a p
h ic p h e n o m e n a f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e s y s t e m
o f w a v e p i lo t i ng . B a s i c a m o n g t h e s ep h e n o
m e n a a r e w h a t w e t e r m r e f r a c ti o n , r ef l e c
ti o n , a n d d i f f ra c t i o n o f s w ells .A s w a v e s m o
v e a w a y f r o m t h e w i n d s t h a t c r e a t e t h e m , t
h e y m e r g e i n t o s w e l l sf o r m e d b y g r o u p s o f
w a v e s o f s im i l ar p e r i o d a n d h e i g h t. T h e s e
s i n u s o id a l s w e ll sc a n t r a v e l t h o u s a n d s o
f m i l e s a c ro s s d e e p o p e n o c e a n w i t h v e r y l
it tl e lo s s o f e n e r g y .F o r t h e o p e n P a c if ic O c
e a n , t h e p e r i o d ( T ) o f t h e w a v e s is 16 o r m o r
e s e c o n d s ,w a v e l e n g t h s ( 1 . 5 6 T 2 m ) t h e n a
r e 3 9 5 m o r m o r e , a n d w a v e s p e e d s T ~ g / 2 r r
)a r e m o r e t h a n 8 0 k i n / h r . S w e l ls m o v e a t a b
o u t h a l f t h e s p e e d o f t h e w a v e s t h a tt h e y c
o n t a i n b e c a u s e s o m e o f th e e n e r g y g o e s in t
o s e tt in g t h e w a t e r i n fr o n t o ft h e m i n t o m o t
i o n . B e c a u s e t h e M a r s h a l l I s la n d s a r e s u
r r o u n d e d b y d e e p ( 4 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 0m ) o p e n o c e a
n , l o n g , f a s t m o v i n g s w e l l s t h a t a r e c l e a
r a n d c o n s i s t e n t i n p a t t e r nm o v e t o w a r d t
h e m a c r o ss t h e w a t e r. S w e ll s, h o w e v e r , c h a
n g e w h e n t h e y m e e t
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S
353
a
G
R
N
FIG 3 Similar mat tang
u n d e r w a t e r o b s t r u c t i o n s o r g e t to s h a l
l o w w a t e r . S h a l l o w i s a r e la t i v e t e r m , d e
-p e n d i n g o n t h e l e n g t h o f a w a v e : s p e c if i c
a ll y , i t i s d e f i n e d a s l e ss t h a n h a l f t h e w a
v el e n g t h o r , in th i s c a s e, u p w a r d o f 19 8 m e t
e r s [5 , 6 2 - 6 5 ] . H e n c e , i n a n d a r o u n d t h eM a
r s h a l l A r c h i p e l a g o , t h e a p p r o a c h i n g s w
e l l s a r e m o d i f i e d i n d i r e c t i o n a n d e n e r g
y .T h e c o m p l i c a t e d a n d d is t i n ct iv e i n te r a
c t i o n o f m o d i f i e d sw e ll s a r e th e l a n d m a r k
sw h i c h t h e M a r s h a l l e s e n a v i g a t o r s l e a r
n t o r e a d a n d i n t e r p r e t .
W a v e r e f r a c ti o n a n d i t s e f fe c ts d o m i n a t
e t h e mattang W h e n w a v e s m o v e i nt os h a ll o w w a t
e r , f r i c ti o n c a u se s t h e m t o s lo w d o w n . D e p
e n d i n g o n t h e o c e a n d e p t hb e n e a t h it , a w a v
e s lo w s d o w n d i f f e r e n t ia l l y a n d s o b e n d s ,
e v e n t u a l l y b e c o m i n gm o r e o r le ss p a r a l l e
l t o t h e u n d e r w a t e r c o n t o u r s a n d , th e n , m
o r e o r le s s p a r a l l e lw i t h t h e s h o r e li n e . T
h i s e x p l a in s t h e f a m i l i a r o b s e r v a t i o n o
f s t a n d i n g o n a n y b e a c ha n d s e e i n g th e w a v e
s c o m e i n t o w a r d s y o u , e v e n t h o u g h f u r t h e
r o u t t h e y m a y b es e e n a p p r o a c h i n g a t a n an g
le . F i g u re 5 s h o w s h o w a w a v e t r a i n w r a p s a r
o u n d ac i r c u la r is l an d a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e i s
la n d h a s a u n i f o r m a n d g r a d u a l l y s l o p i n g
u n d e r w a -
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354 M A R C I A A S C H E RC M
I
D ~1 Ba
- , . , .
H M 2 2
C M A
x . /
D N
/
C e
F IG 4 S o m e o t h e r mattang
t e r t o p o g r a p h y . S o m e e n e r g y i s l o st t o f
r ic t io n b u t, c o n c o m i t a n t w i t h t h e b e n d i n
go f th e w a v e f r o n t , it s e n e r g y m a y b e c o m e s
p r e a d o u t o r c o n c e n t r a t e d i n d i f f e r e n tp
l a ce s , a n d t h e r e c a n b e a n i n c r e a s e in w a v e
s t e e p n e s s u n t i l t h e w a v e p e a k s , b e c o m e
su n s t a b l e , a n d b r e a k s [ 5 ; 2 6 ] .
B u t , fi r st o f al l, i n th e o p e n s e a , t h e r e i s
a sw e l l m o v i n g i n f r o n t o f t h e w i n d . L e tu s s
a y t h e w i n d i s c o m i n g f r o m t h e E a s t . ) A n a t
o l l o f f i n th e w e s t e r l y d i r e c t io n i ss i g n al
e d w h e n t h e s w e l l b e g i n s to b e n d i n w a r d . O
n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d u e w e s t o f t h ea t o ll , t h e
r e w i ll b e a r e g i o n w h e r e t h e r e f r a c t e d a r
m s o f t h e s w e l l cr o ss , a l t h o u g hw i t h g r e a t
l y l e s s e n e d e n e r g y .
I n o u r r e f r a c t i o n d i a g r a m F i g . 5 ) , w e s
h o w e d a c ir c u l a r i s l a n d w i t h g r a d u a l l ys
lo p i n g u n d e r w a t e r t o p o g r a p h y . I f th e i sl
a n d w e re , i n s t e ad , r e c t a n g u l a r a n d r o s eu
p s u d d e n l y a n d s t e ep l y , t h e w a v e s w o u l d b
e m o r e a b r u p t l y s t o p p e d i n t h e i r f o r w a r
d
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wave front
F r o . 5 . W a v e r e f r a c t i o n a d a p t e d f r o m [
5 ]).
m o t i o n . B u t , a s t h e w a v e s c o n t i n u e f o r
w a r d t o t h e s id e s o f t h e i s l a n d , s o m e o f t h
e i re n e r g y is p r o p a g a t e d s i d e w a r d s , c a u s
i n g t h e m t o s p r e a d o u t a l o n g t h e i r e d g e s .
J u s ta r o u n d t h e s i d es o f t h e i s la n d , th e r e m
a y b e a n i n c r e a s e i n w a v e h e i g h t , b u t b e y o
n dt h a t , t h e s e s p r e a d o u t e d g e s a r e i n c r e
a s i n g l y l e s s e n e d i n h e i g h t [ 3 4, C h a p . 5 ].
A sw i t h t h e d i f f r a c t i o n o f l ig h t , t h e r e i s
a s h a d o w b e h i n d t h e i s la n d , b u t it is a s h a d
o ww i t h i m p e r f e c t e d g e s ( s ee F i g. 6 ). T h u s,
t h e m o r e e l o n g a t e d t h e s h a p e a n d t h e m o r
e
WIN
wave front
i s l a n 3
F IG . 6 . W a v e d i f f r a c t i o n .
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356 M A R C I A A S C H E RWIND
H M 2 2
w ve front
\
f- X
FIG 7 Wave reflection
a b r u p t t h e r i s e o f t h e a t o l l, t h e l es s b e
n d i n g o f th e s w e l l o c c u r s o n t h e w i n d w a r ds
i d e ; o n t h e l e e s i d e , t h e b e n t a r m s m a y n o t
e v e n c r o s s , a s t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d b ya r e g
i o n w i t h n o e n e r g y f r o m t h e s w e ll.
W h e t h e r t h e l a n d b a r r i e r r i se s g r a d u a
ll y o r s t e e p l y , s o m e p a r t o f t h e w a v e w i llb
e r e f l e c t e d b a c k w a r d . F o r a s t e e p b a r r ie
r , w h e r e t h e r e is n o b e n d i n g o f t h e w a v ef r o
n t , th e r e f l e c t e d w a v e h a s m u c h t h e s a m e e
n e r g y a s t h e i n c o m i n g w a v e , a n d s o,m e e t i n
g q u i c k l y a n d h e a d o n , th e y s p r a y w a t e r u p
i n t o t h e a i r. F o r a g r a d u a l l yr is i n g b a r r i
e r , i t is t h e b e n t w a v e t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d b
a c k t o m e e t t h e i n c o m i n g w a v es e e F ig . 7 ). H
e n c e , a s w a v e s m e e t a t a n a n g l e , a r u n n i n g
c r e s t d e v e l o p s . T h i si n t e r a c t i o n o f r e fl
e c t io n a n d r e f r a c t i o n ta k e s p l a c e o n t h e w
i n d w a r d s id e o f a n a t o l l[5 , 69; 14 , 90-92] .
L e t u s n o w l o o k a t th e mattang a n d t h e i r i d e a
l iz e d g e o m e t r y o f s w e ll i n t er a c t io n s .I n F
i g. 4 e o n e s w e l l is r e p r e s e n t e d ; i n Fi gs . 4 a
a n d 4 c th e r e a r e t w o o p p o s i n g s w e ll s;a n d o n
t h e m o s t c o m m o n mattang F i g s . 2 a n d 3 ) t h e r e a
r e f o u r s w e l l s , o n e f r o me a c h o f f o u r p e r p
e n d i c u l a r d i r ec t io n s . D e s p i t e t h e s y m m e
t r y o f t h e mattang g e n e r -a l ly t h e r e i s a s li g h
t d i f f e r e n c e th a t s p e c i a l l y m a r k s o n e d i
r e c t i o n . O n e a c h mattangi n F i gs . 2 a n d 3 , t h e r
e i s a s h o r t s ti c k l a b e l e d A B i n F i g. 3c ) w r a
p p e d i n a c o r ds h o w i n g t h e d i r e c t io n f r o m w
h i c h t h e p r e v a i l in g w i n d i s m o v i n g t o w a r
d a c e n t r a l
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357
D A
E Q ~ W I N D
F IG 8 W e s t e r n s e c t o r s o f s a i l
a t o l l ( P ) . T h i s s e r v e s a s t h e o r i e n t i n
g d i r e c t i o n r e f e r r e d t o a s r e a r . T h e s w e l
l s h o w nm o v i n g i n f r o n t o f th i s w i n d i s r i l
ib ( b a c k b o n e ) ; t h e o n e o p p o s i n g i t is k a e l
i b ;a n d t h e t w o f r o m t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i
r e c t io n s a r e r o l o k a n d b u n d o c k e r i k . A l t
h o u g hr e a r is g e n e r a l l y t r a n s l a t e d a s f r o
m t h e e a s t , a n d th e o p p o s i n g a n d p e r p e n d i
c u l a rd i r e c ti o n s t h e n r e f e r r e d t o a s w e s t
, n o r t h , a n d s o u t h , t h e s e w o r d s a r e s im p l
yf o r c o n v e n i e n c e . T h e i r u s e d o e s n o t i m p
l y t h a t d i r e c t io n s a r e c o n c e i v e d o f in o u
rf r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e a n d e a s t , w e s t , n o r t
h , a n d s o u t h a r e n o t t h e s a m ed i r e c t i o n s a
s o u r s i n d i c a t e d b y t h o s e n a m e s . I w i ll f o
l l o w th i s c o n v e n t i o n a l t r a n s la -t i o n a s it
s i m p li fi e s r e f e r r i n g t o t h e d i r e c t i o n t h
e w i n d i s c o m i n g f r o m a n d t h eo p p o s i t e a n d
p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e c t i o n s . ( I n a f e w p l a
c e s , w h e r e i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , Iw i l l n o t e
t h e d i r e c t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o o u r s y s t e m .
)
I n a n y d i s c u ss io n o f sa il in g , b e i t o u r s o r
M a r s h a ll e s e , o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c eis
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f w h e r e a b o a t i s, i ts d e
s t i n a t i o n , a n d w h e r e t h e w i n d i s c o m i n gf
r o m . W e s t e r n d i a g r a m s a r e g e n e r a l l y c ir
c u la r a n d s y m m e t r i c b u t , a s w i t h t h em a t t a
n g t h e y s p e c i a l ly m a r k t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t
h e w i n d . T h u s , f o r b o t h , t h i s is t h eo r i e n t
i n g m a r k e r t o w h i c h a l l e l s e i s r e f e r r e d
.
F o r W e s t e r n e r s , b o a t p o s i t i o n s w i t h i
n t h e c i rc l e , a n d m o d e s o f sa i li n g to a d e s t
in a -t i o n a t i ts c e n t e r , a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t
e r m s o f se c t o r s ( s e e F i g . 8 ). A l t h o u g h t h e
m a t t a n ga r e n o t c i r c u l a r , i t i s n o t s u r p r
i s i n g t h a t t h e y s i m i l a r l y h a v e s e c t o r s p
r o m i n e n t l ym a r k e d i n s o m e w a y . H o w e v e r ,
t h e r e i s a c r u c ia l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n W e
s t e r n a n dM a r s h a l l e s e b o a t s t h a t m o d i f i
e s t h e a n g l e s o f th e s e c t o r s o f i n t e r e s t .
W i t h r e s p e c tt o a l in e f r o m b o w t o s t er n , t h
e h u l l o f a E u r o p e a n b o a t is s y m m e t r i c w h i
le aM a r s h a ll e s e b o a t h a s a n a s y m m e t r i c a l
h u l l a s w e l l as e x te n s i o n s t o b o t h s i d e s - -
a no u t r i g g e r t o o n e s i d e a n d a b a l a n c e p l a
t f o r m o n t h e o t h e r . A s a r e s u l t , i t s s a i l c
a no n l y b e p u t o u t o n a p a r t i c u l a r s i d e o f t
h e h u l l ( t h e p l a t f o r m s i d e ) , a s c o n t r a s t
e dt o a E u r o p e a n b o a t o n w h i ch i t c a n b e p u t o
u t o n e i t h e r s id e. F u r t h e r , o n a E u r o p e a nb
o a t t h e r e is a d is t in c t d i f fe r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e f r o n t e n d a n d b a c k e n d , w h i le a no u t r i g
g e r c a n t r a v e l i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . N o s a
i l b o a t c a n s a il d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e w i n d( a l
o n g t h e l i n e f r o m E t o X i n F i g . 8 ) . I n f a c t ,
i t c a n n o t s a i l i n a d i r e c t i o n t o o c l o s e
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358 M A R C I A A S C H E RD
E, _ _ ,Q WIND
F IG 9 S i g n i f ic a n t d i r e c t i o n s a n d s e c t o
r s w h e n s a i li n g t o w a r d X
H M 2 2
t o t h a t e it h e r. F o r E u r o p e a n b o a ts , too c l
o s e i s a b o u t 4 5 o n e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e w i n dw
i t h i n s e c t o r D X C i n F ig . 8 ); f o r o u t r i g g e r
s i t is w i t h i n a b o u t 6 5 . I n o r d e r t o s a il
i n t h o s e d i r e c t i o n s , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t
o tack t h a t i s , t o s a i l b a c k a n d f o r t h a c r o s
s t h ew i n d , changing the side o n w h i c h t h e s a i l i s
o u t e a c h t i m e t h e d i r e c t i o n i s c h a n g e d .T
o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s o n a M a r s h a l l e s e b o a t ,
t h e r i g g i n g a n d s a i l m u s t b e p i c k e d u pa n d
m o v e d t o th e o t h e r e n d o f t h e b o a t s o t h a t w
h a t w a s t h e f r o n t b e c o m e s t h eb a c k a n d v i c
e v e r sa . H e n c e , t h e y a v o i d , i f p o s s ib l e , a
p p r o a c h e s f r o m t h is s e c t o ra n d , f u r t h e r m
o r e , t h e s e c t o r w o u l d b e a b o u t 1 30 r a t h e r
t h a n o u r 9 0 S i m i la r ly , ins e c t o r A X B , w h e r e
t h e w i n d i s b e h i n d t h e b o a t , t h e s i d e f o r t
h e s a il d i f fe r s f o ra p p r o a c h i n g X f r o m w i th
i n A X Q o r f r o m w i th i n Q X B . E u r o p e a n b o a t s
a v o i d ad i r e c t i o n t o o c l o s e to Q X s i n ce , if t
h e r e i s a s li g h t d e v i a t i o n i n w i n d d i r e c t
i o n o rs a il in g d i r e c t i o n , t h e f u l l f o r c e o
f t h e w i n d c a n u n e x p e c t e d l y t h r o w t h e s a i
l t o t h eo t h e r s i d e . S a i lo r s d o , o f c o u r s e ,
c r o s s t h e l in e a n d c h a n g e t h e s i d e o f t h e s
a il w h e nn e c e s s a r y , b u t w i t h g r e a t c a r e . F
o r either t y p e o f b o a t , i t is f a r p r e f e r a b l e t
o r e m a i nd e c i d e d l y o n o n e s id e o r t h e o t h e r
o f Q X a n d s o t o h a v e a c o u r s e a t le a s t 1 5 o r2 0
a w a y f r o m it. F i n al ly , w e n o t e t h a t b e c a u s e
o f e a s e o f s t e e r i n g a n d g r e a t e re f f i c ie n c
y i n a s t r o n g w i n d , a c o u r s e p e r p e n d i c u l a
r t o t h e w i n d is sa i d t o b e e a s i e s ta n d m o s t e
f f ic i e n t f o r a n o u t r i g g e r c a n o e a d i sc u s
si o n o f t h e o u t r i g g e r c a n o ea n d h o w i t h a n d
l e s u n d e r s a i l c a n b e f o u n d i n [ 1 6 , C h a p . 3
] ) . T h u s , M a r s h a l l e s ee x p l a n a t i o n s o f th
e mattang p l a c e t h e g r e a t e s t e m p h a s i s o n t h a
t l in e . I n c o r p o r a t i n gt h e f o r e g o i n g st a t
e m e n t s i n t o o u r f o r m o f d i a g r a m s e e F ig . 9
), t h e m a r k e d d i r e c t i o n sa n d s e c t o r a n g l e
s b e c o m e q u i t e l ik e th o s e w e s e e o n t h e mattang
see Figs . 2 , 3 , 4) .
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t i ss u e, h o w e v e r , is h o
w t h e s e d i r e c t io n s a n d s e c t o r s a r e c o r r e
-l a te d , w h e n i n t h e w a t e r a n d o u t o f si g h t o
f la n d , w i th w h e r e o n e i s a n d w h e r e o n e isg o i
n g . W h i l e w e r e l y , f o r e x a m p l e , o n c o m p a s
s e s , c h a r t s , a n d r u l e r s, t h e M a r s h a l l e s
en a v i g a t o r s u s e t h e s w e l l i n t e r a c t i o n s
.
I n F ig s . 4 a a n d 4 c , t h e s t r a i g h t e d g e s t h
a t w e h a v e p l a c e d v e r t i c a l ly o n t h e p a g ed e
p i c t t h e o p p o s i n g s w e ll s c o m i n g f r o m th e e
a st A B ) a n d th e w e s t C D ) . A t t h e
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I SL A N D S 359c e
n t e r o f e a c h r e c t a n g l e is a n a to ll . T h e s w e
ll s ( M N ) a r e s h o w n c u r v i n g in w a r d a st h e y a
p p r o a c h t h e a t o l l . S i n c e o n t h e mattang t h e a
r c s a r e s im i l a r l y c u r v e d a n dp l a c e d e q u a l
l y d i s t a n t f r o m t h e a t o l l , their intersections and
the atoll fal l along astraight line perpendicular to the direction
of travel of the swells. T h e s e i n t e r s e c t io n sa n d t
h e n o r t h - s o u t h l i ne t h e y d e fi n e a r e, a s w e
n o t e d , o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e .( T h e s e
l i n e s a n d c u r v e d s w e ll s a r e s h o w n i n a s l i
g h tl y d i f f e r e n t w a y i n F i g s. 2 , 3 c ,a n d 4 b )
. W h e r e t h e b e n t a r m s o f o p p o s i n g s w e ll s c
r os s , t h e r e is a n a r r o w s e c t o r( m o s t c l e a r
l y s h o w n i n F ig s . 2, 3 a , 3 b , a n d 3 c ) in w h i c h
a s e r i e s o f w a v e l e t s a r en o t e d . T h e w a v e l
e t s a r e c a l le d hot ( k n o t s o r n o d e s ) a n d a s er
ie s o f t h e m a r e i d e a l iz e da s b e i n g a l o n g t h
e n o r t h - s o u t h l in e c a ll e d okar ( t h e r o o t ) -
- j u s t a s o n e f o l lo w s t h er o o t t o g e t t o t h e t
r e e , f o l l o w i n g t h e o k a r w i l l l e a d t o t h e i
s la n d [ 39 , 4 9 3] . T h ed i r e c t io n t o t a k e a l o n
g t h e okar is d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c h a n g e i n t h e
a n g le s f o r m e db y c r o s s i n g s w e l l s ; t h e a n g
l e s d e c r e a s e f o r bot c l o s e r t o t h e a t o l l
.
I n a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i
o n s , t h e b e n t a r m s o f t h e s w e l ls t h e m s e l v
e sa r e u s e d t o d e l i m i t t h e s e c t o r s o f sa il. T
h e b e n t a r m s o f rilib ( c o m i n g f r o m t h e e a s t
)a s i t p a s s e s t h e i s l a n d a r e t e r m e d rolok ( th
e n o r t h e r n a r m - - R M o n Fig . 3 c) a n dnit in kot ( th
e s o u t h e r n a r m - - K S o n Fig . 3 c) . T h e f o r m e r
tr a n sl a te s in t o s o m e t h i n gl o s t , t h a t is , y o
u h a v e m i s s e d t h e is l a n d , a n d t h e la t t e r i n
t o a h o l e , t h a t is , ac u l - d e - s a c . B o t h b e n t
a r m s o f kaelib ( c o m i n g f r o m t h e w e s t ) a s i t p
a s s e s t h e i s l a n d( T M a n d K Q o n F i g. 3 c) a re c a
l le d jut in okme m e a n i n g s t a k e s . C o m i n g t o w a
r dt h e c e n t e r a t o l l f r o m t h e n o r t h , o n e s h
o u l d s t a y b e t w e e n rolok a n d ]ur in okmeu n t i l o n
e f i n d s t h e okar a n d f o l l o w s i t . S i m i l a r l y
, f r o m t h e s o u t h , o n e s h o u l d b eb e t w e e n nit
in kot a n d jut in okme u n t i l o n e f i n d s t h e okar [9;
10; 39].
O t h e r m e a n i n g s f o r t h e l i n e s in F i g . 3 c
fo c u s o n a t o ll s a t 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 r a t h e r t h a n i nt
h e c e n t e r . F o r t h e s e , t h e s w e l l s a r e s h o w
n a s w e d g e s r a t h e r t h a n a r c s . W i t h t h ew i n
d f r o m t h e e a s t, f o r a n a to l l a t 1, F P r e p r e s
e n t s t h e s o u t h e r n a r m o f rilib ( A B ) ,G P t h e n
o r t h e r n a r m o f kaelib, a n d s o 1 P i s t h e okar f o r
t h e a t o l l a t 1 w h e na p p r o a c h i n g f r o m t h e s
o u t h . S i m i la r ly , fo r a t o ll 2 , P H is th e n o r t h
e r n a r m o f rilib,P N t h e s o u t h e r n a r m o f kaelib, w
i t h 2 P t h e okar f o r a t o l l 2 . I f t h e r e is n o a t o
l l a tt h e c e n t e r b e t w e e n 1 a n d 2 , o n e s h o u l
d f o l lo w t h e okar f r o m 2 u n t il o n e m e e t s t h
eokar f o r 1 . A n d , f o r a t o l l 4 , G 4 N i s t h e b e n t
rilib w h i l e , s i m i l a r l y , F 3 H i s t h eb e n t
kaelib.
O t h e r d e s c r ip t io n s r e l y o n a s o m e w h a t d
i f f e r e n t d e n o t a t i o n o f t h e w o r d s nit inkot.
R a t h e r t h a n r e f e r r i n g t o j u s t o n e d e m a r c
a t i o n l in e , s o m e u s e i t t o r e f e r to t h ee n t i
r e r e g i o n ( p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a s th e r
e g i o n b e t w e e n nit in kot a n d kaelib o nt h e l e e w a
r d s i d e o f t h e i s la n d i n w h i c h t h e r e i s g r e
a t l y l e s s e n e d s w e l l e n e r g y , o r ,a l t e r n a
t e l y , t o b o t h l i n e s t h a t b o u n d t h is r e g i o
n . I n e i t h e r c a s e , f o r a w i n d f r o m t h ee a s t
, w h e n t h e i s l a n d i s t o t h e e a s t , o n e s h o u l
d s a i l n o r t h o r s o u t h t o m e e t o n e o ft h e s e b
o u n d a r y l in e s in o r d e r to g e t o u t o f b e i n g a
t r a p p e d b i r d o r , a s w e n o t e d ,h a v i n g t o s a
i l t o o c l o s e t o t h e w i n d [ 9 ; 3 0 , 1 9 3 - 2 0 5 ; 3
9 ] .
O n t h e w i n d w a r d s id e o f a n a to l l, w a v e r e f
le c t i o n p l a ys t h e p r o m i n e n t r o l e . F o ra w i
n d f r o m t h e e a s t , l a n d i n t h e w e s t e r l y d i r
e c t i o n i s s i g n a l e d b y r e f l e c t e d b e n ts w e
ll s c o m i n g b a c k a g a i n s t t h e m a i n i n c o m i n
g s w e l l. T h i s i n t e r a c t i o n is s a id t o b eo b s e
r v a b l e in a q u a d r a n t e x t e n d i n g o u t w a r d f
r o m t h e a t o ll f o r a b o u t 3 2 k m . ( N o t e
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360 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 22WIND
\
\
~ T / e incomingswell ,1,
/ / t / ~ % 4 ' ~ * ~
oatollFIG 10 On th e win dwa rd side of an atoll
a g a i n s e c t o r A B i n F ig . 9 a n d t h e s e c t o r s
m a r k e d , i n p a r t i c u la r , i n F ig s . 4 a a n d 4 c.F
o r F i g s . 4 a , 4 b , a n d 4 c , n o w a l s o v i s u a l i z
e t h e c u r v e d s w e l l m o v i n g e stw rd t om e e t t h e
i n c o m i n g s t r a ig h t s w e ll .) I n o n e a c c o u n t
[ 11 ], t h e n a v i g a t o r s a y s th a t ,w h e n a t t h e m
e e t i n g o f th e r e f le c t e d a n d i n c o m i n g sw e ll
s, o n e s h o u l d p u t o n e s e l fa t t h e c o r n e r o f t
h e c r o s si n g a n d h e a d a w a y f r o m t h e c o r n e r
a t a n a n g l e t h a t is t h es a m e a s t h e y a r e f o r m
i n g s e e F i g . 1 0). A n o t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n [ 1
2] n o t e s t h a t d i r e c t lyw i n d w a r d o f th e a t o l
l , t h e r e f l e c t e d sw e l ls a re m o r e o r l es s p a r
a l l e l t o t h e i n c o m i n gs w e l l s b u t , a t a b o u
t 4 5 t o e i t h e r s i d e , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c r o s
s i n g s w e l l s b e c o m e sc l e a r ly o b s e r v a b l e .
T h i s e f f e c t m a r k s t h e d e l i m i t i n g a r m s o f
t h e q u a d r a n t a n d s ot h e n a v i g a t o r s e e k s t
o s a il p a r a l l e l t o o n e o f t h e a r m s t o g o d i r
e c t l y t o t h e a t o l l.N o t e t h a t b o t h s e t s o f
in s t r u c t i o n s a r e , in e f f e c t, t h e s a m e : i t
is w h e n t h e i n c o m i n ga n d r e f l e c t e d sw e l ls m
e e t a t a 4 5 a n g l e t h a t h e a d i n g a w a y f r o m t h
e c o r n e r a t t h a ta n g l e t a k e s o n e t o t h e a t o
ll a n d a l o n g o n e o f t h e d e l i m i ti n g a r m s o f t
h e q u a d r a n t
aga in , s ee F ig . 10 ) .E v e n w i t h o u t f u r t h e r d
e f in i ti v e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t w h a t m a n y d e t
a i ls o f t h e m tt ng
r e p r e s e n t , t h e i r u s e a s m o d e l s o f sw e l l
i n t e r a c t i o n f o r n a v i g a t i o n a l p u r p o s e s
i s c l e ar .T h e y i s o l a t e a n d i d e a li z e t h e s w
e l ls , e m p h a s i z i n g d i r e c t i o n a l i t y w i t h
r e s p e c t t o w i n da n d l a n d p o s i t i o n s . T h a t
t h e y a r e a b s t r a c t m o d e l s i s h i g h l i g h t e d
b y t h e u s e o f f o u ru n i f o r m l y d e p ic t e d s w e
ll s f r o m p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i r e ct io n s a n d l a
n d m a s s e s s y m m e t r i-c a l ly p l a c e d a n d r e d u
c e d t o p o i n t s . I n a c t u a l i t y t h e r e is a p r o
m i n e n t s w e l l w h i c h i sa l w a y s p r e s e n t . I t
m o v e s , i n o u r t e r m s , f r o m t h e n o r t h e a s t t
o s o u t h w e s t i n f r o n to f t h e n o r t h e a s t t r a
d e w i n d s .) O n e o b s e r v e r n o t e d t h a t , d e p e
n d i n g o n t h e w i n dv e l o c i t y , t h e s w e ll h a s a
h e i g h t o f a t l e a st 1 .5 m . A s e c o n d a r y s w e l l
p a t t e r n i s f r o mt h e s o u t h e a s t t o n o r t h w e
s t . S w e l l s f r o m t h e s o u t h w e s t a r e a p p a r e
n t l y d i ff i cu l t f o rt h e u n p r a c t i c e d e y e t o
o b se r v e a n d t h o s e f r o m t h e n o r t h w e s t a r e
m o r e p r o n o u n c e dn e a r t h e n o r t h e r l y a t o l
l s [3 6; 3 9] . A n d , o f c o u r s e , in a c t u a l i t y t h
e a t o l l s a r e n o ts y m m e t r i c a l l y p o s i t i o n
e d p o i n t s b u t v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y i n s h a p e
a n d s iz e a n d r e l a t i v epos i t ions [23; 24; 38] .
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S 361A
s w i t h o u r e x p l a n a t o r y s c i e n t i f i c m o d e l
s , t h e mat tang a r e q u i t e d i s t i n c t f r o m
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t a r e s i m p l y i n t e
n d e d t o l o o k l i k e o r e v o k e w h a t is b e i n gd e p
ic t e d . H e r e a c c u m u l a t e d e x p e r i e n t i a l k
n o w l e d g e h a s b e e n c o n c e p t u a l i z e d i n toa g
e n e r a l s y s t e m , a s y s t e m t h a t is b e l i e v e d
t o a p p l y t o o c e a n s a n d l a n d m a s s e sa n y w h e
r e a n d e v e r y w h e r e . T h e rnattang a r e m o d e l s u
s e d t o e n c a p s u l a t e a n d e x p l a i nt h a t s y s te
m . I n u s i n g t h e m f o r t e a c h i n g , t h e y f u n c t
i o n a s d o d i a g r a m s o n b l a c k b o a r d so r f ig u r
es in a t e xt . W e a n d t h e y e l a b o r a t e s u c h d e p
i c t io n s w i t h w o r d s b u t , n o n e t h e -l es s, p a r
t i c u l a r l y f o r d y n a m i c s y s t e m s , d i a g r a m
s p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e . T h e e s s e n c e o fa n e x
p l a n a t o r y m o d e l i s i t s s i m p l ic i ty a n d p a r
s i m o n y . I t s tr ip s t h e s y s t e m t o w h a tis c o n s
i d e r e d e s s en t ia l . H e r e t h o s e e s s e n t ia l s
a r e p h r a s e d i n t e r m s o f t h e g e o m e t r i cc h a
ra c te r is t ic s o f t h e o c e a n p h e n o m e n a - - t h e
s u b s t an c e s o f t h e l a nd a n d s e a a n dw i n d a r e
r e c a s t i n t o p o i n t s , l i ne s , c u r v e s , a n d a
n g l e s , a n d t h e i n t e r p l a y o f t h ep h e n o m e n
a a r e r e c a s t i n t o h o w t h e s e g e o m e t r i c a s p
e c ts c h a n g e a n d i n t er a c t. S i n c ei t is s o w e l
l s t a te d , t o f u r t h e r e m p h a s i z e t h e n a t u r
e o f e x p l a n a t o r y m o d e l s , w eb o r r o w f r o m A
p o s t e l ' s d i s c u ss i on o f t h e m :
... when a picture, a drawing, a diagram is called a model for a
physical system, it is for thesame reason th at a forma l set of
postulates is called a model fo r a physical system. This reasoncan
be indicated in one w ord: simplification. The m ind needs in one
act to have an overviewof the essential characteristics of a dom
ain; therefore t he dom ain is represented either by aset of
equations, o r by a picture o r by a diagram. The mind needs to see
the system in oppositionand distinction to all others; therefore
the separation of the system from others is mad e m orecomplete
than it is in reality. The system is viewed from a certain scale;
details that are toomicroscopical or too global are of no interest
to us. Therefore they are left out. The systemis known or
controlled within certain limits of approximation. Therefore
effects that d o notreach this level of approximation are
neglected. The system is studied with a certain purposein mind;
everything that does not affect this purpose is eliminated. [2,
15]H e r e w e e x t e n d h i s g r o u p i n g o f a p i c t u r
e , a d r a w i n g , a d i a g r a m t o i n c l ud e t h e s ea r
t i fa c t s m a d e o f p a l m r i b s .
B e f o r e l e a v i n g t h e mat tang a n d t u r n i n g t o
t h e c h a rt s c a t e g o r i z e d a s medd o a n drebbel i th
a s p ec ia l m e n t i o n m u s t b e m a d e a b o u t a n g le
s a n d t h e ir m e a s u r e m e n t .A n g l e s b e t w e e n s
w e ll s a n d , in p a rt i c u la r , a n g l e s th a t a r e t
h e s a m e o r a r e i n c r e as i n go r d e c r e a s i n g a r
e u t il iz e d . T h e s e m u s t b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h
e n a v i g a t o r f r o m w i t h i nt h e b o a t a n d e v e n
i n t h e d a r k o f n i g ht . A p r i m a r y m e t h o d is t o
li e d o w n i n t h eb o t t o m o f t h e b o a t a n d f e e l t
h e r o c k i n g f r o m s i d e t o s i d e [ 9 , 2 1 ; 3 9 , 5 0
7] . D u r i n gt h e i r t ra i n in g , n a v i g a t o r s a r e
t a u g h t t o a n a l y z e a n d i n t e r p r e t t h i s k i n
e s t h e t i c i n f o r m a -t i o n. I n f ac t , o n e n a v i
g a t o r [ 11 ] r e c o u n t e d t h a t a n e a r l y p a r t o
f hi s t r a i n i n g w a sb e i n g m a d e t o f lo a t i n t h
e w a t e r a t v a r i o u s p l a c e s i n o r d e r t o l e a r
n h o w t o f e e lw h a t w o u l d l a t e r b e s h o w n a n d
e x p l a i n e d t o h im .
R E B B E L I T H A N D M E D D OT h e c h a r t s c a l l e d
rebbel i th a n d rneddo a r e m a p s - - t h e f o r m e r o f t
h e e n ti r e a rc h i-
p e l a g o , o r o n e o r t h e o t h e r o f t h e a t o l l
c h a i n s w i t h i n i t, a n d t h e l a t t e r o f s m a l l
e rr e g i o ns . T h e c r e a t i o n a n d u s e o f t h e s e m
a p s r e l y o n a n d i n c o r p o r a t e t h e i d e a sa l r
e a d y d i s cu s s ed . O n t h e s e m a p s , t h e g e n e r a
l i d e a s t h a t w e r e i n c l u d e d o n t h emat tang a r e
c o m b i n e d w i t h d e t a i l e d e x p e r i e n t i a l k n
o w l e d g e t o b e m a d e s p ec i fi c t o
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362 MARCIA ASCHER HM 22Bikini Utirik Bikar Bikini Rongelap
Bikar
Mili Namorik~ ~ Mili
Ebon Ebon
FIG 11 Rebbelith
the region being depicted. Thus, the interplay of land and sea
and the resultingdirections and indicators of importance are
particularized to groups of atolls. Whatis included on them is not
semirealistic renderings of such things as indentationsalong
coastlines or promontories but rather lines and curves whose
interpretationwas introduced with the mattang. There are decided
differences in style, in partbecause the charts are products of
different navigational schools, but also becausethey differ in
their levels of generality. As with the mattang these are used on
landfor the transmission and preservation of knowledge; that is,
the information onthem is carried on a voyage but the objects are
not.In looking at the rebbelith in Fig. 11, it is important to keep
in mind that theregion depicted covers over 750,000 square km. The
relative positions of the atollsare remarkably accurate given that
they were determined without technologicalaids and that vast open
ocean spaces are involved. The distances between Bikiniand Rongelap
or between Ailinglaplap and Jaluit, for example, are each about130
km.)In comparing these maps with Fig. 1, note that the latter has
orientation linesrunning north/south and east/west. The orientation
lines of the rebbelith are thestraight edges we have placed
vertically which are the swell rilib driven by theprevailing
northeast wind) and its opposing kaelib. To align the charts with
our
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I SL A N D S
363glaplap
Namrik dalUiiamorik
Ebon
laplap
Ebonb
FIG 12 Meddo
m a p w e w o u l d h a v e t o t il t t h e m a p p r o x i m a
t e l y 2 0 w e s t o f n o r t h . T h i s im p l i e st h a t t h
e w i n d d r i v i n g t h e s w e l l is a p p r o x i m a t e l
y 2 0 n o r t h o f e a s t w h i c hc o r r e s p o n d s q u i t
e w e l l t o t h e d i r e c t io n o b s e r v e r s h a v e r e
c o r d e d f o r m u c h o ft h e s a il in g s e a s o n [ 15 P l
a t e 1 4]. F u r t h e r o n t h e c h a r t s a r e s e v e r a l
r e p e t i t i o n so f t h e i n w a r d b e n d i n g rilib s h
o w n a s a r cs a n d a s w e d g e s . O n e a c h o f t h e c h
a r tst h e r e i s a p r o m i n e n t a n g l e f o r m e d b e t
w e e n t h e s t r a i g h t rilib a n d a n o r t h e a s t e r l
yl in e e m a n a t i n g f r o m j u st b e l o w M i lli . W h i
l e t h e s h o w n a n g l es a r e n o t e q u a l t oe a c h o t
h e r t h e y a r e s t r ik i n g in t h e i r s i m i la r it y t
o s o m e o f th e p r o m i n e n t a n g l e so n t h e
mattang.
F i g u r e s 1 2 a n d 1 3 a r e meddo b o t h f o c u s in g o
n t h e s a m e s u b r e g i o n b u t s o m e w h a td i f f e r
e n t i n st y le . F i g u r e 1 4 is a n a c t u a l p h o t o g
r a p h o f t h e d r a w n a r t i fa c t i n F i g.1 3 a . A s w
a s c l e a r i n t h e c a s e o f t h e rebbelith t h e d i s t a
n c e s a r e n o t a c c u r a t e n o rw e r e t h e y i n t e n
d e d t o b e . A g a i n i t is r e l a ti v e p o s i ti o n a n
d t h e rilib a n d kaelib t h a ta r e s i g n if ic a n t. F o r
t h e s e c h a r t s r e c a l l i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e hot
a n d okar d i s c u s s e d w i t ht h e a i d o f t h e mattang.
H e r e m a r k e d a l o n g t h e m t h e r e a r e a ls o s o m
e sp e c if ic p l a c esd e p i c t e d b y s h o r t c r o s s -
l i n e s a n d c h e v r o n s .
T h e s e c r o s s - li n e s a r e s a id t o b e d i s t a n
c e m a r k e r s s h o w i n g s i g n if ic a n t i d e n t i f
ia b l ep l ac e s: w h e r e t h e a t o ll j u s t b e c o m e s
v i si b le o n t h e h o r i z o n ; w h e r e l a n d c a n b e s
e e nf r o m w i th i n th e c a n o e ; a n d w h e r e p a l m t
r e e s b e c o m e d i st ig u i sh a b le . S i n c e t h e a t o
ll sa r e q u i t e lo w a v e r g i n g o n l y a b o u t 3 ~ m a
b o v e h i g h t id e l e v e l w i t h a m a x i m u m o fa b o u
t 9 m t h e s e d i s ta n c e s r a n g e f r o m a b o u t 1 6 t
o 2 4 k m f r o m a n a t o ll . F u r t h e r
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36 4 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 2 2A i l i n g l a p l a p
M a l u r o N a m o r iNamor ik i l iM li
E b o n E b o n
b
FIG 13 Meddo
t h e c h e v r o n s i n d i c a t e w h e r e t h e e f f e ct
s o f e b b t i d e s c a n b e s e e n a s t h e y f lo w o u tt h
r o u g h l a g o o n e n t r a n c e s [9].
I n 1 9 4 9, M . W . d e L a u b e n f e l s , a p r o f e s s o
r o f z o o l o g y , w h o w a s s t u d y i n g th ed i s t ri b
u t i o n o f v a r i et i es o f s p o n g e s , i n t e r v i e w
e d s o m e M a r s h a ll I s l a n d n a v i g a t o r st o b e n
e f i t f r o m t h e i r k n o w l e d g e o f c u r r e n t s i n
t h e a r e a [ 13 ]. P a r t o f t h e d i s c u s si o nf o c u s
e d o n t h e i r i n s i st e n c e o n a c u r r e n t - f l e e
r e g i o n w h i c h r e a c t s t o t i d e c h a n g e s i nq u
i t e t h e s a m e w a y a s a l a g o o n o f a n a t o ll . T h
a t i s, t h e r e is a c h a n n e l t h r o u g hw h i c h t h e
r is i n g t i d e s t r e a m s i n a n d t h e f a ll in g t i d
e r u s h e s o u t . T h i s a n o m a l o u sc u r r e n t - f l
e e r e g i o n is s o u t h o f A i l in g l a p la p e x t e n d
i n g t o a l i n e b e t w e e n N a m o r i ka n d J a l u it , a
n d i ts c h a n n e l is e a s t o f N a m o r i k b e t w e e n N
a m o r i k a n d K i l l T h i sd i s c u s s io n i s p a r t i c
u l a r l y r e l e v a n t w h e n s e v e r a l o f t h e c h a r
t s a r e e x a m i n e d ; f o re x a m p l e , s e e t h e l o w
e r l e f t i n F i gs . l l a , l l b , a n d 1 3 a a n d t h e c
e n t e r l e f t o f F i g.1 2 a . T h i s g e n e r a l r e g i o
n r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n a s s e e n f u r t h e r f r o
m t h e f a c t t h a t t h ec h a n n e l b e t w e e n N a m o r
i k a n d K i ll is m a r k e d b y c h e v ro n s .A s p r e v i o
u s l y n o t e d , t h e s e c h a r t s w e r e n o t c a r r i e
d w h i l e s ail in g . R e l i a n c e o nm e m o r y is o f t e
n f o u n d i n o r a l c u l tu r e s s u c h a s th e M a r s h a
l l I s l a n d s c u l t u r e a t t h et i m e t h e c h a r t s
w e r e m a d e a n d u s e d. T h o s e o f u s i n l i te r a t e
c u l tu r e s w h o h a v ec o m e to d e p e n d o n t h e m e d
i a o f l i te r a c y a r e o f t e n b o t h s u r p r is e d a n
d i m p r e s s e db y w h a t o t h e r s a r e a b l e t o c o m
m i t to m e m o r y . F o r t h e M a r s h a ll I s l a n d e r
s, t h ea r ti fa c t s f r o m w h i c h t h e y l e a r n e d a r
e a p p a r e n t l y n o t n e e d e d w h i l e a t se a . T h e
y , o rt h e c u e s th e y p r o v i d e , a re c o m m i t t e d
t o m e m o r y s u p p o r t e d b y o t h e r d e vi ce s .O n e
s u c h s e t o f d e v i c e s a r e roj n kok lol ( t r a n s l a
te d a s n a v i g a t i o n a l f o r m u l a s o r
i n d i c a t o r m n e m o n i c s ) . T h e s e a r e u s e d
t o r e m e m b e r s ai li ng d ir e c t io n s a n d i n d ic a
-t o r s ig n s f o r p a r t i c u l a r r o u t e s . T h e y a r
e a l s o s a id t o h a v e m a g i c a l p r o p e r t i e s t h
a t
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S
365
FIG. 14. A pho togra ph of the meddo in Figure 13a. (Smithsonian
nstitution,Department o f A nthropol-ogy , Catalo g No.
206188.)
h e l p m a i n t a i n a h i g h l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n
c e d u r i n g a d i f fi c u lt v o y a g e . C l o s e l y r e l
a t e dt o t h e s e a r e l i n l o k o n w ( t r a n s l a t e d
a s s a i l in g s o n g s o r s o n g s f r o m t h e s t e r ns h
e e t s ) . T h e s e a r e s u n g b y th e c a n o e s t e e r s
m e n a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e r e l a ti v e lys h o
r t, e a c h c a n b e r e p e a t e d f o r m a n y h o u r s . T
h e i r f u n c t i o n , t o o , is to m a i n t a i na l e r t n
e s s a n d c o n f i d e n c e w h i l e r e m i n d i n g t h e n
a v i g a t o r o f d a n g e r s a n d i n d i c a to r s .I n a d
d i t i o n , t h e n u m b e r o f t i m e s a p a r t i c u l a r
s o n g is r e p e a t e d i s u s e d a s a n a i d inm e a s u r
i n g e l a p s ed t i m e a n d , h e n c e , a s si st s i n e s
t im a t i n g h o w m u c h o f t h e c o u r s eh a s b e e n c o
v e r e d [ 8 , 2 3 3 - 2 3 7 ] .
A s w i t h o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f k n o w
l e d g e a m o n g t r a d i t io n a l p e o p l e s ]3; 4 ], w
elack su f f i c i en t spec i f i c s to r e d o n e o f t h e s e
m a p s i n f u l l . W e c a n , n o n e t h e l e s s ,r e c o g
n iz e t h a t t h e y a r e p l a n a r r e p r e s e n t a t i o
n s o f p a r ti c u l ar g e o g r a p h i c a l r eg i o n si n c
l u d i n g w h a t i s s i g n if i c an t a b o u t t h e r e g i
o n s f o r t h e M a r s h a l l I s l a n d n a v i g a t o r s .
T h er e l a t i o n s h i p s o n t h e r e b b e l i t h a n d m
e d d o i n v o l v e r e la t i v e l y la r g e s c a le o c e a
n o g r a p h i c
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366 MARCIA ASCHER HM 22phenomena which incorporate localized
details about wave refraction reflectionand diffraction and their
interaction.
CONCLUSIONThe rebbelith and meddo surely embody the most
important mapping conceptsthat is the creation of analogical spaces
that make visually explicit relationships
not visible from within the original space. But as expressions
of mathematical ideasit is the mattang that we consider even more
significant for they serve to modelthe conceptual framework
underlying the wave piloting system of the MarshallIsland
navigators. And of course it is that framework which gives meaning
to thespecifics on the rebbelith and meddoIn the history of modern
science understanding of the physical world and mathe-matical
modeling have been intimately connected. In fact geometric and
thenalgebraic representations of physical systems have been the
hallmark of modernscience. The linkage is so tight that it is hard
to conceive of the study of physicswithout the involvement of
mathematical ideas and mathematical descriptors. Whythis is so or
why this should be so has long been the subject of
philosophicaldiscussions. These discussions have included
speculation on whether this is thenature of the universe or the
nature of the human mind or simply the scientifictradition of
Western culture. Because it is outside of the modern tradition
theMarshall Islands case offers an unusual contribution that may
enrich these discus-sions.
For this case also broadly dispersed experience and observations
of naturalphenomena are given meaning by being conceptualized into
a coherent structuredsystem. The system is represented via a model
which simplifies highlights andisolates what is considered
essential. Most important what is selected as essentialare the
geometric aspects of the phenomena. Here the natural phenomena
areoceanographic; the system is a conceptualization of the
interplay of land sea andwind; the model is a planar
representation. Relative positions and relative directionsbecome
all important. Swells are reduced to curved lines and attention is
given tothe locus of points where the curves cross as well as the
changing crossing angles asthe curvature changes. In short the
system becomes one characterized by geometricessentials which give
rise to geometric implications. And what is more the compactplanar
representation becomes the vehicle for transmitting to future
navigators theaccumulated experience subsumed by the conceptual
system.Made of palm ribs and shells the Marshal l Island stick
charts underscore thefact that analogical planar representations
whether of space or of physical systemsand their inner
relationships are quite independent of writing systems and are
notconfined to any particular culture or any particular medium. By
their mode ofconstruction and their usage these artifacts are
deeply embedded in the Marshalleseculture. Navigational knowledge
of extreme importance in the life of the MarshallIslanders is their
context within that culture. As such consideration of the
mathe-matical ideas expressed through these charts provides us with
a deeper understand-ing and appreciation of an intellectual
endeavor of the Marshall Islanders. Figure15 reproduces a U.S.
postage stamp that commemorates this endeavor.
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H M 22 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I SL A N D S
367
FIG. 15. A . U.S . postage stam p issued in 1990.
A P P E N D I X : P U B L I S H E D I L L U S T R A T I O N S O
F C H A R T SI n 1 9 0 2, A . S c h 0 c k p u b l i s h e d a c o m
p e n d i u m o f d ra w i n g s o f all M a r s h a l l I s l a n
d
s t i c k c h a r t s t h a t h e h a d l o c a t e d i n m u s
e u m s a n d p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s . B e f o r e a n
ds i n c e t h a t t i m e , a d d i t i o n a l d r a w i n g s a
n d p h o t o g r a p h s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d . T h
ef o l lo w i n g ta b l e s u m m a r i z e s t h e w i d e s p r
e a d c o r p u s o f st ic k c h a r t i l lu s t ra t io n s u s
e df o r th i s st u d y . T h e t a b l e is p r o v i d e d t o a
s si st o t h e r s w h o m a y b e i n t e r e s t e d i n f u r t
h e rs t u d y o f t h e c h a r t s .
T o d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e a r t if a c t s , e a c h h
a s b e e n a s s i g n e d a n u m b e r . P u b l i s h e d i l
lu s t ra -t i o n s o f t h e a r t i f a c t a re i d e n t i f i
e d b y a l e t t e r o r p a i r o f l e t t e r s c o r r e s p o
n d i n g t o t h eb i b l io g r a p h i c s o u r c e f o l l o w
e d b y th e f i g u r e n u m b e r in t h e s o u r c e . A n a s
t e ri s k w i tht h e f ig u r e n u m b e r i n d i c at e s a p
h o t o g r a p h a s o p p o s e d t o a d r a w i n g . A l s o n
o t e d i nt h e t a b l e a r e c h a r ts w h i c h a p p e a r q
u i t e s im i l ar t o e a c h o t h e r a l t h o u g h t h e y a
r e n o tt h e s a m e a r t i f a c t . ( A q u e s t i o n m a r
k w i t h t h e s i m i l a r c h a r t i n d i c a t e s t h e y m
a ya c t u a ll y b e t h e s a m e a r t if a c t b u t s o m e w
h a t m o d i f i e d in t h e d r a w i n g p r o c e s s . ) C h
a r t st h a t h a v e b e e n u s e d a s i l l u s t r a t i o n
s i n t h i s t e x t a r e m a r k e d w i t h a d o u b l e a s t
e r i s k .T h e l e t t e r s u s e d f o r t h e b i b l i o g r
a p h i c s o u r c e s a r e : A [ 1 ] ; B [ 7 ] ; B R [ 7 , a d d
e n d u m ] ;D A [ 9 ] ; D L [ 1 2 ] ; D v [ a 0 ] ; G [ 1 7 ] ; H
A [ Z 1 ] ; H L [ 1 9 ] ; H N [ 2 2 ] ; J [ 2 5 ] ; K [ 2 8 ] ; K N
[ 2 9 ] ;L N [ 3 2 ] ; L W [ 3 1 ] ; S [ 3 5 ] ; W [ 3 9 ] .
Ch art no. Published illustrations Similar charts1 K44a2 A15;
K44b; LW 403 HN2*4 HN4*5 56** B1; DL 3*; HN 3*; 67** 78 8; W7*
46?34, 35, 36, 37, 3824, 25
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3 68 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 2 2
C h a r t no . P ub l i sh e d i l l u s t r a t i ons S im i l
a r c ha r t s9 * * $ 9 ; W 610 $101 1 * L W 3 9 ; W 1 ; S l l12
S121 3 * S 1 3 ; W 1 3 a14 S1415 * $151 6 $ 1 6 ; W 517 $1718 KN
69; S1819 S192 0 S 2 0 ; W 1 0 *21 $2122 $2223 $232 4* * A 1 6 ; B
3 ; D A 7 a ; L W 4 1 ; $ 2 4 ; W 225 $252 6 $ 2 6 ; W 1 227** $272
8 $ 2 8 ; W l 12 9 B 4 ; D A 7 c ; $ 2 9 ; W 43 0 B R 1 ; D L I * ;
$ 3 031 B R 2 ; H N I * ; $3132 $3233 $3334 $343 5 $ 3 5 ; W 336**
$3637 $373 8 S 3 8 ; W I 3 b39** $3940 $4041 $4142** $4243** $434 4
$ 4 4 ; W 94 5 * * $ 4 5 ; W 846 $4647 $4748 $4849 $495 0 D V 2 *5
1 * A 1 3 , B 2 ; D A 352 K 44c5 3 D V 1 * ; H L 1 55 4 J l *5 5 L
N I *56** LN2*57 L N 3*
10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 51 , 52 , 599 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 ,
5 1 , 5 2 , 5 99 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4, 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 99 , 10 ,
11 , 13 , 14 , 51 , 52 , 599, 10 , 11 ,12 , 14 , 51 , 52 ,599,10 ,
11 ,12 , 13 , 51 , 52 , 59
664, 254, 2458
3, 35, 36, 37, 383, 34, 36, 37, 383, 34, 35, 37, 383, 34, 35,
36, 383, 34, 35, 36, 37414057, 60?67
2?
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 52, 599, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 51, 59
42, 60
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H M 2 2 M A P S F R O M T H E M A R S H A L L I S L A N D S 3 6
9
C h a r t n o . P u b l i s h e d i l lu s t r a ti o n s S i m
i l a r c h a r t s58 L N 4* 2759 KN 68 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 51,
5260 K N 7 0 42? , 5761 K N 716 2 K N 7 26 3 K N 7 36 4 K N 7 46 5
H A l *66 K N 66 2367 K N 65* 436 8 G 2 9 069 K 32
A C K N O W L E D G M E N T SI a m i n d e b t e d t o B e r n d
L a m b e r t , a n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t k n o w l e d g e a
b l e a b o u t O c e a n i a , f o r d i r e c t i n g m e
to books a bou t M a r sha l l I s l a nd c u l tu r e i n ge ne
r a l [ 27 : 33 ; 36 ] a nd f o r spe c i f i c a l l y l oc a t
ing f o r m e ther e f e r e n c e s t o w o m e n n a v i g a t o
r s . I t h a n k D o n a l d W . C r o w e f o r c a l li n g m y
a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s t a m p s h o w nin F ig . 15 a nd f
o r sh a r ing on e o f h i s s t a m ps w i th m e .
R E F E R E N C E S1 . K j e l l ~ k e r b l o m , Astronomy and
Navigation in Polynesia and Micronesia S t o c k h o l m M o n o g
r a p h
S e r i es , N o . 14 , S toc kho lm : T he E th nog r a ph ic a
l M use u m , 1968 .2 . L e o A p o s t e l , T o w a r d s t h e F
o r m a l S t u d y o f M o d e l s i n t h e N o n - f o r m a l S
c i e n c e s , i n The Conceptand the Role of the Model in
Mathematics and Natural and Social Sciences I n t e r n a t io n a
l U n i o n o f
H i s to r y a nd P h i lo s oph y o f S ci e nc e s: D iv i s
ion o f P h i lo soph y o f S c i e nc e s , D o r d r e c h t : D
. R e ide l , 1961 ,pp . 1 - 37 .
3 . M a r c i a A sc he r , Ethnomathematics: A Multicultural
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4 . M a r c i a A s c h e r a n d R o b e r t A s c h e r , Code
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r : U n i v . o f M i c h i g a n P re s s , 1 9 81 .
5 . W i l l a r d B a sc om , Waves and Beaches: The Dynamics of
the Ocean Surface Science S tudies Ser ies ,N e w Y or k : D oub le
da y , 1964 .6 . L loyd A . B r ow n , The Story of Maps B os ton :
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e w Y or k :
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ge
a d d e n d u m i n 1 9 7 0 , H o n o l u l u : B e r n i c e P
. B i s h o p M u s e u m .8 . W i l l i a m H . D a v e n p o r t
, M a r s h a l l e s e F o l k l o r e T y p e s , Journal of
American Folklore (1953) ,
219 - 237 .9 . W i l l ia m H . D a v e n p o r t , M a r s h a
l l I s la n d s N a v i g a t i o n a l C h a r t s, Imago Mundi
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a t i o n , Micronesian Reporter 10 (1962) , 18-23 & 27.
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3 70 M A R C I A A S C H E R H M 2 212 . M . W . de La ube n f e
l s , N a t ive N a v iga to r s , Research Rev iew ( O f f i c e o
f N a v a l R e s e a r c h ) , J u n e
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r r e n t s i n t h e M a r s h a l l Is l an d s , Geographic Rev
iew 40 ( 1950 ), 254 - 259 .14 . P . A ugus t E r d l a nd , D ie
Marshall-lnsulaner: Le be n und Sitte, Sinn, un d Religion eines
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A n t h r o p o s - E t h n o l o g i s c h e B i b l i o t e k
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e V e r l a g , 1 9 14 .15 . H a r o ld G a t ty , The Raf tbook:
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h N o t i c e s o n t h e
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487 - 508 .
