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8/15/2019 Moderacion Del Humor en La Satisfacción
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Tourism Management 29 (2008) 525–537
Visitors’ experience, mood and satisfaction in a heritage context:
Evidence from an interpretation center
Carmen de Rojas, Carmen Camarero
Department of Business and Marketing, University of Valladolid, Avenida Valle de Esgueva, 6, 47011 Valladolid, Spain
Received 18 June 2006; accepted 8 June 2007
Abstract
The study examines how expectations, experiences, and satisfaction are related in the context of cultural tourism and the services
provided by cultural organizations. A model is proposed that combines two complementary approaches in the analysis of satisfaction: a
cognitive approach based on quality and disconfirmation and an affective approach based on emotions. The empirical analysis carried
out on a sample of visitors to an interpretation center allows us to confirm that the perceived quality is a direct determinant of
satisfaction, as are emotions. The results also reveal that there is a significant relationship between quality and emotion. Finally, the way
in which mood state moderates the cognitive path is studied, as generator of visitor satisfaction.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Satisfaction; Expectations; Disconfirmation; Quality; Emotions
1. Introduction
The application of marketing in heritage, cultural
tourism and cultural services is becoming more and more
crucial. An example is the interest indicated by many
cultural organizations, such as museums, exhibitions or art
collections in visitors’ opinions and experience evaluation
and perceptions’ link to satisfaction. In fact, customer
experience becomes a key concept in artistic and cultural
heritage marketing as tourist satisfaction is often deter-
mined by the global experience obtained. Visitors seek a
total experience, including leisure, culture, education, and
social interaction. For this reason, business-oriented
museums and heritage organizations are increasinglyemphasizing the participation of the public in their policies
and programs (Gilmore & Rentschler, 2002), specifically
those individuals not usually attracted to traditional
museums. To create positive experiences for visitors,
museums organize an increasing number of large-scale
events and provide a variety of learning experiences. The
visiting experience becomes more than simply an inspection
of exhibits, but an opportunity for further elaboration of visitors’ understanding (Colbert, 2003). In this sense, it is
necessary to note that museums provide more than just
exhibition. The museum service, i.e., the global product,
comprises of the exhibition and the other tangible or
intangible services. These services include the organization
of courses and seminars, bookshops, restaurants and cafe ´ s,
brochures and other facilities for better accessibility and
interpretation, and even the attitudes and values trans-
mitted to the visitor.
Consumer satisfaction has been widely debated in
marketing literature (Bowen, 2001; Oliver, 1980, 1993;
Yuksel & Yuksel, 2001), even though there is no clearconsensus as to what the determinant variables are. While
past literature has concentrated on describing satisfaction
by the evaluation consumers make of perceived quality
(confirmation/disconfirmation theories) from their expec-
tations, more recent trends have perceived the emotions
consumers experienced as the determinant factors in
creating satisfaction.
Within this theoretical framework, this study is con-
cerned with an analysis of the explanatory factors of
visitor satisfaction in heritage and cultural expositions
ARTICLE IN PRESS
www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.06.004
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 98342 33 32; fax: +34 98342 38 99.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (C. de Rojas),
[email protected] (C. Camarero).
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(as promoters of cultural and patrimonial goods) and the
integration of disparate theoretical approaches. Even if the
relationship between perceived quality and expectations
appear essential to evaluate visitor satisfaction, emotions
and experiences are fundamental to cultural activities. In
the range of services provided by museums, the inclusion of
emotions in the concept of satisfaction is particularlyrelevant given that the majority of services are based upon
consumers’ participation and experiences (Szymanski &
Henard, 2001; Wirtz, Mattila, & Tan, 2000). In the study of
museum visitors’ satisfaction, previous works have empha-
sized the effect of service quality on satisfaction (Caldwell,
2002; De Ruyter, Wetzels, Lemmink, & Mattsson, 1997;
Harrison & Shaw, 2004), but do not consider emotion.
There has been little research on the experience of
museums’ visitors (Rowley, 1999), and the effect of this
experience on satisfaction. For instance, Goulding (2000)
observes the behavior of museum visitors in order to
evaluate the impact of exhibitions and experience on visitor
satisfaction.
In this research, a model is proposed to explain the
formation of visitor satisfaction from the relationship
between their evaluation or cognitive opinion ( perceived
quality/disconfirmation) and visitor evaluation or affective
opinion ( positive emotions). Homburg, Koschate, and Hoyer
(2006) indicate that few studies have investigated cognitive
and affective antecedents of customer satisfaction simulta-
neously. Furthermore, we introduce the moderator ‘visitor’s
mood’ in order to evaluate how the visitor’s state of mind
enhances or lessens the effect of their experience on
satisfaction. Analyzing ‘‘post-purchase’’ visitor behavior com-
pletes the model. All proposed relationships are tested jointlyby a structural equation model. Empirical analysis performed
in the Queen Isabel Interpretation Center allows us to make
conclusions and determine managerial implications.
2. Cognitive and affective determinants of visitor
satisfaction
On a theoretical level, visitor satisfaction is widely
debated in literature. Satisfaction has been defined
repeatedly (Oliver, 1997; Vanhamme, 2000) in forms that
diverge significantly from one another (Babin & Griffin,
1998; Szymanski & Henard, 2001). This suggests that the
nature of satisfaction is ambiguous. Traditionally satisfac-
tion was considered to be (i) a cognitive state, (ii) influ-
enced by previous cognition, and (iii) has relative character
(the result of the comparison between a subjective
experience and a previous base of reference) (Bearden &
Teel, 1983; Churchill & Surprenant, 1982; Oliver, 1980;
Oliver & Desarbo, 1988). Recently, however, there has
been an increasing recognition amongst researchers of
satisfaction that a purely cognitive approach may be
inadequate in modeling satisfaction evaluations. The need
to understand satisfaction from a more affective perspec-
tive has been underlined, although always in connection
with cognitive influence (Oliver, Rust, & Varki, 1997;
Phillips & Baumgartner, 2002; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999). The
inclusion of affect into the conceptualization of consumer
satisfaction is particularly important with services, due to
their experiential nature (Wirtz et al., 2000). In most recent
definitions, this dual character of satisfaction has been
recognized (i.e. both cognitive and affective character), as
well as its relative nature (the comparison between asubjective experience and a previous base of reference). For
the purposes of this research we will consider that
satisfaction is reached when visitors attain or transcend
their relative expectations. Satisfaction is the sensations or
feelings generated both by cognitive and emotional aspects
of the goods and services, as well as an accumulated
evaluation of various components and features.
Regarding theories and explanatory models of satisfac-
tion, there are, as already noted, two approaches: cognitive
and emotional. In following a cognitive approach to explain
satisfaction formation, the model most widely recognized is
the disconfirmation model of expectations (Churchill &
Surprenant, 1982; Oliver, 1980; Oliver & Swan, 1989;
Prakash, 1984), whereby satisfaction is a function of
disconfirmation and disconfirmation is a function of
expectations and of fulfillment (Oliver, 1997). The con-
firmation/disconfirmation theory predicts that satisfaction
is reached when expectations are met, and that negative
disconfirmation of expectations will cause dissatisfaction
while positive disconfirmation will increase satisfaction.
After a long period of assuming that consumer decisions
were based on the product quality, use, and benefits, in the
last two decades market research has begun to study the
emotions evoked by the stimuli of marketing (Laros &
Steenkamp, 2005) from an emotional approach. Despite thisemerging body of research, the study of emotions (theory
of emotions) in consumer behavior has encountered
obstacles because of emotions’ ambiguity in structure and
content (Bagozzi, Gopinath, & Nyer, 1999). Regarding
structure, some researchers examine all emotions from the
same level of generality, while others specify a hierarchy in
which specific emotions exemplify other basic emotions
below the general level (Shaver, Schwartz, Kirson, &
O’Connor, 1987; Storm & Storm, 1987). Secondly, we
encounter a debate concerning the content of emotions.
Russell and Pratt (1980) defend the existence of two
independent dimensions within the emotions: pleasure and
arousal.
In an attempt to combine these two theoretical
approaches (the cognitive and the emotional), we propose
two complementary paths to develop visitor satisfaction
with cultural expositions. The cognitive path consists of an
evaluation of the exhibition quality, a comparison between
perceived quality and expectations, and a confirmation/
disconfirmation process that determines the degree of
satisfaction achieved. On the other hand, the affective or
emotional path begins when cultural exhibitions reach and
even exceed expectations. This provokes pleasure which
directly influences satisfaction. In the following sections
this model is developed.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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2.1. The cognitive approach: expectations, perceived quality,
and disconfirmation
Service quality, from the perspective of Gro ¨ nroos (2000),
is defined from two dimensions: technical quality (what is
delivered to the consumer) and the functional service
quality (how it is delivered). In contrast, Brady and Cronin(2001) state that the perception of service quality is
determined by three dimensions: outcome quality, interac-
tion quality, and physical environment quality. Outcome
quality is what the customer obtains when the productive
process ends; interaction quality refers to the interaction
that takes place while the service is being delivered; and
environment quality refers to the ambient conditions where
the service is delivered or the product is sold.
Oliver (1997) states that each interpretation consumers
make are related to different types of expectations.
Expectations can be defined as previous predictions or
beliefs that the consumer makes about the results or the
performance of the product in the future (Higgs, Polonsky,
& Hollick, 2005; Olson & Dover, 1979; Woodruff et al.,
1983). These expectations are formed using several sources
of information: advertising and commercial communica-
tion, word of mouth referrals, or prior experiences.
Although visitors cannot realistically form expectations
about a service of which they have little knowledge,
empirical research suggests that even customers without
any prior experience do form expectations (McGill &
Iacobucci, 1992). According to Oliver (1997), the quality of
service is based on perceptions of excellence, so it is logical
to believe that perceived quality is influenced by the
expectations of the consumer. Consumers use theirexpectations to evaluate performance. Past research has
identified the effect of expectations on perceived perfor-
mance, in that the perceptions are assimilated toward
expectations (Churchill & Surprenant, 1982; Mattila,
1998; Olson & Dover, 1979; Spreng & Page, 2001).
Also Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, and Zeithaml (1993) argue
that the expectations are a precursor to perceptions and
that they are dynamic. Therefore, we propose the first
hypothesis:
H1. Visitors’ expectations positively influence perceived
quality.
Perceived quality is considered to be the global judgment
made by the consumer, by estimating the excellence of a
service. Therefore, satisfaction and perceived quality will
be highly interrelated. The majority of market research
accepts a theoretical framework in which quality leads to
satisfaction (Dabholkar, Shepherd, & Thorpe, 2000;
Oliver, 1997; Olsen, 2002), which in turn influences post-
purchase behavior (De Ruyter, Wetzels, & Bloemer, 1998;
Oliver, 1999). It has been empirically confirmed that
satisfaction is preceded by perceived quality, especially
when quality is formulated as a specific evaluative belief
and satisfaction as a more general evaluation (Olsen, 2002).
This quality–satisfaction relationship follows the same
reasoning as classical models of attitude, which suggest
that attitudes are preceded by beliefs (Fishbein & Ajzen,
1975). Also, in the field of tourist marketing, there are
authors (Appiah-Adu, Fyall, & Singh, 2000; Bigne ´ ,
Sa ´ nchez, & Sa ´ nchez, 2001) who suggest that perceived
quality occurs prior to satisfaction. On this basis we
propose the second hypothesis:
H2. Perceived quality positively influences visitor satisfaction.
Disconfirmation exists when service is inferior or super-
ior to that which the consumer expected when he/she made
the decision to buy (Oliver, 1997), thus creating negative or
positive implications for the experience of service and its
evaluation. Consumers choose services with the hope that
what they choose will offer a range of benefits. According
to the expectation–disconfirmation paradigm (LaBarbera
& Mazursky, 1983; Oliver, 1980; Spreng, Mackenzie, &
Olshavsky, 1996; Tse & Wilton, 1988), consumers calculate
satisfaction of a product by comparing prior expectations
against the perceived performance. If the performance is
superior (inferior) to expectations, a positive (negative)
disconfirmation is produced and an increase (decrease) in
satisfaction will be expected. Also, consumer satisfaction is
a function of expectations and disconfirmation, and prior
expectations are used as the comparable standard.
Past empirical research has shown that expectations have
a significant effect on disconfirmation (Cadotte, Woodruff,
& Jenkins, 1987; Churchill & Surprenant, 1982; Patterson,
1993; Spreng et al., 1996; Tse & Wilton, 1988). This
relationship is negative. Therefore it is more likely thathigh expectations are not confirmed (negative disconfirma-
tion), and that low expectations are. Also, a direct causal
relationship has been empirically confirmed between
disconfirmation and satisfaction (Bowen, 2001; Cadotte
et al., 1987; Szymanski & Henard, 2001). While some
authors consider disconfirmation to be the closest ante-
cedent to satisfaction, and most research illustrates a
significant effect of disconfirmation on satisfaction (Pat-
terson, 1993), there are also studies which indicate that this
relationship is not so clear (Churchill & Surprenant, 1982;
Spreng & Page, 2001). A possible explanation for this
discrepancy is the existence of moderator variables, a
factor we will consider later. Other authors argue that the
process is more complicated, including Churchill and
Surprenant (1982) who deem that perception affects
satisfaction in two ways: by disconfirmation and by direct
experience (quality). According to this, we formulate the
following hypotheses:
H3. Visitor expectations and perceived quality determine
the level of (dis)confirmation.
H4. The level of (dis)confirmation determines the level of
visitor satisfaction.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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2.2. The emotional approach: emotions and pleasure
According to our discussion, satisfaction research has
recognized the need to incorporate emotional and affective
components in the model of consumer satisfaction
(Liljander & Strandvik, 1997; Oliver et al., 1997; Wirtz &
Bateson, 1999; Wirtz et al., 2000). More specifically (and asa single example), in the sphere of tourist experiences there
is a clear need to integrate cognitive and emotional
concepts to explain satisfaction intentions and behavior
(Zins, 2002).
Emotions consist of two independent dimensions:
pleasure and arousal (Russell & Pratt, 1980). Pleasure
refers to the level at which a person feels well, happy or
content in a situation, while arousal refers to the extent to
which a person feels stimulated and active. In the area of
marketing applied to cultural tourism and cultural
organizations, concretely to museums and art expositions,
we understand that arousal results to be of little relevance
as stimulating visitors’ activities do not form part of the
objectives of the organization. Rather, the objectives are
fundamentally awakening visitors’ interest and increasing
his/her knowledge about a specific matter so that the visitor
will experience pleasure.
Several authors highlight the existing relationship
between the pleasure felt during the consumer experience
and the satisfaction obtained. The more pleasure subjects
experience during the visit, the higher their satisfaction
(Mano & Oliver, 1993; Oliver, 1993; Westbrook, 1987;
Westbrook & Oliver, 1991; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999).
Previous studies have also tested the relationship
between disconfirmation and emotions (Menon & Dube ´ ,2000; Oliver et al., 1997; Wirtz & Bateson, 1999),
corroborating the positive relationship between disconfir-
mation and the intensity of emotion in order to explain
consumer satisfaction (Woodruff et al., 1983). However,
the path between disconfirmation and pleasure has not
always been confirmed. Bigne ´ , Andreu, and Gnoth (2005)
do not find a significant relationship between disconfirma-
tion and pleasure in a tourist context. In the context of
museums and exhibitions, the expectations are more ideal
than predictive. Higgs et al. (2005) also note that art
museums and art exhibitions attract large numbers of
novice patrons who are without prior experience but hold
ideal expectations, which are altered during their first (and
perhaps only) visit. Therefore, disconfirmation is more
determined by the perceived quality than by expectations.
In this situation it is the perceived quality and not the
disconfirmation of expectations that is the real determinant
of visitors’ emotions and pleasure. Therefore, we hypothe-
size a positive relationship between the cognitive experience
(the perceived quality), and the emotional experience (the
intensity of emotions and pleasure). A shortfall in service
performance can cause displeasure, whereas a high
performance can cause pleasure. In this sense, Chebat
and Michon (2003) identify a significant relationship
between product quality and pleasure. Then,
H5. Perceived quality positively influences the pleasure
dimension of emotions.
H6. The pleasure dimension of emotions positively influ-
ences visitor satisfaction.
2.3. Consequences of satisfaction in cultural tourism:
intensification
Research on satisfaction and services suggests that
satisfaction is an important antecedent to the post-
purchase attitude and the intentions to repeat the purchase,
as well as in many other cases of good intentions for
behavior (Anderson, 1994; Anderson & Sullivan, 1993;
Cronin & Taylor, 1992; Fornell, 1992; Keaveney, 1995;
Oliver, 1980; Oliver & Swan, 1989; White & Yu, 2005;
Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1996). In this sense, it
has been suggested that tourist satisfaction affects the
intensification of the visit, this being understood as an
interest or motivation on the part of the visitor. Moreconcretely in the context of cultural tourism, it may be
described as the intention to purchase guides, publications,
and souvenirs and presents (Kim & Littrell, 1999).
Although a variable not widely considered in literature,
Bigné and Andreu (2004) propose—although do not
confirm—a direct influence of satisfaction on the intensi-
fication experience, measured as visitor interest in buying
different products and souvenirs related to the location or
event. It is expected that satisfied visitors will, prolong their
stay, and take more interest in any of the collected aspects
within the cultural exposition. This is transformed into
acquisition, including specific materials relative to the visit
(renting of audio-guides or commemorative coins), as well
as miscellaneous souvenirs (key chains, pens). Therefore,
H7. The higher the level of visitor satisfaction, the higher
the level of visitor intensification.
3. The moderator role of moods
Moods occur ‘‘when the cognitive system is maintained
in an emotion mode for a period’’ (Oatley, 1992, p. 64,
taken from Bagozzi et al., 1999). Moods can be caused by
the human system (such as sickness, fatigue, previous
exercise, and good health), or pharmacological agents,
general conditions of the environment, and side effects of
activities (heat, noise, changes in surroundings, stress)
(Frijda, 1986).
According to Bagozzi et al. (1999), the line between an
emotion and mood is frequently difficult to draw. They
propose that mood is a longer lasting state (from a few
hours to days), and lower in intensity than an emotion.
A secondary difference is that emotion is intentional (it has
an object or reference object), while mood is unintentional
and global or diffused (Frijda, 1993). Lastly, moods are not
as directly connected to intentions of action or explicit
actions, as are many emotions. Bagozzi et al. (1999) suggest
that mood can affect the cognitive and affective process of
ARTICLE IN PRESS
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the consumer, therefore directly influencing processes such
as: (a) the recovery of information, i.e., people in a good
mood have a better memory of material learned while in a
positive mental state than in a negative or neutral one;
(b) encoding of information, i.e., happy people spend more
time examining positive information than negative and,
therefore, remember it more effectively (Forgas & Bower,1987); (c) the state of learning; when the survey subjects are
in a good mood the average level of memory can be higher;
and (d) asymmetric effects of mood, i.e., a good mood
favors positive memories and inhibits negative. In the same
way, people who are in a good mood evaluate stimuli more
positively than those in a bad or neutral mood. Moods do
not interrupt ongoing thought processes and behaviors, but
they do color our day-to-day events (Luong, 2005).
On this basis we can suggest that a better initial mood on
the part of visitors will have repercussions on their
reactions to stimuli presented to them and to the emotions
provoked. Specifically, a good mood will strengthen the
following relationships: quality–satisfaction, disconfirma-
tion–satisfaction, and emotion–satisfaction. Consequently,
H8. Mood acts as a moderator in the process of formation
of visitor satisfaction.
H8a. Favourable mood strengthens the effect of quality on
satisfaction.
H8b. Favourable mood strengthens the effect of discon-
firmation on satisfaction.
H8c. Favourable mood strengthens the effect of pleasure
on satisfaction.
The proposed hypotheses are represented in Fig. 1.
4. Methodology
4.1. Sample and data collection
In order to test the proposed hypotheses, the empirical
study performed is based on information collected by means
of a questionnaire presented to visitors of the cultural centercalled the Queen Isabel Interpretation Center. The center is
located in the Royal and Testamentary Palace in Valladolid,
Spain. The Royal and Testamentary Palace, in which Queen
Isabel I of Castile (1451–1504) lived, made her will, and
died, was restored and converted into a historical inter-
pretation center. In this center visitors discover the life, the
reign, and the personality of Isabel the Catholic by means of
museographic and exhibitory resources. Moreover, two
rooms are devoted to the Queen’s will.
We have selected an interpretation center of History for
one main reason. This museum is one where the quality of
resources and museographic materials are essential to
involve and energize the visitor and to achieve a
satisfactory experience. Moreover, in this case, the location
is significant. Valladolid, the chief town of Castile, is where
Queen Isabel I was born, lived, reigned, and died. It was an
historical period marked by the influential role of Castile in
history, such as the birth of Spain as a nation, and the
discovery of America. This context creates a feeling of
affection in local visitors; therefore, emotions can be
aroused, and have an important influence on overall
satisfaction.
The choice of a single center for the collection of data
was an attempt to place the research in a similar context for
all visitors, so that any possible influence of contextualfactors (cultural and tourist factors and adjacent services)
on variables studied (satisfaction, perceived quality, emo-
tion) could be avoided.
Before proceeding to the quantitative study, some
interviews with the museum manager and employees were
ARTICLE IN PRESS
MOOD
EXPECTATIONS
DISCONFIRMATION
PLEASURE
SATISFACTION
INTENSIFICATION
H6
H3H1
H5
H8a
H2
H3
H8c
H8b
H4
H7
PERCEIVED
QUALITY
Fig. 1. Proposed model.
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performed in order to know tourists’ reactions and
emotions during their visits. They explained that in the
Queen Isabel I Interpretation Center, the main resource
of the exhibition is the Royal Palace itself. The building
is the leading protagonist, given that it was where the
Queen wrote her last wishes, and died. Therefore the
Royal Palace has been declared as a historical site of great cultural interest. The whole exhibition and its
resources are structured around this event; the Palace
remains the primary tourist attraction, while the inter-
pretation center is the secondary element of attraction.
We must point out that this Center organizes guided visits.
The rooms dedicated to the Queen’s Death and Testament
are of special importance. The reproductions of her last
will and the stage design of the bedroom where she died
attract beyond all doubt. One unexpected aspect is the
study of the Queen’s physical appearance (blond hair and
bright eyes compared to the stereotypical Castilian looks).
Equally surprising is the Palace’s area today (barely
10% of what it was during the period of its greatest
splendor). Finally, with regard to the level of implication
and concentration, the guided tour design facilitates not
only these aspects, but also the visitor’s interaction at
certain moments (group dynamics students and theatrical
re-enactments).
We developed a questionnaire to test the aforementioned
hypotheses. The questionnaire was divided into two parts.
The first part covered the mood and the expectations
before the visit. The second part referred to the perceived
quality, the disconfirmation of expectations, the pleasure
and the satisfaction after the visit. A preliminary draft of
the questionnaire was developed and administered to thecenter’s manager and to some employees (who have
contact with the visitors) and who helped us make minor
adjustments.
The first survey was performed during the months of
March and April 2005 and the total number of ques-
tionnaires collected was 180. A second set of data was
collected during June, July, and August 2006, providing
104 valid questionnaires. In order to test non-response bias
we compared the former and the later responses along all
response items for each of the scales. No significant
difference between the two groups was found. Every fourth
visitor who entered the center was surveyed. We employed
survey takers who were instructed to collect data by
presenting the questionnaire before the visitor entered the
attraction. Those surveyed were asked to answer the first
part of the questionnaire, (i.e. the questions referring to
their mood and expectations). After answering these
questions, the visitor held onto the questionnaire during
the visit, and the second part of the questionnaire was
completed upon exit. Another was employed to collect the
questionnaires upon visitors’ exit.
Concerning the representativeness of the sample, it is
relevant to note that although we performed a convenience
sample the total number of visitors in museums of History
in Spain during 2004 was 3,086,662, 6.5% of total
visitation to museums and collections (data provided
by the Spanish Ministry of Culture). In our case, the
reduced dimensions and the specialization of this center
are the reasons it can receive only a few visitors per day.
The number of visitors during 2005 was 14,839, and
during 2006 it (until July) was 7442. The questionnaire
was offered to approximately 1600 visitors and 284valid answers were obtained, corresponding to a response
rate of 17.7%. The final sample consisted of 48% men
and 52% women. By age groups, 3.2% of respondents
were under 18, 43.3% between 18 and 35, 47% between 35
and 60, and 12.4% over 60. By education, 3.2% of the
sample had none, 10.1% had finished primary school,
29.5% secondary school, and 57.1% had attended higher
education. As we have aforementioned, few works have
analyzed the satisfaction of museums’ visitors and of those
that did, most adopted a qualitative approach. In any case,
if we compare the demographic characteristics of our
sample with those of Harrison and Shaw (2004), we can
conclude that they are very similar.
4.2. Measurement of variables
The scale of expectations is constructed of seven items
adapted from the scale proposed by Higgs et al. (2005)
and also applied to the case of museums and exhibition
centers. The scale of perceived quality (six items) was
prepared from the proposal of Brady and Cronin (2001),
and considers the three dimensions of quality: outcome
quality, interaction quality, and physical environment
quality. All of the included items contain a parallel
with the proposals as a measure of expectations. Theseitems were adapted to reflect the context of a museum.
Outcome quality was measured as the educational
and instructive experience and the excellence of the objects
and materials exposed; interaction quality focused on
the treatment received and the employees’ willingness to
look after the visitor; and physical environment quality
referred to the center’s installations, informative panels and
atmosphere. In a similar way, expectations were measured
in terms of service provided by the employees, the quality
of the installations (panels, lighting, spaces), uniqueness
of the exhibition and historical interest, and educational
experience. The variable disconfirmation was measured
based on an item that reflects the general level of
confirmation-disconfirmation. To measure confirmation-
disconfirmation, a 5 point Likert scale was employed
in which the question ‘‘in comparison with what in
general you expected from the visit to the interpretation
center, it has been’’ was evaluated by the following
rankings; [1] much worsey [5] much better than expected.
Pleasure (six items) was measured based on the scale of
Russell and Pratt (1980), and to measure satisfaction
(five items) the Oliver (1997) scale was used and inclu-
ded two additional that measured the intention of
word-of-mouth recommendation. The scale to measure
the variable intensification (2 items) was prepared by
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the authors, adapting it to the objectives of this study.
Finally, the scale used to measure mood was prepared
based on three indicators (scale of differential semantics) to
reflect the level of enthusiasm or excitement felt by the
tourist before beginning the visit. The group of scales
proposed and the corresponding descriptions are shown in
Appendix A.Even though some of the scales proposed had already
been validated by literature, they were all submitted to a
process of validation by means of an exploratory factorial
analysis followed by a confirmatory analysis (Lisrel 8.7).
To validate the scale of quality two items measuring
interaction quality had to be eliminated because of the
scarce variability of these items (the normality could not be
warranted). With the rest of items a confirmatory factor
analysis was performed. The results indicate that there is
no divergence between the dimensions outcome quality and
physical environment quality; therefore they were inte-
grated into the same dimension. The scales on expectations
and pleasure were also validated by two confirmatory
factor analysis and the scales of satisfaction and intensi-
fication were validated jointly by the reduced number of
items. The values of goodness of fit for each scale or group
of scales and the parameters lambda for each variable are
shown in Appendix A.
Once the convergence of the scales was validated the
values of reliability were calculated by the Cronbach alpha
and AVE in each case (see Appendix A). In all cases the
reliability was above the recommended values. To obtain a
guarantee of discriminate validity, we used the confidence
intervals. The correlations between latent variables
and their confidence intervals were calculated and thevalue 1 did not appear in any case between these
intervals. Correlations are shown in Table 1. In all cases
the variance extracted of each variable exceeds the value of
its squared correlation with the other variables, which also
justifies the discriminant validity of the scales (Anderson &
Gerbing, 1988).
5. Analysis and results
The following step of the analysis consisted of the
evaluation of the proposed model by means of a path
analysis. First, each of the scales was reduced to onlyone indicator or index (extracted factor for each latent
variable based on CFA). With these values, and after
calculating the error measurement of each indicator
based on the values of reliability, the proposed model
was evaluated. The result of the evaluation is shown in
Fig. 2. The indicators of goodness of fit (w2(7) ¼ 19.28,
p ¼ 0.007; GFI ¼ 0.976; AGFI¼ 0.927; CFI ¼ 0.981;
RMSEA ¼ 0.082; PNFI¼ 0.453; PGFI¼ 0.325) are
clearly placed within the recommended limits and areconsidered as proof of good fit.
In order to analyze the moderating effect of mood, the
scale created is reduced to one single factor that indicates
the level of enthusiasm, animation or excitement which the
visitor finds him or herself in before beginning the visit.
Following the procedure proposed by Ping (1995), and
after centering the variables to attenuate error caused by
multicolineality (Aiken & West, 1991), we proceeded to
analyze the proposed model again, this time introducing
the interaction of mood with perceived quality, disconfir-
mation and pleasure. The result of the evaluation is shown
in Fig. 3. The indicators of goodness of fit (w2(19) ¼ 80.96,
p ¼ 0.000; GFI ¼ 0.937; AGFI¼ 0.850; CFI ¼ 0.945;
RMSEA ¼ 0.111; PNFI ¼ 0.491; PGFI¼ 0.396) are lo-
cated within the recommended limits and are considered
proof of a good fit. Parsimony indexes are slightly better
than in the previous model.
As can be concluded from these results, hypotheses
H1 and H2 are confirmed. In the line of previous
research we observed that expectations determine perceived
quality in the visit and that perceived quality, in turn,
is an indicator of satisfaction. Also, regarding H3, we
confirm that disconfirmation is positively determined
by perceived quality and negatively influenced by the
expectations of the visitor. However, the existence of asignificant effect of disconfirmation on satisfaction (H4)
was not demonstrated, a result already reported by
some authors (like Spreng & Page, 2001), who consider
the existence of variables that moderate the relation-
ship between expectations and satisfaction as possibly
being the level of confidence visitors have in their
expectations. In short, it is demonstrated that the cognitive
approach of satisfaction is validated by the path of
perceived quality, but not by the route of dissatisfaction
of expectations.
Regarding the emotional approach, we validate the
positive effect of perceived quality on pleasure (H5), and
the effect of pleasure on satisfaction (H6), in such a way
that we can see how emotions are also generators of
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Table 1
Matrix of correlations
Expectations Perceived quality Disconfirmation Pleasure Satisfaction
Perceived quality 0.363
Disconfirmation 0.118 0.581
Pleasure 0.245 0.543 0.441
Satisfaction 0.347 0.731 0.542 0.637
Disconfirmation 0.057 0.248 0.268 0.132 0.265
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satisfaction. It seems that the formation of positive
emotions derives from an evaluation of positive quality.
This means that the model of beliefs–attitudes is again
confirmed in the formation of visitor satisfaction. As for
the relationship between satisfaction and intensification
of the use or service (H7), we also find a positive
and significant coefficient to confirm the proposed hypo-thesis, unlike previous studies (Bigne ´ & Andreu, 2004)
that failed to demonstrate this effect. Nevertheless, we
observe that the effect of satisfaction on intention, in
this case to buy or try other related services, is not
excessively high.
Finally, and in relation to hypothesis H8, the interaction
between mood and disconfirmation of expectations (H8c)
has been validated, indicating that a more positive mood
(more enthusiasm, animation or excitement) makes the
disconfirmation of expectations reinforce the satisfaction of the visitor. However, we have found an unexpected nega-
tive effect in the interaction between mood and perceived
quality on satisfaction. The greater is visitors’ enthusiasm
and excitation before the visit, while the lower is the effect
of their cognitive experiences (perceived quality) on
satisfaction. The moderator ‘effect of mood’ on the
emotions felt (measures of pleasure) (H8b) was not
significant.
6. Discussion and conclusions
This study began with the aim of analyzing a specificaspect of marketing applied to cultural tourism, art and
cultural exhibitions, and the formation of visitor satisfac-
tion. Our proposal is based on combining two comple-
mentary approaches in the analysis of satisfaction: a
cognitive approach, according to which satisfaction derives
from stimuli and quality received and from the confirma-
tion–disconfirmation of expectations; and an affective
approach, according to which satisfaction also responds
to emotions that arouse certain stimuli in the visitor and
moderate visitors’ experiences’ effect on satisfaction. This
was developed in the context of cultural exhibitions and
our analysis has contemplated visitors’ expectations andmoods before the visit, and how they influence satisfaction.
We consider this context, a heritage tourism attraction, to
be a relevant contribution given that previous works
ARTICLE IN PRESS
DISCONFIRMATION
PLEASURE
INTENSIFICATION
EXPECTATIONS
SATISFACTION
PERCEIVED
QUALITY
0.445
(6.728)-0.227
(-3.750)
0.092
(1.372)0.497
(6.077)
0.813
(13.016)
0.382
(6.531)
0.322
(4.176)
0.600
(9.774)
Fig. 2. Results of path analysis.
DISCONFIRMATION
PLEASURE
INTENSIFICATION
PERCEIVED
QUALITY
EXPECTATIONS
SATISFACTION
Mood ∗ QualityMood ∗
DisconfirmationMood ∗Pleasure
0.809
(13.029)-0.205
(-3.413)
0.005
(0.091)0.488
(5.768)
0.919
(6.808)
0.477
(7.808)
0.246
(3.195)
0.685(11.802)
0.190
(2.461)0.118
(1.392)
-0.261
(-2.121)
Fig. 3. Results of path analysis (with moderator effects).
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analyzing the impact of expectations, quality, and emo-
tions on satisfaction have focused on entertainment
attractions. Tourists do not choose museums and cultural
exhibitions because of a cursory interest, but because they
have a familiarity with the exhibition’s content, in our case,
with Spanish history.
The first implication of our work is the confirmation of our model due to its high validity and explanatory
power. Our model of satisfaction is unusual in that it
combines cognitive and emotional aspects. In fact, it has
been illustrated that the model knowledge–attitude–
behavior is completely valid in the explanation of the path
followed by the visitor in the evaluation of his/her
satisfaction levels and subsequent behavior. Visitor’
expectations are affected by both cognitive (perceived
quality) and emotional (pleasure) experiences; it is possible
to view these as two complementary paths that result in
satisfaction. If we compare these two pathways, we can
affirm that the effect of perceived quality on satisfaction is
greater than the effect of emotions. Moreover, pleasure, in
this cultural context, appears not to be an external feeling
but closely related to the cognitive experience (perceived
quality). Cognitive factors’ greater influence can be
explained by the visitor’s experience. Although this was
the first visit to the interpretation center for most visitors,
their profiles indicated that most had attended higher
education (57.1%). Moreover, the historical theme of the
interpretation center continues to attract more involved
and experienced visitors, most of whom have a relatively
high knowledge of museums and exhibitions. Homburg
et al. (2006) state that as experience accumulates the impact
of affective factors on customer satisfaction decreases andthe impact of cognitive factors increases. Affect has a
greater impact on the satisfaction judgments in earlier
stages of the satisfaction development process, when
judgments require a higher degree of constructive proces-
sing. Applied to context of cultural exhibitions, visitors are
likely to have previously gained experience of museums or
centers and consequently the role of cognition becomes
more prominent when experience accumulates (Homburg
et al., 2006).
However, we have not proved the effect of disconfirma-
tion on satisfaction. An explanation of this result can be
found in visitor’s confidence of expectations. Spreng and
Page (2001) indicate that the level to which expectation is
held may influence the degree or extent to which
expectation is utilized in post-purchase evaluations. When
a consumer holds an expectation with little confidence it
will be fulfilled, he/she is not surprised when it does not
eventuate. Disconfirmation of this expectation will not
have a strong effect on satisfaction. An expectation formed
based on information obtained from a highly credible,
expert source, is likely to be held with more confidence
than one developed from casual word-of-mouth conversa-
tions (Spreng & Page, 2001). In this research, expectations
have not yet been created by prior experience (as
aforementioned, in most cases it was the visitors’ inaugural
visit), or by commercial sources, as the advertisements of
this interpretation center are largely brochures. Therefore,
it is likely that expectations are based on information
gathered from brochures and word-of-mouth conversa-
tions, and thus the level of confidence in this information is
not high.
Another implication refers to expectations. In theestimated model it is evidenced that expectations have a
lower effect on disconfirmation than perceived quality.
Wirtz and Bateson (1999) indicate that when expectations
have a low influence on disconfirmation, a situation of no
disconfirmation and no complex cognitive processes occurs
at the same time. Experience rather than disconfirmation is
therefore the determinant of affective states.
An additional conclusion centers on the implications of
visitor satisfaction. We have not examined loyalty (which
is a regular consequence of satisfaction in marketing
literature) because of its low relevancy in this context.
However, we have analyzed the intensification of use by
measuring the purchase of related products or material,
and we have found that intensification does appear to
be a behavior correlated to visitor satisfaction (although
this correlation is weak). Part of our study is the analysis
of the role played by the mood of the individual in the
formation of satisfaction. Our results enable us to state
that a positive mood reinforces the effects of disconfirma-
tion of expectations during the process to final satisfaction,
but does not influence the effect of emotions experienced.
It seems then that the mood strengthens the cognitive
path towards satisfaction, but does not influence the
emotional pathway. A non-expected result is that a
positive mood reduces the effect of perceived quality onsatisfaction. Bagozzi et al. (1999) say that when people
attribute their mood to a different situation or object than
that being evaluated, mood’s effect may disappear. We can
add that an unimpressed and calm visitor is more
predisposed to base satisfaction on the perception of
quality.
Regarding managerial implications, the study suggests
the importance of visitor experience in cognitive and
emotional aspects as bases for satisfaction. Although
cognitive and affective dimensions are central to managers,
one does not go without the other (Chebat & Michon,
2003). This seems to be in line with the new strategies and
attitudes adopted by managers of museums and cultural
centers at the time of designing and planning their
businesses. The presentation of the cultural product
(location, internal distribution, walkways, lighting or
informative panels) contributes to stimulate the interest
and the involvement of the visitor. Also, the interpretation
and the intangibles which surround the cultural product
(contextualization, personalization, creation of a dialogue,
and interaction with the visitor in order to create an
experience, feelings, and sensations) allows the visitor to
understand, feel, and relive the heritage. If the visitor is
offered an adequate interpretation of that being contem-
plated, it increases his/her involvement and increases the
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possibility that the visitor will spend more time, stop at a
gift shop, encourage other visits, and even help in
preservation of the heritage. Management in tourism may
also learn the importance of offering convenient cognitive
and emotional experiences. When a destination is based on
the offer of museums and heritage exhibitions or events, it
should be analyzed whether or not tourists may needvarious stimuli gain a positive experience. For instance, the
satisfaction of a more involved tourist could be more
related to the extent to which the exhibition is unique and
original, while for less-involved tourists satisfaction could
be determined by emotions which arise from stimuli other
than the exhibition itself.
Evidently, the work presented is not without limitations.
Firstly, we have introduced the study of a concrete case.
The application of the study to other cultural sectors would
allow for wider generalizations to be made from the results
obtained. For instance, in a case study the impact of the
type or novelty of exhibitions on visitors’ expectations,
pleasure and satisfaction cannot be appreciated. For future
research, we leave scope for the inclusion of other factors
such as the confidence of consumers in their expectations
or context in which the service is being placed. Confidence
and context could be variables that moderate the effect of
expectations, quality or emotions on satisfaction. This
would require us to analyze the model using a larger
sample of a wide range of museums, exhibitions and
cultural centers. Another possibility is the analysis of the
moderating effect of personality in the process of generat-
ing satisfaction via emotional or cognitive paths. For
instance, Gountas and Gountas (2007) propose the
influence of consumers’ personality orientations on positive
and negative emotional states during the service interaction
and on the overall service satisfaction. Regarding this
context, we have not differentiated between the segments of
visitors. It would be interesting to compare the expecta-tions and evaluations of tourists to those of locals and
more-involved visitors. We also consider the application of
this model to be interesting, with its possible variations, to
the case of artistic products (theater, performances,
concerts) where the role of emotions could prove to be
more relevant in the generation of satisfaction than the role
of perceived quality, or the disconfirmation of expectations
due to the increased evaluation difficulty for spectators. We
should note that as the study has not considered interaction
perceived quality, we have not proved the impact of service
personnel behavior on visitor affect and pleasure.
Appendix A
Variables and items (see Table A1).
Appendix B
See Table B1.
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Table A1
Variable Item Description Mean SD l a AVE
Expectations EXP1 I think that the center will have professionals
disposed to offer me information and respond to my
needs
4.14 0.94 0.86 0.892 0.652
EXP2 I expect to receive good treatment from the
employees
4.30 0.84 0.85
EXP3 In this center I believe I will find modern,
technologically advanced installations
3.86 0.95 0.69
EXP4 I believe that the center will have informative panels
and adequate lighting and use of spaces
4.03 0.94 0.88
EXP5 I believe that the content of the exhibition will be
unique and different from that of other centers
3.64 1.01 0.73
EXP6 I believe that this center is going to offer me an
interesting educational or instructive experience
3.94 0.97 – b
EXP7 I expect that the objects, material, and information
exhibited to be of high cultural and historical interest
4.06 0.94 0.81
w2(7) ¼ 21.395 (P ¼ 0.003); GFI ¼ 0.973; AGFI ¼ 0.920; CFI ¼ 0.991; RMSEA ¼ 0.08
Perceived quality QUA1 The treatment received by the center employees has
been excellent (interaction quality)
4.65 0.57 – b 0.865 0.650
QUA2 At all times the center employees have demonstrated
their willingness to look after me correctly
(interaction quality)
4.65 0.63 – b
QUA3 The installations in the center are better than those in
other centers or museums I have visited (physical
environment quality)
3.29 0.98 0.85
QUA4 3.82 0.98 0.82
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Table A1 (continued )
Variable Item Description Mean SD l a AVE
I evaluate the informative panels positively and the
atmosphere created in the center (physical
environment quality)
QUA5 I consider the visit to the center to have been a good
educational or instructive experience (outcome
quality)
3.98 0.99 0.75
QUA6 I consider the exhibition of the objects and materials
in the center to be excellent (outcome quality)
3.49 1.11 0.80
Disconfirmationa DIS1 In comparison with what you expected from the visit
in general to the center of interpretation, it has been:
much worse/worse/the same/better/much better than
expected
3.57 0.86 0.97
w2(5) ¼ 14.789 (P ¼ 0.011); GFI ¼ 0.978; AGFI ¼ 0.935; CFI ¼ 0.989; RMSEA ¼ 0.08
Pleasurea PLE1 Angry/content 4.10 0.83 0.89 0.900 0.699
PLE2 Bored/entertained 3.92 0.97 0.82
PLE3 Unhappy/happy 3.93 0.90 0.92
PLE4 Disappointed/impressed 3.64 0.98 0.76
PLE5 Unhappy/joyful 3.91 0.94 0.78
PLE6 Unhappy/delighted 3.12 1.17 – b
w2(4) ¼ 9.552 (P ¼ 0.048); GFI ¼ 0.985; AGFI ¼ 0.946; CFI ¼ 0.995; RMSEA ¼ 0.07
Satisfaction SAT1 This is one of the best interpretation centers I could
have visited
3.28 1.01 – b 0.903 0.751
SAT2 I am pleased with my decision to visit this
interpretation center
3.98 0.87 0.87
SAT3 I have really had a good time, I have had fun in this
center
3.78 0.95 0.81
SAT4 I will recommend someone to visit this center 3.93 1.03 0.95
SAT5 I will say positive things about this interpretation
center
3.86 1.01 0.83
Intensification INT1 I have bought a book or guide for more information 1.97 1.37 0.78 0.700 0.640
INT2 If there were a shop in this center I would buy a
souvenir
2.80 1.46 0.82
w2(8) ¼ 18.354 (P ¼ 0.018); GFI ¼ 0.975; AGFI ¼ 0.935; CFI ¼ 0.989; RMSEA ¼ 0.07
Mooda MOO1 Unimpressed/enthused 2.89 1.09
MOO2 Calm/excited 2.83 1.05
MOO3 Relaxed/animated 2.90 1.19
aScale of differential semantic.bEliminated items.
Table B1
Questionnaire
Variable Question
Expectationsa I think that the center will have professional available to offer me information and respond to my needs
I expect to receive good treatment from the employees
In this center I believe I will find modern, technologically advanced installationsI believe that the center will have informative panels and adequate lighting and use of spaces
I believe that the content of the exhibition will be unique and different from that of other centers
I believe that this center is going to offer me an interesting educational or instructive experience
I expect that the objects, material and information exhibited to be of high cultural and historical interest
Perceived qualitya The treatment received by the center employees has been excellent (interaction quality)
At all times the center employees have demonstrated their willingness to look after me correctly (interaction quality)
The installations in the center are better than those in other centers or museums I have visited (physical environment
quality)
I evaluate the informative panels positively and the atmosphere created in the center (physical environment quality)
I consider the visit to the center to have been a good educational or instructive experience (outcome quality)
I consider the exhibition of the objects and materials in the center to be excellent (outcome quality)
Disconfirmationb In comparison with what you expected from the visit in general to the center of interpretation, it has been: much worse/
worse/the same/better/much better than expected
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Table B1 (continued )
Variable Question
Pleasureb Angry/content
Bored/entertained
Unhappy/happy
Disappointed/impressed
Unhappy/joyful
Unhappy/delighted
Satisfactiona This is one of the best interpretation centers I could have visited
I am pleased with my decision to visit this interpretation center
I have really had a good time, I have had fun in this center
I will recommend someone to visit this center
I will say positive things about this interpretation center
Intensificationa I have bought a book or guide for more information
If there were a shop in this center I would buy a souvenir
Moodb Unimpressed/enthused
Calm/excited
Relaxed/animated
a
Five points Likert scales.bScale of differential semantic.
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