Modern Hebrew 1

Modern Hebrew

Modern HebrewʿIvrit עִבְרִית

Native to Israel

Native speakers 5.3 million as L1 (not all native)  (1998)[1]

as L1 or L2 by all 7.4 million Israelis

Language family revitalized Mishnaic Hebrew or relexified Yiddish

Writing system Hebrew alphabetHebrew Braille

Official status

Official language in  Israel

Recognised minority language in  Poland

Regulated by Academy of the Hebrew Language(HaAkademia LaLashon HaʿIvrit) האקדמיה ללשון העברית

Language codes

ISO 639-3 heb

Modern Hebrew (Hebrew: עברית חדשה, Ivrit Chadashah), also known as Israeli Hebrew (Hebrew: עברית ישראליתivrit yisre'elit), is the result of the most successful language revitalization project in history, and intimately linked tothe Zionist movement and the founding of the modern state of Israel. There is debate over whether it is a directcontinuation of Mishnaic Hebrew or is something closer to a relexified Yiddish, with a grammar that is more Slavicthan Semitic.The revival of the Hebrew language was led by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda in the late 19th century and early 20th century.Modern Hebrew is spoken by about nine million people — most of them citizens of Israel, of which three million arenative speakers of Modern Israeli Hebrew, two million are new immigrants, one million are Israeli Arabs and half amillion are Israelis or diaspora Jews who continue to live abroad.Modern Hebrew is, together with Modern Standard Arabic, an official language of the modern state of Israel, andbefore the state's establishment it was one of the official languages of the British Mandate forPalestine.Wikipedia:CleanupThe organization that officially directs the development of the Modern Hebrew language, under the law of the Stateof Israel, is the Academy of the Hebrew Language.

InfluencesAt present Modern Hebrew has been the native language in many families for three generations. The maingenerational differences are in vocabulary, as is true in many other present-day spoken languages.Modern Hebrew has been developing in a multi-lingual environment. Half of Modern Israeli Hebrew speakers arenot native speakers; furthermore, native speakers of Modern Hebrew usually learn at least one foreign language. Inthis situation, Modern Hebrew is affected intensively by many foreign languages—through the years Modern IsraeliHebrew has borrowed many words from Aramaic, Yiddish, Ladino, Arabic (mainly spoken Judeo-Arabic andvarious Levantine Arabic dialects), Latin, Greek, Polish, Russian, English and other languages.

Modern Hebrew 2

According to the Academy of the Hebrew Language, in the 1880s (the time of the beginning of the Zionistmovement and the Hebrew revival) there were mainly three groups of Hebrew regional accents: Ashkenazi (EasternEuropean), Sephardi (Spanish/Portuguese/Italian), and Mizrahi (Middle Eastern – largely used by Jews of Iraqi,Moroccan, Tunisian, Egyptian, Syrian, and Yemeni heritage). Over time features of these systems of pronunciationmerged, and nowadays we find 2 main pronunciations of colloquial (not liturgical) Hebrew: Oriental andNon-Oriental.[2]

ClassificationThe vast majority of scholars see Modern Hebrew as a direct continuation of Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, thoughthey concede that it has acquired some European and colloquial Arabic vocabulary and syntactical features, in muchthe same way as Modern Standard Arabic[3] (or even more so, dialects such as Moroccan Arabic). Some dissentingviews are as follows:• Paul Wexler[4] claims that modern Hebrew is not a Semitic language at all, but a dialect of "Judaeo-Sorbian". He

argues that the underlying structure of the language is Slavic, but "re-lexified" to absorb much of the vocabularyand inflectional system of Hebrew in much the same way as a creole. This view forms part of a larger complex oftheories, such as the theory that Ashkenazi Jews are predominantly descended from Slavic and Turkic tribesrather than from the ancient Israelites.

• Shlomo Izre'el[5] focuses on the "emergence" of "Spoken Israeli Hebrew" in terms of a "creation of a newlanguage" and attempts to fit the nativization of this "new linguistic entity" into the "larger continuum of Creoleand Creole-like languages" but does not seem to believe at all in any relexification hypotheses, whether from aSlavic or any other linguistic substratum (with references to his own earlier work on the creolization hypothesis(1986)[6] and the works of Goldenberg (1996)[7] and Kuzar (2001)[8]).

• Ghil'ad Zuckermann[9] compromises between Wexler and the majority view: according to him, "Israeli" (his termfor Israeli Hebrew) is a Semito-European hybrid language, which is the continuation not only of literary Hebrewbut also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken byHebrew revivalists.[10][11] Thus, "Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mothertongue of the vast majority of revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginningof Israeli Hebrew".[12] According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew, with Semiticgrammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their diaspora years. Heargues that their attempt to negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had therevivalists been Arabic-speaking or Berber-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have beena totally different language – both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founderpopulation on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants."[13]

Phonology

ConsonantsThe Hebrew word for consonants is ‘itsurim (עיצורים). The following table lists the Hebrew consonants and theirpronunciation in IPA transcription:

Modern Hebrew 3

Consonants

Labial Alveolar Post-alveolar

Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal

Nasal m n

Plosive p   b t   d k   ɡ ʔ

Affricate ts tʃ   dʒ

Fricative f   v s   z ʃ   ʒ χ ʁ h

Approximant l j w

Historical sound changes

Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development fromBiblical Hebrew.[14]

• BH /b/ had two allophones, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/• Whereas BH /w/ has become SIH /v/, the phoneme /w/ has been re-introduced into modern Israeli Hebrew in

some loanwords and their derivations (see Hebrew Vav → Vav as consonant)• BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, whereas the [x]

allophone has merged with /ħ/ into SIH /χ/• BH /t/ and /tˤ/ have merged into SIH /t/• BH /ʕ/ and /ʔ/ have usually merged into SIH /ʔ/, but this distinction may also be upheld in educated speech of

many Sephardim and some Ashkenazim• BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted

in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes.

Yiddish influence

Though an Ashkenazi Jew in Czarist Russia, the Zionist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda based his Standard Hebrew on theSephardic dialect originally spoken in Spain, and therefore recommended an alveolar [r]. But because the first wavesof Jews to resettle in the Holy Land were northern Ashkenazi, they came to speak Standard Hebrew with theirpreferred uvular articulation as found in Yiddish or modern standard German, and it gradually became the mostprestigious pronunciation for the language. The modern State of Israel has Jews whose ancestors came from all overthe world, but nearly all of them today speak Hebrew with a uvular R because of its modern prestige and historicalelite status.

Oriental Hebrew

Many Jewish immigrants to Israel spoke a variety of Arabic in their countries of origin, and pronounced the Hebrewrhotic as an alveolar trill, identical to Arabic ر rāʾ. Under pressure to assimilate, many of them began pronouncingtheir Hebrew rhotic as a voiced uvular fricative, often identical to Arabic غ ġayn. However, in modern Sephardic andMizrahi poetry and folk music, as well as in the standard (or "standardized") Hebrew used in the Israeli media, analveolar rhotic is sometimes used. Oriental speakers tend to use an alveolar trill [r] rather than the uvular trill [ʀ],preserve the pharyngeal consonants /ħ/ and (less commonly) /ʕ/ rather than merging them with /χ ʔ/, preservegemination, and pronounce /e/ in some places where non-Oriental speakers have null (the so-called shva na).

Modern Hebrew 4

Dagesh

Hebrew also has dagesh, a phonological process of consonant strengthening that is indicated in pointed texts by a dotplaced in the center of a consonant. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (kal, known also as dagesh lene) andheavy (hazak or dagesh forte). The light version applies to the phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ (historically, also /ɡ/, /d/ and /t/),causing them to be pronounced as stops rather than fricatives, and operates when the dagesh occurs in the beginningof a word or after a consonant (i.e. a silent shva). The heavy dagesh occurs after vowels and applies to all consonantsexcept gutturals and /r/, originally causing them to be pronounced as geminate (doubled) consonants; it also selectsthe stop allophone of /b/, /k/, /p/, etc. (In Modern Hebrew, gemination has disappeared, and hence the heavy dageshhas a phonological effect only on /b/ /k/ /p/, affecting them the same as the light dagesh.) Traditional Hebrewgrammar distinguishes two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh according to their historical origin: structural heavy(hazak tavniti) and complementing heavy (hazak mashlim). Structural heavy dagesh corresponds to consonantdoubling that was inherited from Proto-Semitic, and occurs in certain verb conjugations and noun patterns(mishkalim and binyanim; see Modern Hebrew grammar). Complementing heavy dagesh corresponds to consonantdoubling that arose within Hebrew as a result of consonant assimilation, most commonly of an /n/ to a followingconsonant (e.g. Biblical Hebrew /ʔatˈtaː/ "you (m. sg.)" vs. Classical Arabic /ˈʔanta/).The pairs /b/~/v/, /k/~/χ/, and /p/~/f/ were historically allophonic, as a consequence of the phenomenon ofspirantization known as begadkefat. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are sometimes phonemic.This phonemic divergence might be due to a number of factors: mergers involving formerly distinct sounds(historical pronunciation /w/ of vav merging with fricative bet, becoming /v/, historical pronunciation /q/ of kufmerging with plosive kaf, becoming /k/, and historical pronunciation /ħ/ of het merging with fricative kaf, becoming/x/), loss of consonant gemination, which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricativeswhen intervocalic, and the introduction of syllable-initial /f/ and non-syllable-initial /p/ and /b/ (see Begadkefat).

Varieties of ayin

The letter Ayin (ע) historically represented a voiced pharyngeal approximant. Most modern Ashkenazi Jews do notdifferentiate between א and ע; however, many Mizrahi Jews distinguish these phonemes, as well as Jews from anybackground wishing to speak Hebrew in its pure (Masoretic Tiberian) form. Georgian Jews pronounce it as [qʼ].Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it [ŋ] (like ng in sing) – apronunciation that can also be found in the Italian tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. (The remnantsof this pronunciation are found throughout the Ashkenazi world, in the name "Yankl" and "Yanki", diminutive formsof Jacob, Heb. יעקב).[citation needed]

Changes in pronunciation of Resh

In Hebrew, the classical pronunciation associated with the consonant ר rêš was flapped [ɾ], and was grammaticallytreated as an ungeminable phoneme of the language. In most dialects of Hebrew among the Jewish diaspora, itremained a flap or a trill [r]. However, in some Ashkenazi dialects as preserved among Jews in northern Europe itwas a uvular rhotic, either a trill [ʀ] or a fricative [ʁ]. This was because most native dialects of Yiddish were spokenthat way, and their liturgical Hebrew carried the same pronunciation. Some Iraqi Jews also pronounce rêš as aguttural [ʀ], reflecting their dialect of Arabic.An apparently unrelated uvular rhotic is believed to have appeared in the Tiberian vocalization of Hebrew, where itis believed to have coexisted with additional non-guttural articulations of /r/ depending on circumstances.[citation

needed]

Modern Hebrew 5

Vowels

The vowel phonemes of Modern Israeli Hebrew

The Hebrew word for vowels is tnu'otThe orthographic representations .(תְּנוּעוֹת)for these vowels are called Niqqud. IsraeliHebrew has 5 vowel phonemes, representedby the following Niqqud-signs:

phoneme pronunciation inModern Hebrew

approximate pronunciationin English

orthographic representation

"long" * "short" * "very short" /"interrupted" *

/a/ [ä] (as in "spa") kamats gadol ( ָ)

patach ( ַ ) chataf patach ( ֵ )

/e/ [e̞] (as in "bed") tsere male ( ֵי )or tsere chaser ( ֵ

)

segol ( ֶ ) chataf segol ( ֱ ),sometimes shva ( ְ )

/i/ [i] (as in "ski") chirik male ( ִי ) chirik chaser ( ִ )

/o/ [o̞] (as in "more") cholam male ( ֹו) or cholamchaser ( ֹ )

kamatz katan ( ָ ) chataf kamatz ( ֳ )

/u/ [u] (as in "flu" but with nodiphthongization)

shuruk (ּו) kubuts ( ֻ )

* The severalfold orthographic representation of each phoneme attests to the broader phonemic range of vowels in earlier forms of Hebrew. Somelinguists still regard the Hebrew grammatical entity of Shva na—marked as Shva (ְ)—as representing a sixth phoneme, /ə/. However, the phonetic

realisation of any Shva in modern Hebrew is never a Schwa (the mid central vowel denoted as [ə]) or any vowel otherwise phoneticallydistinguishable from the other phonemes, but is rather always either identical to those of the phoneme /e/ or is mute, therefore there is no consensus

in this matter.

In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (chataf). However, there is no audibledistinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew, except that tsere is often pronounced [eɪ] as in AshkenaziHebrew.

Shva

The Niqqud sign "Shva" represents four grammatical entities: resting (nach / נָח), moving (na' / נָע), floating (merahef / מְרַחֵף) and "bleating" or "bellowing" (ga'ya / גַּעְיָּה). In earlier forms of Hebrew, these entities were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable. However, in Modern Hebrew these distinctions are not observed. For example, the (first) Shva Nach in the word ְקִמַּטְת (fem. you crumpled) is pronounced [e̞] ([kiˈmäte̞t]) even though it should be mute, whereas the Shva Na in זְמַן (time), which theoretically should be pronounced, is usually

Modern Hebrew 6

mute ([zmän]). Sometimes the shva is pronounced like a tsere when accented, as in the prefix "ve" meaning "and".

StressHebrew has two frequent kinds of lexical stress, on the last syllable (milrá; מלרע) and on the penultimate syllable(the one preceding the last, mil‘él; מלעיל), of which the first is more frequent. Contrary to the prescribed standard,some words exhibit a stress on the antepenultimate syllable or even further back. This occurs often in loanwords, e.g.,/eχʃehuˈ/ אֵיכְשֶׁהוּ .poˈlitika/, "politics", and sometimes in native colloquial compounds, e.g/ פּוֹלִיטִיקָה"somehow"; ּאֵיפֹשֶׁהו /ˈefoʃehu/,[citation needed] "somewhere". Colloquial stress is also often shifted from the lastsyllable to the penultimate, contrary to the prescribed standard, e.g. כּוֹבַע, normative stress /koˈvaʕ/, כובע מופיע;בתנ"ך בספר שמואל ובישעיה ושם הוא מוטעם במלעיל, ולכן אי אפשר לומר שבעברית המדוברת שינו את מקום הטעםcolloquial stress /ˈkovaʕ/ "hat"; ְשׁוֹבָך normative stress /ʃoˈvaχ/,??? colloquial stress /ˈʃovaχ/, "dovecote". This isalso common in the colloquial pronunciation of many personal names, for example דָּוִד normative stress /daˈvid/,colloquial stress /ˈdavid/, "David".[15]

Specific rules correlate the location or absence of stress in a syllable with the written representation of vowel lengthand whether or not the syllable ends with a vowel or a consonant.[16] Because spoken Israeli Hebrew does notdistinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are not evident in speech. They usually cannot be inferredfrom written text either, because usually vowel diacritics are omitted. The result is that nowadays stress hasphonemic value, as the following table illustrates: acoustically, the following word pairs differ only in the location ofthe stress; orthographically they differ also in the written representation of the length of the vowels, however ifvowel diacritics are omitted (as is usually the case in Modern Israeli Hebrew) they are written identically:

common spelling(Ktiv Hasar Niqqud)

mil‘él-stressed milrá-stressed

spelling withvowel diacritics

pronunciation translation spelling withvowel diacritics

pronunciation translation

ילד יֶלֶד /ˈjeled/ boy יֵלֵד /jeˈled/ will give birth

אוכל אֹכֶל /ˈoχel/ food אוֹכֵל /oˈχel/ eating (masculinesingular participle)

בוקר בֹּקֶר /ˈbokeʁ/ morning בּוֹקֵר /boˈkeʁ/ cowboy

Little ambiguity exists, however, due to context and syntactic features; compare e.g. the English word "conduct" inits nominal and verbal forms.

VocabularyModern Israeli Hebrew has borrowed many words from Aramaic, Yiddish, Ladino, Arabic (spoken Arabic, mainlyJudeo Arabic and Palestinian Arabic), German, Latin, Greek, Polish, Russian, English and other languages.[citation

needed] Some typical examples are:

Modern Hebrew 7

loanword derivatives origin

Hebrew IPA meaning Hebrew IPA meaning language spelling meaning

ביי /baj/ goodbye English bye

אגזוז /eɡˈzoz/ exhaustsystem

exhaustsystem

דיג׳יי /ˈdidʒej/ DJ לדג׳ה /ledaˈdʒe/ to DJ to DJ

ואללה /ˈwala/ really!? Arabic والله really!?

כיף /kef/ fun לכייף /lekaˈjef/ to have fun[17] كيف pleasure

חפיף /χaˈfif/ lightly להתחפף /lehitχaˈfef/ to scram[18] خَفِيف lightly

אבא /ˈaba/ daddy Aramaic אבא the father

לאלתר /lealˈtar/ immediately לאלתר /lealˈter/ to improvise על אתר right here

חלטורה /χalˈtura/ shoddy job לחלטר /leχalˈter/ to moonlight Russian халтура shoddy work[19]

בלגן /balaˈɡan/ mess לבלגן /levalˈɡen/ to make a mess балаган chaos

תכל׳ס /ˈtaχles/ directly Yiddish תכלית goal

חרופ /χrop/ deep sleep לחרופ /laχˈrop/ to sleep deeply חְרוֹפּ sleep

שפכטל /ˈʃpaχtel/ putty knife German Spachtel putty knife

גומי /ˈɡumi/ rubber גומיה /ɡumiˈja/ rubber band Gummi rubber

גזוז /ɡaˈzoz/ carbonatedbeverage

Turkishfrom

French

gazoz[20]

fromeau gazeuse

carbonatedbeverage

פוסטמה /pusˈtema/ stupid woman Ladino inflamed wound[21]

אדריכל /adriˈχal/ architect אדריכלות /adriχaˈlut/ architecture Akkadian arad-ekalli temple servant[22]

Sources[1] Modern Hebrew reference (http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ language/ heb) at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)[2][2] Laufer A. (1999), "Hebrew", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, Vol. 20.2, England, 1990, pp. 40-43; or Handbook of the

International Phonetic Association 1999, pp. 96-99[3] Blau, Joshua, Tehiyyát ha'ivrít ut'hiyyát ha'aravít hasifrutít: kavím makbilím umafridím (The Renaissance of Hebrew in the Light of the

Renaissance of Standard Arabic) (=Texts and Studies, vol. ix), Jerusalem: The Academy of the Hebrew Language, 1976; Blau, Joshua, TheRenaissance of Modern Hebrew and Modern Standard Arabic: Parallels and Differences in the Revival of Two Semitic Languages (http:/ /books. google. co. il/ books/ about/ The_Renaissance_of_Modern_Hebrew_and_Mod. html?id=EwbvrNRcaNIC& redir_esc=y) (=NearEastern Studies, vol. xviii), Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981.

[4] Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990.[5] Izre'el, Shlomo (2003). "The Emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew." In: Benjamin H. Hary (ed.), Corpus Linguistics and Modern Hebrew:

Towards the Compilation of The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH)", Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University, The Chaim Rosenberg School ofJewish Studies, 2003, pp. 85-104.

[6] Izre'el, Shlomo (1986). "Was the Revival of the Hebrew Language a Miracle? On Pidginization and Creolization Processes in the Creation ofModern Hebrew." Proceedings of the Ninth World Congress for Jewish Studies (http:/ / books. google. co. il/ books/ about/Proceedings_of_the_Ninth_World_Congress. html?id=c8FPAQAAIAAJ& redir_esc=y), Part 4, Vol. 1: Hebrew and Judaic Languages; OtherLanguages. Jerusalem. 1986. 77-84. (In Hebrew)

[7] Goldenberg, Gideon (1996). "Ha'ivrit kelashon shemit xaya." In: Evolution and Renewal: Trends in the Development of the HebrewLanguage. (Publications of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Section of Humanities.) Jerusalem: The Israel Academy ofSciences and Humanities. 148-190. (In Hebrew.)

[8] Kuzar, R. (2001). Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse-Analytic Cultural Study (http:/ / muse. jhu. edu/ login?auth=0& type=summary& url=/journals/ israel_studies/ v007/ 7. 3ben-rafael. html). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.

[9] Zuckermann, Ghil'had (2005). Abba, Why Was Professor Higgins Trying to Teach Eliza to Speak Like Our Cleaning Lady?: Mizrahim,Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language (http:/ / www. zuckermann. org/ pdf/ abba. pdf)

Modern Hebrew 8

[10] Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "Complement Clause Types in Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, edited by R. M. W.Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 72-92.

[11] See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel'sMain Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71.

[12] Ibid., p. 63.[13][13] ibid.[14] Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN

0-19-520521-9.[15] Netser, Nisan, Niqqud halakha le-maase, 1976, p. 11.

[16] These rules are sometimes slightly different for verbs and nouns; thus the stress in the noun דָּבָר (/daˈvar/, "thing") and the verb גָּבַר(/ɡaˈvar/ "to overpower") are both on the last syllable, even though this syllable is pointed with the sign for a long vowel for the noun and fora short vowel for the verb. Modern classification of vowel diacritics according to the vowel length they allegedly denote, however, might notconcur with the historically correct phonological distinction between vowel lengths, see Tiberian vocalization → Full vowels.

[17] Loanwords in Hebrew from Arabic (http:/ / www. safa-ivrit. org/ imported/ arabic. php)[18] morfix dictionary (http:/ / morfix. mako. co. il/ default. aspx?q=�ת�פף& source=milon)[19] Loanwords in Hebrew from Russian (http:/ / www. safa-ivrit. org/ imported/ russian. php)[20] Loanwords in Hebrew from Turkish (http:/ / www. safa-ivrit. org/ imported/ turkish. php)[21] Loanwords in Hebrew from Ladino (http:/ / www. safa-ivrit. org/ imported/ ladino. php)[22] Loanwords in Hebrew from Akkadian (http:/ / www. safa-ivrit. org/ imported/ akkadian. php)

Bibliography• Haiim B. Rosén (1962). A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=d3IqE5f455wC).

University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72603-8.• Gila Freedman Cohen; Carmia Shoval (2011). Easing Into Modern Hebrew Grammar: A User-friendly Reference

and Exercise Book (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-I86twAACAAJ). Magnes Press.ISBN 978-965-493-601-9.

• Ornan, Uzzi (2003). The Final Word: Mechanism for Hebrew Word Generation (http:/ / www. jstor. org/discover/ 10. 2307/ 27913706?uid=3738240& uid=2& uid=4& sid=21103332721927). Haifa University.

• Ben-Ḥayyim, Ze’ev (1992). The Struggle for a Language. Jerusalem: The Academy of the Hebrew Language.

Notes

External links• The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew - introduction (http:/ / humanities. tau. ac. il/ ~cosih/ english/ ) by the

Tel-Aviv University• Hebrew Today - Should You Learn Modern Hebrew or Biblical Hebrew? (http:/ / www. hebrewtoday. com/

content/ should-you-learn-modern-hebrew-or-biblical-hebrew)

References

Article Sources and Contributors 9

Article Sources and ContributorsModern Hebrew  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=597073662  Contributors: AlanM1, Amire80, Angr, Argoscuon, Asher.laufer, Bgwhite, Carps, CasualObserver'48,Crock81, Dan Pelleg, Evildoer187, Evlekis, Garik, Gilgamesh, Grye, Hearfourmewesique, Hertz1888, Hmains, Hvn0413, Iferera, Jfdwolff, JorisvS, Kwamikagami, Lewvalton, Mahmudmasri,Mardhil, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miranche, Mo-Al, Monosig, Nick Number, Noula69, PiMaster3, Sadads, Sirmylesnagopaleentheda, Vcohen, Wbm1058, Wiki Wikardo, Yambaram, YeshuaDavid,Ynhockey, Ypediag, 36 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Israel.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Israel.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: “The Provisional Council of State Proclamation of theFlag of the State of Israel” of 25 Tishrei 5709 (28 October 1948) provides the official specification for the design of the Israeli flag. The color of the Magen David and the stripes of the Israeli flagis not precisely specified by the above legislation. The color depicted in the current version of the image is typical of flags used in Israel today, although individual flags can and do vary. The flaglegislation officially specifies dimensions of 220 cm × 160 cm. However, the sizes of actual flags vary (although the aspect ratio is usually retained).File:Flag of Poland.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Poland.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie, MifterFile:Hebrew vowel chart.svg  Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hebrew_vowel_chart.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rursus

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