Overview Qualitative Research Broad view of features Many
traditions Contrasts with quantitative research Qualtitative method
roadmap Data collection methods Standards of evaluation Mixed
Methods Approaches to mixing Examples
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Research Methods In the social sciences, there are 3 generic
types of research methods Quantitative methods Qualitative methods
Mixed methods blending quantitative and qualitative
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Qualitative Research Focus on making sense of or interpreting
social or human phenomena: experiences, behaviors, organizational
functioning, social movements, interactional relationships,
descriptions of culture Phenomena are studied in their natural
settings Investigators interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings
people bring to them Denzin and Lincoln, 2000.
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Qualitative work: Common features The researcher is the primary
instrument for data collection and analysis Involves fieldwork
Attends to low inference descriptive data
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Qualitative Methods - Traditions TraditionPurposeMethodsAllied
Discipline EthnographyCultural description Intensive
fieldworkAnthropology PhenomenologyExplore lived experience
Analysis of cases to formulate meaning Philosophy Psychology
BiographyMeaning of experience as recorded through story Interviews
and documents exploring the life of an individual Literature
Literary Criticism Grounded Theory Theory development, provide an
explanation Constant comparative method Sociology
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Qualitative Research Attends to description of how vs. how many
Is an inductive and open process: the investigator builds concepts,
hypotheses, and theories from analysis of the data. The data
collection and analysis process is iterative. The investigator
returns to the data with new questions and ideas to explore until
there is a very deep understanding of the phenomenon / issue.
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Assumptions Reality is socially constructed Primacy of subject
*Variables are complex, interwoven and difficult to measure
Relationships between variables are generally described as observed
patterns or cases Assumptions Social facts have an objective
reality Primacy of method *Variables are measured with existing
tools Relationships between variables can be assessed using
standard statistics Qualitative Quantitative
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Purpose Contextualization Interpretation Understanding peoples
perspectives Researchers Role Personal involvement and partiality
Emphatic understanding Design Flexible and emergent Purpose
Generalizable findings Prediction Causal explanations Researchers
Role Detachment and impartiality Objective portrayal Design a
priori and inflexible Qualitative Quantitative
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Purpose Contextualization Interpretation Understanding peoples
perspectives Researchers Role Personal involvement and partiality
Emphatic understanding Design Flexible and emergent Purpose
Generalizable findings Prediction Causal explanations Researchers
Role Detachment and impartiality Objective portrayal Design a
priori and inflexible Qualitative Quantitative
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Approach End with hypotheses and grounded theory Emergence and
portrayal Naturalistic Inductive Searches for patterns Seeks
pluralism, complexity Minor use of numerical indices Thick
description through writing Approach Begins with hypotheses and
theories Manipulation and control Experimentation Deductive
Component analysis Seeks consensus, the norm Reduces all data to
numerical indices Precise technical language, numerical
presentation Qualitative Quantitative
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Questions?
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The Circle of Inquiry Adapted from: Nutting, PA, Stange, KC.
Practice-based research: The opportunity to create a learning
discipline. In: The Textbook of Family Practice, 6th Edition. Rakel
RE (ed.), W. B. Saunders Company, 2001. Search for Existing
Information Focus the Study Question Design the Study Collect Data
Analyze & Interpret Results Disseminate & Implement
Identify Knowledge Gap
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Qualitative Data Collection Methods In-depth interviews
Narratives, detailed responses to probing questions Direct
observation Field notes containing descriptions of activities,
behaviors, actions, interactions, and processes Document analysis
Written documents: records, memoranda, correspondence, reports,
diaries
Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account
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Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account Actively reflecting, Specifically how what
is happening is influencing & shaping the interpretive process.
Determining next steps.
Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account
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Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account Gathering Process
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Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account Analysis Process
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Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account Interpretive Process
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Qualitative Methods Road Map Sampling / Data collection
Describing Organizing Connecting Corroborating / Legitimating
Representing the account Reflexivity
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Questions?
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Standards of Qualitative Research God is in the details. R.
Preston, 1994, p. 298 The devil is in the details. Popular adage.
Frankel, Standards of Qualitative Research. In Doing Qualitative
Research, 2 nd Ed.
Trustworthiness Ways to achieve trustworthiness: Member checks:
recycling interpretation back to the key informants Searching for
disconfirming evidence Triangulation: multiple data sources and
multiple methods Thick description: a thorough description of the
context of the study
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Confirmability Ways to address confirmability: Collection of
data in ways that allow for audits Audio recordings Full
transcripts of interviews Collection of low inference observational
data Engaging a team approach Independent auditors
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Reflexivity Ways to address reflexivity: Document beliefs,
framework, theories underlying approach to the problem before
beginning the data collection. Actively journal reflections,
possible biases/ limitations to lens or gaze. Document how to
overcome limitations to more fully examine phenomena. Engage other
perspectives in team analysis. Report reflexivity in final
product
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Summary: Whats Involved in Qualitative Inquiry Spend time in
the field gathering data Engage in data analysis to reduce raw data
to themes or categories; complex & time-consuming Write
extensively to show multiple perspectives in order to substantiate
findings Participate in a form of research that does not have firm
guidelines or specific procedures, and is evolving and constantly
changing Source: Creswell JW. 1998. Qualitative inquiry and
research design: choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
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Qualitative/Quantitative Both approaches are highly respected
When done well, both contribute equally to the knowledge base When
possible, researchers should blend the methods enriches the data to
enable deeper understanding validates the conclusions from more
than one perspective
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Summary of Quantitative and Qualitative features
FeatureQuantitativeQualitative Role of researcherDetached,
objectiveEngaged PurposeTest hypothesisDescribe; Develop theory
Data collection methodsA priori, structuredFlexible, iterative Data
analysisDeductive, statisticalInductive, iterative leading to more
data collection and revision of question Type of
dataNumbersPredominately Words ProductStatus of hypothesisRich
description; Theory development; A book
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Mixed Methods General consensus that no longer a quantitative
vs. qualitative methods both are necessary.
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Mixed Methods Attack the research problem with an arsenal of
methods that have non-overlapping weaknesses in addition to
complementary strengths. J Brewer & A Hunter Foundations of
multimethod research: Synthesizing styles. Sage 2006. page 4.
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Mixed Methods Scope of mixing methods within study within line
of inquiry within broad topic area
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Approaches to mixing methods Sequential studies Quantitative
Qualitative Qualitative Quantitative
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Approaches to mixing methods Mixing methods in the same study
Dominant/ Less Dominant Secondary method plays a small role
Triangulation Equal weight, both Quantitative and Qualitative data
collected & analyzed in a complementary manner.
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Examples of mixing Data transformation convert data of one type
to the other can be analyzed together. Typology development one
type of data used to develop a typology that is used to drive
analysis with other type of data. Extreme case analysis pursue data
collection or analysis of data of the other type with the intent of
refining the initial explanation for the extreme case.
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Example line of inquiry
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Direct Observation of Primary Care To accurately measure, using
direct observation, the level of preventive services delivered to
eligible patients, and to document the context of the competing
demands of the primary care medical encounter To determine the
optimal non-observational method To use a multimethod approach to
identify and explore which characteristics of the medical
encounter, physicians, patients and the office environment are
associated with delivery of preventive services to eligible
patients
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Direct Observation of Primary Care Cross-sectional observation
of 84 family practices & 4454 patient visits to 138 physicians
in Ohio Direct Observation Davis Observation Code Checklists
Medical Record Reviews Patient Exit questionnaire Billing Data
Practice Environment Checklist Ethnographic Fieldnotes
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Prevention & Competing Demands PI Crabtree Aim: Understand
primary care practice from the ground up through intensive direct
observation of the practice environment and patient care to better
understand how these factors affect preventive service
delivery
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Prevention & Competing Demands In-depth multimethod
comparative case study of 18 family practices & 1,600 visits to
56 clinicians in Nebraska Longer direct observation of practice
environment recorded in checklists and field notes (4-8 weeks of
observation) Direct observation of 30 encounters/clinician recorded
in checklists and field notes Chart audits of patients who were
observed Interviews of all clinicians, most staff, some community
members
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Study To Enhance Prevention by Understanding Practice (STEP-UP)
Randomized clinical trial of 80 family practices in Ohio
Multimethod assessment (MAP) of values, structures, and processes
Patient survey and medical record review to assess preventive
service delivery at 6 month intervals Practice-individualized
intervention
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Doctor-patient communication study Specifically this study aims
to: 1. Characterize the way a teachable moment arises and is
constructed within the patient-physician interaction. 2. Identify
factors that enhance or impede the use of illness visits to provide
health behavior advice. 3. Determine the effectiveness of a
teachable moment for increasing: patient recall of advice,
motivation to modify behavior, and change in health behavior.
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Doctor-patient communication study Graphic representation of
mixing
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Doctor-patient communication study Outputs Primary paper #1
Discovery of the teachable moment communication process. Primary
paper #2 Quantitative testing the association of TM vs. other kinds
of advice with outcomes
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Doctor-patient communication study Embedded example National
Heart Lung & Blood guideline for assessment and treatment of
obesity. - coding template of key guideline elements - audio
recordings, apply template - findings from quantitative prompted
qualitative examination. (Unplanned)
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Mixing methods Expertise/training in methods you want to mix -
team members - consultants - cross training - learning by
doing*
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Summary
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The Power of Qualitative Data Stories are powerful and
memorable. have a concrete, vivid, meaningful flavor that often
proves far more convincing and memorable to a reader another
researcher, a policymaker, a practitioner Reports include
explanations of processes in context and derive explanations Enable
investigators to address complex social issues where little is
understood. Methods push beyond initial conceptions to generate or
revise conceptual frameworks Source: Miles MB, Huberman AM. 1994.
Qualitative data analysis: an expanded sourcebook. 2 nd ed.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Making Decisions about which Methods to Use What is the
research question? What is the goal / purpose of the study? What
kinds of information are needed to answer the Q? When is the
information needed? What resources are available to conduct the
study? Given answers to the preceding questions, what methods are
appropriate? Source: Patton MQ. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and
research methods, 2 nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. p. 12
Qualitative Analysis Affixing codes to interview data and field
notes from observations Noting reflections in the margins Sorting
and sifting through these materials to identify similar phrases,
relationships, patterns, themes, commonalities, & differences
Isolating patterns, processes, commonalities, & differences and
incorporating methods to further explore them into the next wave of
data collection Gradually developing a small set of generalizations
about what consistently appears in the data Confronting those
generalizations with a formalized body of knowledge in the form of
constructs or theories
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Themes of Qualitative Inquiry ThemeDefinition Naturalistic
Inquiry Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally;
non- manipulative; unobtrusive; lack of pre-determined constraints
on outcomes Holistic perspective The whole phenomenon is understood
as a complex system that is more than the sum of its parts; not
reduced to a few discrete variables and cause and effect
relationships Personal contact and insight Direct, close contact
with people, situation, or phenomenon under study; researchers
insights are important to inquiry and understanding Source: Patton
MQ. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research methods, 2 nd ed.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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Themes of Qualitative Inquiry ThemeDefinition Dynamic systems
Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing Unique
case orientation Assumes each case is special and unique; captures
details of individual cases; cross-case analysis follows from
individual case studies Context sensitivity Places findings in a
social, historical, and temporal context; dubious of
generalizations from other times and settings Empathic neutrality
Overriding objective is to understand the subject of investigation
in all its complexity rather than proving, advocating, or advancing
personal agendas Design flexibility Open to adapting inquiry as
understanding deepens and situations change; avoids getting locked
into rigid designs; pursues new paths of discovery as they emerge
Source: Patton MQ. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research
methods, 2 nd ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
