Module 2SCS

7/30/2019 Module 2SCS

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Stimulus-Oriented Approach and Response-Oriented

Approach

Stimulus Oriented Approach: Stress is regarded as an external

force which is perceived as threatening or in other words, anyexternal event or any internal drive which threatens to upset the

organismic equilibrium.

Response Oriented Approach: Describes how stress is reacted to

and how people function under stress. The way it is presumably

experienced is inferred from the response made to it. In otherwords the nature of stress can be best understood in terms of how

people perceive and ascribe meaning to stress producing

situations, the values they give to the actions and the way they

interact with the events.

But the drawback is that Input/Output or Stimulus/ ResponseApproaches ignore ways in which stressors may combine or

interact.

Eg. Hans Selyes General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Model.


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General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)A three stage

model: States that when an organism is confronted with a

threat, the general physiological response occurs in threestages:

Stage 1: Alarm Reaction: It includes an initial shock phase inwhich resistance is lowered, and a counter-shockphase in whichdefensive mechanisms become active. It is characterised by

autonomous excitability, increased heart rate, muscle tone andblood content.

Stage 2: Resistance: Maximum adaptation. The bodily signscharacteristic of the alarm reaction dissappear. Resistanceincreases to levels above normal. If the stressor persists or thedefensive reaction proves ineffective, the organism deteriorates tothe next stage.

Stage 3: Exhaustion: Adaptation energy is exhausted. Signs of thealarm reaction reappear and the resistance level begins to declineirreversibly. The organism collapses.


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Implications and Limitations of GAS

Implications:

Long term exposure to stress is detrimental. All stressors lead to asimilar physiological pattern of response.

No role of perception has been discussed. Does not mention

individual differences.

Limitations: In these experiments stressors are usually physical whereas the

human organism is not always confronted by such stressors.

Social (interpersonal/interactional) factors are major stressors in

human beings. These have not been included in this approach.

Here responses of the subjects have been assumed to be direct,perceptible and measurable. However the responses of different

human beings are always mediated through several layers of

cultural and social filters.


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Pestonjees (1987) Approach:

He recognised the widely held belief that the concept of stressoriginated in the field of structural engineering and physicalsciences which in due course of time has been adopted bybehaviour scientists.

He opines that it is natural and healthy to maintain optimal levelsof stress and that success, achievement, higher productivity and

effectiveness call for stress. It is only when stresses are leftunchecked and unmanaged they can create problems inperformance and affect the health and well-being of the organism.

He has identified 3 important sectors of life in which stressoriginates:

(a) Jobs and the Organisation: Nature of work, atmosphere,colleagues, policies etc.

(b) Social Sector: Religion, caste, language, cultural settings etc.

(c) Intra-psychic Sector: Intimate and personal zone viz.temperament, values, abilities and health.


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BOSS: Burn Out Stress Syndrome (Paine, 1982) BOSS can lead to atleast four types of stress related consequences

such as depletion of energy reserves, lowered resistance to illness,increased dissatisfaction and pessimism and increased absenteeismand inefficiency at work. There are five distinct stages of BOSS:

Stage 1: Honeymoon Stage: This accounts for the euphoric feelingof encounter with the new job such as excitement, enthusiasm,

challenge and pride. Dysfunctional features emerge in two ways:first, energy reserves are gradually depleted in coping with thedemands of a challenging environment. Second, habits andstrategies for coping with stress are formed in this stage which areoften not useful in coping with later strategies.

Stage 2: Fuel Shortage Stage: Feelings of loss, fatigue andconfusion, inefficiency and sleep disturbances arising from theindividuals overdraw on reserves of adaptation energy leading toincreased eating, drinking and smoking.

contd...


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BOSS: Contd.

Stage 3: Chronic Symptom Stage: Physiological symptoms become

more pronounced and demand attention and help at this stage.Common symptoms are chronic exhaustion, physical illness, anger

and depression. A sense of fatigue and exhaustion overtakes the

individual.

Stage 4: Crisis Stage: When these symptoms persist over a period

of time, the individual enters a stage of crisis. EscapeMentalitydevelops and he feels oppressed. Heightened pessimism, self-

doubting tendency, peptic ulcers, tension headaches and chronic

backaches are other characteristics at this stage.

Stage 5: Hitting the Wall Stage: Total exhaustion of ones

adaptation energy which marks the end of ones professionalcareer. Some never recover, others may be resourceful enough to

tide over the crisis.

Rust Out Stress Syndrome: (ROSS): is another phenomenon which

is indicative of the stress underload.


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More advanced approaches: Interactional and

Transactional Interactional Approach: Interaction between stressors and

individual characteristics. Implies that it is not necessary that anindividual perceive a stressor as unpleasant or stressful for it to

have a negative effect.

Usually uses 3 types of measures: Environmental stressors,

Intervening variables, Stress outcomes.

Eg: Karaseks demand -control model.

Transactional Approach: Shifts emphasis from objective stressors

and strains to the process by which an individual appraises a

situation as stressful.

Person appraises situation as stressful-->coping processes->

processes influence persons appraisal --> intensity of the stress

reaction.

Eg. Lazaruss transactional model.


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Lazaruss Interactional - Transactional Model

Lazarus & Folkman (1984):

Propose that the interpretation of stressful events is moreimportant than the events themselves.

It is neither the environmental event nor the persons responsethat defines stress.

It is the individuals perception of the psychological situation thatdefines stress.

Stress is a function of the persons feeling of threat, vulnerability,and ability to cope rather than a function of the stressor.

Distinguish three kinds of appraisals:

Primary appraisal Secondary appraisal

Reappraisal


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Primary appraisal:

It is the initial evaluation of a situation.

3 possible outcomes:

Irrelevant the event has no implication for the individuals well-being.

Benign-positive

the event may increase well-being.

Stressful

the situation is perceived as harmful, threatening, or challenging.

Harmful:

involves actual significant physical or psychological loss.

psychological damage that has already been done.

Threatening: the anticipation of harm or loss.

allows to anticipate and prepare for the future.


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Contd

Challenging:

the event is perceived as stressful.

the focus is on positive excitement. refers to the persons confidence in overcoming difficult demands.

Secondary Appraisal:

Concerned with a persons evaluation of his/her ability to cope with

the situationThe individual asks 3 questions:

which coping options are available?

the likelihood that one can apply the strategy.

the likelihood that any given options will work: will it reducestress?

Reappraisal:continuous reappraisal on the basis of new information

identical to the initial process.

may lead to more stress.


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Coping StrategiesLazarus and Folkman (1984)

Coping strategies are constantly changing cognitive andbehavioural efforts to manage specific internal and/or external

demands that are appraised as exceeding the resources of theperson.

Several important elements of the definition:

Coping is a process of constant evaluation of the success ofonesstrategies.

Coping is learned as one encounters situations and requires

efforts. Coping is an effort to manage. Success is not contingent on

mastery, just good enough.

It includes:

Health & energy

Positive belief the ability to cope is enhanced when people believe they can

successfully bring about desired consequences

Problem-solving ski l ls

having specific knowledge or abilities related to specific problem


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Contd

Social ski ll s

ability to get other people to cooperate

Social support feeling of being accepted, loved, or prized by others

Mater ial Resources

Problem Focussed Coping

consists of changing the situation

redefining the problem

looking at alternative solutions

evaluating the implications of the alternatives

choosing the best one to act on

Emotion-focussed coping

consists of controlling and possibly changing the emotional

response to an event cognitive responses such as avoidance or minimization

the goal is to decrease emotional distress

often used when the individual feels that nothing can be doneabout the situation


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Summary

In other words, Coping refers to behaviours following a stressfulencounter designed to help deal with the encounter.

These strategies are defined independently of outcome ofsuccess/failure.

There is also the idea of anticipatory or proactive coping.

Trying to anticipate potential problems sees active coping asbetter than avoidance or reappraisal.

Coping can be defined as either state or trait. Personality and coping states: Daily diaries find that personality

and coping states are linked.

Even within stress transactions people will report levels of positivemood.

Positive affect is beneficial Associated with creative problem

solving, broadens attention, reduces negative physiological aspectsof stress.

Coping and positive affect means positive reappraisal, infusingordinary events with positive meaning.

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Module 2SCS