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ENGLISH LANGUAGE II
MODULE 3
CLAUSES 2
Adverb clauses, participle
clauses, dangling clauses and
absolute constructions
Explanations
Text Organisers
There are many features of texts which help the reader understand how theinformation in the text is organised.
This term covers a wide range of words and phrases which make text easier tounderstand. A selection is given here.
• Adding a pointAs well as the obvious dangers, there was the weather to be considered.In addition to the obvious dangers, there was the weather to be considered.Not only were there the obvious dangers, but there was also the weather to beconsidered.
m Developing a pointBesides/furthermore/in addition/moreover/what's more/on top of that/tomake matters worse, smoking has been directly linked to lung cancer.
• ContrastThe identity of the attacker is known to the police. However/nevertheless/an thesame no name has been released.The identity of the attacker is known to the police. No name has, however/all thesame, been released.(Al)though/while/even though/despite the fact that the identity of the attackeris known to the police, no name has been released.The identity of the attacker is known to the police. A name has nevertheless/nonethe less/still not been released.No, I didn't say the President got it wrong. On the contrary, I think he's handledthe affair superbly.I prefer city life as opposed to country life.I prefer city life, whereas John prefers country life.Donahue established his reputation as a novelist. In contrast, his new book is anon-fiction work.
• Explaining reasonsThe government does not intend to cause any further provocation.As a result/'accordingly'/thus/hence/'consequently'/for that reason, all troopshave been withdrawn.The employers have promised to investigate these complaints, and we in turn haveagreed to end the strike.
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A D V A N C E D L A N G U A G E P R A C T I C E
Making generalisationsBroadly speaking, generally speaking, on the whole, by and large, to alarge/some/a certain extent, this has been an encouraging year for the company.
StartingThat's absolute rubbish! For a start/first of all/in the first place/for one thing,it was Rod who said that, not me. And secondly ...
Giving new informationShe then turned to Henry, who incidentally/by the way is now about two metrestall, and said ...By the way/incidentally, do you remember an old friend of ours called Ransom?
Concession/qualificationOK, so you two have had a few problems. Even so/all the same, I don't see whyyou need to split up.Lancaster is a man of great personal integrity. Having said that/even so/all thesame, I don't think he'd make a good chairman.
RealityWhat did you think of'Death in Action'?To be (perfectly) honest/to tell the truth, I can't stand films like that.
168 3
G R A M M A R 27 L INKING W O R D S AND P H R A S E S
1 Underline the correct word or phrase in each sentence.
a) A: Did you ring the hospital for me?B: I forgot as a result/to be honest/to make matters worse. I'll do it now.
b) A lot of adults are very wary of learning in a school situation. For thatreason/On the other hand/To tell the truth they don't sign up for our courses.
c) By and large/Despite the fact that/Owing to I'm very pleased with their work onour home. At any rate/'Accordingly'/Having said that, I think they could havemade a better job of the painting.
d) I missed two weeks' training because of flu last month. To put it anotherway/As a result/To tell the truth, I'm not expecting to run very well in today'srace.
e) They've had a very difficult time. On top of that/At any rate/To start with, theirhome was burgled.
f) What a terrible experience! Anyway/In contrast/By the way, you're safe now -that's the main thing!
g) She's a sociable girl with lots of friends. Even so/Furthermore/To some extent,she can get lonely, like anyone else.
h) He comes across as being very full of himself, in contrast/broadlyspeaking/whereas he's actually a very nice guy.
i) Nonetheless/On the whole/Hence I agree with what you're saying, but I'm notsure about your last point.
j) I seem to be giving the impression that I didn't enjoy my time in Norway.After all/Having said that/On the contrary, I had a wonderful time.
2 Underline the most suitable word or phrase to complete each sentence.
a) They've got a terrible record over tax and education. Nevertheless/On the otherhand, I still think the Democrats will win the election.
b) Balding's 'People in the Sky' is a very disappointing painting. At any rate/Incontrast, Rae's 'Beach Scene' really brings this exhibition to life.
c) I would like to complain about the way I was treated in your shop. For onething/Besides, the assistant was rude ...
d) Our dining room is a place which we keep strictly for eating, as opposedto/whereas the sitting room, which is for sitting, talking and watching TV.
e) We saw the Eiffel Tower, the Seine and the Louvre, what's more/as well asEurodisney.
f) The country's economy depends to a large extent/at least on the touristindustry.
g) I'm here on business in addition/as opposed to pleasure.h) The weather is likely to be dry and warm. In the far north-west of Scotland,
however/whereas, it will be wet and windy.
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A D V A N C E D L A N G U A G E P R A C T I C E
Read the interview and decide which answer (A, B or C) best fits each space.
Interviewer: The recent scandal involving your finance minister has done littleto restore public confidence in the government.
Minister: (1) ...C , I think the 'scandal', as you call it, has shown us to be avery moral party. The minister concerned resigned his post and showed
great contrition for what he'd done.Int: (2) , a scandal is a scandal. (3) , a senior minister accepts a
large donation on behalf of his party from the entrepreneur RobertTivwell, then five weeks later, Tivwell's company, which (4) just
happens to be nearly bankrupt, wins a contract with the government
worth millions of pounds.Min: Well, as I say, the minister has resigned, (5) I should point out that
there is technically nothing illegal about what he did.Int: Yes, there is, minister. It's called bribery.
Min: Well you can call it that if you want. I prefer to call it 'sharp practice'(6) But it happens, it's always happened, and I'm sure it'llcontinue to happen. (7) , we will not condone this kind of
financial dealing and will continue to stamp down on it.Int: This is pure double talk!Min: No that's not true. (8) we take such matters extremely seriously. But
we are realistic enough to know that we can't eliminate them altogether.
You see, there is nothing to stop people or companies making donationsto parties - (9) if we didn't have such money, we wouldn't be ableto survive. It's just that the timing of such payments can be unfortunate.
So each case has to be investigated on its merits. But (10) , thispractice is causing less controversy than it has done under previous
governments.
1) A Incidentally2) A Even so3) A By and large4) A in contrast5) A despite6) A anyway7) A Having said that8) A As a result9) A although
10) A in contrast
B First of allB As a matter of factB ConsequentlyB incidentallyB althoughB furthermoreB MoreoverB As a matter of factB thusB in addition
C On the contraryC HenceC First of allC at any rateC whereasC to be honestC To make matters worseC To some extentC indeedC broadly speaking
170 5
G R A M M A R 27 L INKING W O R D S AND P H R A S E S
Read the text and decide which answer (A, B or C) best fits each space.
Starting your own business could be the way to achieving financial
independence. (1) ..B it could just as well land you in debt for the rest of
your life. (2) , that is the view of Charles and Brenda Leggat, a Scottish
couple, who last week saw their fish farm business put into the hands of the
receiver. 'We started the business at a time when everyone was being
encouraged by the banks to borrow money. (3) , we fell into the same
trap, and asked for a big loan. (4) , at the time we were sure that we
could make it into a going concern,' said Charles Leggat, a farmer from the
Highlands. The bank analysed the proposals we put forward and they agreed
that it would be a highly profitable business.' Sure enough, within five years the
Leggats were exporting trout and salmon products to hotels all over Europe, and
(5) they took on over fifty staff. (6) , with the advent of the
recession, they began to lose ground as orders dried up. '(7) , said Brenda
Leggat, 'the business has now been valued by the bank at a fraction of its true
worth. If they had left us to work our way out of our difficulties, (8)
virtually bankrupting us, I am sure that we could have gone back into profit. As
it is, we have been left without a livelihood, and the bank has not recovered
what it lent us.' The Leggats both felt that their banks had not treated them
fairly. '(9) , they were falling over themselves to lend us the money
initially, (10) now they are doing very little to keep the business going,
and fifty local people in work.' A spokesman for the bank concerned refused to
comment.
1) A Moreover2) A At least3) A Incidentally4) A To put it another way5) A what's more6) A Hence7) A In contrast8) A as opposed to9) A However
10) A as well as
B On the other handB HoweverB At any rateB NeverthelessB on the other handB ConsequentlyB WhereasB as well asB To tell the truthB whereas
C As well asC To make matters worseC As a resultC In contrastC to tell the truthC HoweverC To make matters worseC in addition toC As a resultC on the other hand
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Transitional Words and Devices TWC
1 Copyright© 2008, TWC, University of Victoria. This copy is solely for the use by a student, staff, or faculty member. Any other use may be an infringement of copyright if done without securing the permission of the copyright owners.
Transitions for purpose For this purpose In order to To that end In order that So that To this end
Transitions for argument or proof Accordingly Admittedly Although At this level Because Besides But Certainly Clearly, then Consequently
Despite Even so Even though Evidently For For the same reason Furthermore Granted However
In addition In any case In conclusion Indeed In fact In light of this evidence In summary Meanwhile Moreover
Nevertheless Nonetheless Obviously Of course On the one hand… On the other hand Regardless Since That is
Therefore Thus To be sure Truly Whatever the case may be What’s more
Transitions for exemplification, illustration, addition or clarification Additionally Again Also And then As an illustration Besides Besides that Case in point Equally important Finally First Following this further For example
For instance Further Furthermore Generally speaking i.e., (that is) In addition In another case In general In other words In particular In the same way In this case In this situation Like
More importantly Moreover Most importantly One characteristic… Another characteristic One example… another example One kind… another kind One way… Another way On this occasion Point in fact Pursuing this further
Specifically Such as Take the case of That is to say The final type The first (second, third) category The last group The most important component The most important example… The next example
The next part To add To clarify To demonstrate To explain To illustrate To put it another way To rephrase it What’s more
Transitions for emphasis or repetition Absolutely Always As I have noted As I have said As has been noted Assuredly By all means
Certainly Definitely Emphatically Eternally Extremely Forever In any case
In brief Indeed In fact Naturally Never Nobody denies No doubt
Obviously Of course Perennially Positively Surely Surprisingly To be sure
To repeat Undeniably Undoubtedly Unquestionably Without a doubt Without reservation
Transitions for comparison and contrast Although After all As Balanced against But By comparison Compared to Conversely
Despite Even though However In comparison In contrast In the same way In spite of Like
Likewise Meanwhile Nevertheless Nonetheless Of course Once in a while On the contrary On the one
hand…. On the other hand Otherwise Similarly Still Though Unlike Up against
Vis à vis Where Whereas While Yet
21
Transitional Words and Devices TWC
2 Copyright© 2008, TWC, University of Victoria. This copy is solely for the use by a student, staff, or faculty member. Any other use may be an infringement of copyright if done without securing the permission of the copyright owners.
Transitions for concession and exception Admittedly Although this may be true Certainly Despite
Granted However In spite of It is true that Maybe
Nevertheless Nonetheless Of course Of course, it is true that
Once in a while Perhaps Regardless Sometimes Still
Though To be sure True Yet
Transitions for cause and effect Accordingly Another cause Another effect As a result
Because Consequently For For that reason
For this reason On account of Since So
The first (second, third) cause / effect The most
important cause / effect Therefore
Transitions for narration and process After After a few hours (days, months, years) After that Afterwards Almost Always As As soon as
At first At last At the same time Before Before long By this time Earlier Eventually Finally First… second…
third Firstly… secondly… thirdly Formerly Frequently Immediately In the first place In the meantime Later Later on
Meanwhile Nearly Never Next Now Once Previously Soon Subsequently The first
(second, third) step The next step The last step Then Thereafter Two hours (days, months, years) later When/While
Transitions for description Above Behind Below Between
Beyond In In back of In front of
Inside Nearby Next to On
On one side… On the other side Outside Over
The least important The most important Under
Transitional chains Basically... similarly... as well First(ly)... second(ly)... third(ly)... Generally... furthermore... finally In the first place... also... lastly In the first place... just in the same way... finally
In the first place... pursuing this further... finally In the light of the... it is easy to see that In this case… in another case To be sure... additionally... lastly
Transitions for conclusion or summarization Accordingly As a result As I have said As I have shown Consequently
Finally Hence In brief In conclusion Indeed
In final analysis In final consideration In general In sum
In summary Lastly On the whole Summing up To conclude
To summarize To sum up Therefore Thus
References
Kirszner, L.G. & Mandell, S.R. (2006).Writing first: Practice in context (3rd ed.). Boston , MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. The OWL at Purdue (2007). Transitional devices. Retrieved November 1, 2007, from
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/02/ Transition words (n.d.). Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://larae.net/write/transition.html The Writing Centre at the University of Wisconsin – Madison (2006). Using transitions. Retrieved November 1, 2007,
from www.wisc.edu/writing/Handbook/Transitions.html
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READING – Transitional Words and Phrases: Showing Relationships Within and Between Sentences rev. July 2005
TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS WITHIN AND BETWEEN SENTENCES
Transitional words and phrases connect and relate ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. They assist in the logical flow of ideas as they signal the relationship between sentences and paragraphs. In prose, the material is supported and conditioned not only by the ordering of the material (its position) but by connectives which signal order, relationship and movement. Some of the more commonly used connectives are listed below. Note especially how these connections function to develop, relate, connect and move ideas. 1. To signal addition of ideas and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover, in addition,
then, of equal importance, equally important, another 2. To signal time next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now, subsequently,
then, when, soon, thereafter, after a short time, the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length, ultimately, presently
3. To signal order or sequence first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on, to begin with, last of all, after, before, as soon as, in the end, gradually
4. To signify space and place above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right (left), nearby, opposite, on the other side, in the background, directly ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the tip, across the hall, at this point, adjacent to
5. To signal an example for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as, moreover, furthermore, just as important, similarly, in the same way
6. To show results as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence, consequently, thus, since, therefore, for this reason, because of this
7. To signal purpose to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason, for these reasons
8. To signal comparisons like, in the same (like) manner or way, similarly 9. To indicate contrast but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless, nonetheless,
yet, and yet, on the other hand, of course, on the contrary, or, in spite of this, actually, a year ago, now, notwithstanding, for all that, strangely enough, ironically
10. To signal alternatives, exceptions, and objections
although, though, while, despite, to be sure, it is true, true, I grant, granted, I admit, admittedly, doubtless, I concede, regardless
11. To dispute it isn’t true that, people are wrong who say that, deny that, be that as it may, by the same token, no doubt, we often hear it said, many people claim, many people suppose, it used to be thought, in any case
12. To intensify above all, first and foremost, importantly, again, to be sure, indeed, in fact, as a matter of fact, as I have said, as has been noted
13. To summarize or repeat in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally, on the whole, therefore, as I have said, in conclusion, as you can see
Additionally, pronouns act as connectives when they are used to refer to a noun in the preceding sentences. Repetition of key words and phrases and the use of synonyms which echo important words both serve to establish connections with previous sentences.
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26 The participles 245
26 The participles
272 The present (or active) participle
A Form
The infinitive + ing, e.g. working, loving, sitting.
В Use
1 To form the continuous tenses (see 164, 178 etc.):
He is working. You’ve been dreaming.
2 As adjectives (see 17):
running water floating wreckage
dripping taps leaking pipes
Here there is equal stress on participle and noun. Compare with gerund + noun combinations (see 16).
3 After have + object (see 121):
He had me swimming in a week.
We have people standing on our steps all day.
I won’t have him cleaning his bike in the kitchen.
4 A present participle can sometimes replace a relative pronoun + verb (see 77):
a map that marks/marked political boundaries = a map marking political boundaries
people who wish/wished to visit the caves = people wishing to visit the caves
children who need/needed medical attention = children needing medical attention
5 Present participles/participle phrases such as adding/pointing out/ reminding/warning can introduce
statements in indirect speech:
He told me to start early, reminding me that the roads would be crowded. (See 324 C.)
The above uses have already been dealt with. The present participle can also be used:
6 After verbs of sensation (see 273).
7 After catch/find/leave + object (see 274).
8 After go, come, spend, waste, be busy (see 275).
9 Present participles can sometimes replace subject + verb in other main or subordinate clauses other than
those mentioned above (see 276-7).
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26 The participles 246
273 Present participle after verbs of sensation
A The basic verbs of sensation see, hear, feel, smell, and the verbs listen (to), notice and watch can be
followed by object + present participle:
I see him passing my house every day.
Didn’t you hear the clock striking?
I felt the car skidding.
She smelt something burning and saw smoke rising.
I watched them rehearsing the play.
The action in the present participle may be either complete or incomplete: I saw him changing the wheel could
mean that I watched the whole action or that I saw only part of it.
В see, hear, feel and sometimes listen (to), notice and watch can
also be followed by object + bare infinitive:
We saw him leave the house.
I heard him make arrangements for his journey.
The infinitive implies that the action is complete. I saw him change the wheel means that I saw the whole action.
С Comparison of the two forms
The participle is the more generally useful as it can express both complete and incomplete actions. But the
infinitive is useful when we want to emphasize that the action is complete. It is also neater than the participle
when there is a succession of actions:
I saw him enter the room, unlock a drawer, take out a document, photograph it and put it back.
D In the passive the full infinitive is used after verbs of the senses: He was heard to say that the minister had
been bribed.
274 catch, find, leave + object + present participle
A catch/find:
I caught them stealing my apples. (I found them doing this.)
If she catches you reading her diary, she’ll be furious.
The action expressed by the participle is always one which displeases the subject.
With find there is no feeling of displeasure:
I found him standing at the door = I saw him standing/He was standing at the door when I arrived.
With find the object could be inanimate:
He found a tree lying across the road.
В leave can be used with a participle: I left him talking to Bob = He was talking to Bob when I left.
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26 The participles 247
275 go, come, spend, waste, be busy
A go and come
go and come can be followed by the participles of verbs of physical activity and the verb shop:
They are going riding/skiing/sailing.
Come dancing. I’m going shopping this afternoon.
(For go and come followed by infinitives of purpose, see 335.)
В spend/waste + an expression of time or money + present participle:
He spends two hours (a day) travelling.
He doesn’t spend much time preparing his lessons.
We wasted a whole afternoon trying to repair the car.
He spent a lot of money modernizing the house.
С be busy + present participle: She is/was busy packing.
276 A present participle phrase replacing a main clause
The participle constructions in A and В below are chiefly used in written English.
A When two actions by the same subject occur simultaneously it is usually possible to express one of them by
a present participle. The participle can be before or after the finite verb:
He rode away. He whistled as he went. = He rode away whistling.
He holds the rope with one hand and stretches out the other to the boy in the water = Holding, the rope with
one hand, he stretches etc.
В When one action is immediately followed by another by the same subject the first action can often be
expressed by a present participle. The participle must be placed first:
He opened the drawer and took out a revolver = Opening the drawer he took out a revolver.
She raised the trapdoor and pointed to a flight of steps = Raising the trapdoor she pointed to a flight of steps.
We take off our shoes and creep cautiously along the passage = Taking off our shoes we creep cautiously along
the passage.
It would seem more logical here to use the perfect participle and say Having opened, Having raised, Having
taken off, but this is not necessary except when the use of the present participle might lead to ambiguity. Eating
his dinner he rushed out of the house would give the impression that he left the house with his plate in his hand.
Here, therefore, it would be better to say Having eaten his dinner ...
С When the second action forms part of the first, or is a result of it, we can express the second action by a
present participle:
She went out, slamming the door.
He fired, wounding one of the bandits.
I fell, striking my head against the door and cutting it. (Here we have three actions, the last two expressed by
participles.)
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The participle need not necessarily have the same subject as the first verb:
The plane crashed, its bombs exploding as it hit the ground.
277 A present participle phrase replacing a subordinate clause
These constructions are chiefly found in written English.
The present participle can replace as/since/because + subject + verb, i.e. it can help to explain the action which
follows:
Knowing that he wouldn’t be able to buy food on his journey he took large supplies with him = As he knew etc.
Fearing that the police would recognize him he never went out in daylight = As he feared etc.
Note that being at the beginning of a sentence will normally mean ‘as he is/as he was’:
Being a student he was naturally interested in museums = Because/As he was a student etc.
It could not mean ‘while he was a student".
The subject of the participle need not be the same as the subject of the following verb:
The day being fine, we decided to go swimming.
In cases like this the participle must follow its noun/pronoun. Being fine the day, we decided ... is incorrect, but
Being athletic, Tom found the climb quite easy is all right, as Tom is the subject of both the participle and the
following verb.
It is possible to use two or more participles, one after the other:
Realizing that he hadn’t enough money and not wanting to borrow from his father, he decided to pawn his
watch.
Not knowing the language and having no friends in the town, he found it hard to get work.
278 The perfect participle (active)
A Form
having + past participle, e.g. having done, having seen.
В Use
The perfect participle can be used instead of the present participle in sentences of the type shown in 276 В (i.e.
where one action is immediately followed by another with the same subject):
Tying one end of the rope to his bed, he threw the other end out of the window = Having tied one end of the
rope to his bed, he threw the other end out of the window.
The perfect participle emphasizes that the first action is complete before the second one starts, but is not
normally necessary in combinations of this kind, except when the use of the present participle might lead to
confusion. Reading the instructions, he snatched up the fire extinguisher might give the impression that the two
actions were simultaneous. Here, therefore, the perfect participle would be better:
Having read the instructions, he snatched up the fire extinguisher.
The perfect participle is, however, necessary when there is an interval of time between the two actions:
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26 The participles 249
Having failed twice, he didn’t want to try again. It is also used when the first action covered a period of time:
Having been his own boss for such a long time, he found it hard to accept orders from another.
279 The past participle (passive) and the perfect participle (passive)
A Form
The past participle of regular verbs is formed by adding ed or d to the infinitive, e.g. worked, loved.
For the past participle of irregular verbs, see chapter 39.
В Use
1 As an adjective:
stolen money a written report fallen trees
broken glass tired drivers blocked roads.
2 To form the perfect tenses/infinitives and participles and the passive voice:
he has seen to have loved it was broken
3 The past participle can replace a subject + passive verb just as the present participle can replace subject +
active verb:
She enters. She is accompanied by her mother. = She enters, accompanied by her mother.
He was aroused by the crash and leapt to his feet = Aroused by the crash, he leapt to his feet.
The bridge had been weakened by successive storms and was no longer safe = Weakened by successive storms,
the bridge was no longer safe or Having been weakened etc. (see below).
As he was convinced that they were trying to poison him, he refused to eat anything = Convinced that they were
trying to poison him, he refused to eat anything.
С The perfect participle passive (having been + past participle) is used when it is necessary to emphasize that
the action expressed by the participle happened before the action expressed by the next verb:
Having been warned about the bandits, he left his valuables at home. (He had been warned etc.)
Having been bitten twice, the postman refused to deliver our letters unless we chained our dog up. (He had
been bitten etc.)
280 Misrelated participles
A participle is considered to belong to the noun/pronoun which precedes it:
Tom, horrified at what he had done, could at first say nothing.
Romeo, believing that Juliet was dead, decided to kill himself.
A man carrying a large parcel got out of the bus.
Note that the participle may be separated from its noun/pronoun by a main verb:
Jones and Smith came in, followed by their wives.
She rushed past the policeman, hoping he wouldn’t ask what she had in her suitcase.
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26 The participles 250
If there is no noun/pronoun in this position the participle is considered to belong to the subject of the following
main verb:
Stunned by the blow, Peter fell heavily. (Peter had been stunned.)
Believing that he is alone, the villain expresses his thoughts aloud.
If this principle is disregarded confusion results. Waiting for a bus a brick fell on my head makes it appear that
the brick was waiting for a bus, which is nonsense. A participle linked in this way to the wrong noun/pronoun is
said to be ‘misrelated’. The above sentence should be rewritten As I was waiting for a bus a brick fell on my
head.
Other examples of misrelated participles:
When using this machine it must be remembered ...
Correct form:
When using this machine you must remember ...
Believing that I was the only person who knew about this beach, the sight of someone else on it annoyed me
very much.
Correct form:
As I believed I was the only person etc. or
Believing that I was the only person on the beach, I was annoyed by the sight of someone else.
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o E
The story of Hingis and her mother provides a classic I
dilemma for De Picciotto and his Advantage team: the media
are invaluable allies in establishing an athlete's name but they
can also make life very difficult. 'It is unfortunate that J everything is so public, ' he says. 'It's always easier to work
through any relationship issue if the discussions can remain ,
entirely among the people concerned. At Wimbledon, though, ,
not only is there an open window to these tennis players' lives, i but the window has different filters on it depending on who
writes the story. What the public decides depends largely on the
Was he, like the rest of us, unaware that Hingis's mother
would be missing? 'We wouldn't be doing our job very well
and the relationship wouldn't be very good if there were any surprises.'
~-'~---T~~~-~~~~>~~'~--'~"-'_'~ __ ~~
way the information is presented to them.' )
~. -.~~ ---.--~ -- --~--",.,..,,~=,..
e 1111 Work in groups. Discuss these questions:
• Which of the adjectives in 1.4 B would best describe Martina and Phil? • What kinds of sacrifices does a top athlete or sportsperson have to make? • Do you know anyone who is a keen athlete? Describe them. • What is your attitude to commercial sponsorship of sports events? • How are professional sportspeople different from amateurs? • Do you take part in sports for enjoyment, for exercise - or to win? Give your reasons.
Using participles ADVANCED GRAMMAR
o 11 Working in pairs, explain the difference in meaning (or emphasis) between these pairs of
sentences:
1 Standing at the top of the hill, I could see my friends in the distance. I could see my friends in the distance standing at the top of the hill.
2 While preparing the meal, he listened to the radio. While listening to the radio, he prepared the meal.
3 Finding the window broken, we realised someone had broken into the flat. We realised someone had broken into the flat, finding the window broken.
4 Before preparing the meal he consulted a recipe book. Mter consulting a recipe book he prepared the meal.
5 Crawling across the road, I saw a large green snake. I saw a large green snake crawling across the road.
G Study these examples before doing the exercises on the next page:
Participles tend to be used more in formal written style than in colloquial English.
There are two forms of active participles: You find yourself thinking about what you are going to have for dinner or singing
to yourself. Having thus established that no good at all can come of any sort of endeavour .. .
and three forms of passive participles: Being warned about the approaching storm, they made for the coast. Warned about the imminent storm, they prepared for the worst. Having been warned about the impending storm, they foolishly pressed on.
2 PartiCiples are used to describe simultaneous or consecutive actions: We sat on the beach watching the windsurfers falling into the water. When writing new words in your notebook, write an example in a sentence. Dressed in his smartest clothes, he arrived early for the interview. Getting to the beach, we looked for an uncrowded spot. [BUT NOT: We looked for an uncrowded spot, getting to the beach. Xl Having got to the beach, we found some sunbeds to lie on. Having recently interviewed Mark McCormack ...
and to explain reasons or causes: Not being an expert, I can't teach you how to windsurf. Being a poor swimmer, I don't go out beyond my depth.
19
30
20
3 Participles can also be used after these words:
after as before if on once since when
After losing the match, she was heart-broken. All musical instruments, if played properly, hurt.
whenever
Once opened, this product should be consumed within 24 hours.
unless
When using a dictionary, remember that the examples given are often more helpful than the definitions.
4 Normally the subject of a participle is the same as the subject of the main verb: Waiting for the bus, I saw him in his new car. (= I was waiting for the bus when I saw him in his new car.)\
But in some cases the context makes the meaning clear:
until
Being difficult to play means that learning the piano could make you vulnerable to a syndrome known as Lipchitz's Dilemma .
e Using participles of these verbs, complete the sentences below:
arrange arrive complete finish lift reach require shake
1 As ... ................. , we ' ll meet outside the cinema at S o 'clock. 2 H e has been feeling terribly hom esick ever since. .. in this country. 3 On .................... home, I went straight to my room. 4 .... by her indifference, he burst into tears. 5 H aving ... the game, they shook hands. 6 U nless . . .. la ter, the key sh ould be returned to the reception desk. 7 Remember to use block capitals when . . ......... the application form. S Remember to bend your knees, not your back, wheneve r
something heavy.
(i) Finish these sentences, with each one still meaning the same as the one before it:
1 I haven't got a car, which is why I usually travel by bus. Not ............... .. ......... . 2 The demonstrators chanted loudly as they marched into the square. Chanting 3 They turned back when they found their way blocked by the police. Finding 4 I heard that he collects butterflies and asked him to tell me about it. Having 5 None of her friends turned up outside the cinema, so she went home. Finding 6 As I don 't know much about art, I can 't comment on your painting. Not ........ . 7 If you drink coffee too quickly, it can give you hiccups. Drunk 8 I went to bed early because I felt a bit under the weather. Feeling ................ ..
G Having spotted the mistakes in these sentences, rewrite them correctly:
1 Looking OfAt of my window) there was a. crowd of people in the street . 2 Wearing bright yeUow erofAsers ) we thOfAght he looked ridicv.lofAs. 3 Being ra.ther ta.tt for his a.ge his faiher tre&s him like an adtAU. 4 Ha.ving been giving sw;h a. wa.rm wela;me he feJj; very pleased. 5 SiJiing together I sw three r;;td men ~g C4rds. 6 If washing in hot wa.ter this ga.rment wiii shrink.
4) 1 Using your own ideas, add suitable participles to this story:
On I my eyes, I knew that I was in a strange, dark room.
still be dreaming, I pinched myself to see if I was still asleep, but,
2 that I might
3 that I really
was awake I began to feel afraid. I felt my way to the door, but it was locked. I tried to
call for help but, after 4 for several minutes, I knew no one could hear me.
S to the window, and cautiously 6 the shutters, I discovered that the
window was barred and, 7 outside, all I could see was darkness. My heart sank.
8 with an apparently hopeless situation, I sat down 9 what to do. I
remained there 10 on the bed in silent desperation for several minutes.
Suddenly, 11 a key being turned in the lock, I ...
2 Add THREE more sentences, continuing the story with your own ideas .. .
31
1 120 Syntactic and semantic functions of subordinate clauses
when, and by when are also used as sentential relatives:
She joined the editorial staffof a local newspaper, since when she has contributed to various monthlies. (esp BrE)
The status of the sentential relative clause is somewhat anomalous. Semantically it is similar to comment clauses that are content disjuncts; compare which surprises me in [3] above with the comment clause what surprises me. However, the which-clause cannot be initial, while the what- clause must be. On the other hand, it is similar toother nonrestrictive relative clauses in that it follows its antecedent and in that it can be most nearly paraphrased by a coordinate clause in which the +vh-word is replaced by a demonstrative such as that; for example the relative clause in [4] can be replaced by and that makes Colin and me double in-laws, and the one in [6] by and in that case there's no point in our waiting.
Note [a] There are several archaic compounds:with ~vhere- that introduce sentential relative clauses. They have themeaning'in consequenceofwhich'or'after which': wherealier, whereat, wherefire, wherewith. [b] The sentential relative clause is closest to the continuative nonrestrictive relative clause such as:
Tom lent the book to Sue, who lent it to Pat, who returned it to Tom. ['. . . and she lent it to Pat, and she returned it to Tom.']
[c] Although the sentential relative clause is generally fixed in final position, it is occasionally found in medial position in informal conversation:
Marvin and Terry - which is something I'll neuer understand- were quarrelling within a month of their marriage and were separated within three months.
I
onf fin id and verbless adverbial clauses
The attachnient rule for identifying the subject 15.58 In our discusbion of the grammatical functions and semantic roles of
adverbial clau$es, we have frequently ci'fed examples of nonfinite and verbless clauses. We conclude our discussion of adverbial clauses with a consideration of matters that particularly affect nonfinite and verbless clauses.
Nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses that have an overt subject but are not introduced by a subordinator and are not the complement of a preposition are ABSOLUTE lauses, so termed because they are not explicitly bound to the f matrix clause syntactically. Absolute clauses may be -ing, -ed, or verbless clauses, but not infinitive clauses:
No further discussion arising, the meeting was brought to a close. [l] Lunchfinished, the guests retired to the lounge. [2] Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with
excitement. I31
Apart from a few stereotyped phrases (cf Note [b] below), absolute clauses are formal and infrequent.
Nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses 11 21
When a subject is not present in a nonfinite or verbless clause, the normal ATTACHMENT RULE for identifying the subject is that it is assumed to be identical in reference to the subject of the superordinate clause:
The oranges, when (they are) ripe, are picked and sorted mechanically. l41
In -ed and verbless clauses with a subordinator such as [4], an ellipsis of the subject and operator may be postulated. In other cases, a paraphrase by a finite clause reveals that the subordinate clause subject is identical with the superordinate clause subject. The attachment rule is commonly given for participle clauses, but it applies equally to infinitive and verbless clauses:
Persuaded by our optimism, he gladly contributed time and money to the scheme. ['Since he was persuaded. . .']
Driving home after work, Iaccidentally went through a red light. ['While I was driving home after work. . .']
Confident of thejustice of their cause, they agreed to put their case before an arbitration panel. ['Since they were confident. . .'l
To climb the rock face, we had to take various precautions. ['So that we could climb. . .'l
Note [a) As We see from the examples above, tense, aspect, A d mood are also inferred in nonfinite and verbless clauses from the sentential context, cf 14.8. [b] Stereotyped absolute clauses include present company excepted, all told, weatherltime permit- ting, God willing.
Unattached nonfinite and verbless clauses 15.59 It is considered to be an error when the understood subject of the clause is
not identifiable with the subject of the matrix clause, and perhaps does not appear in the sentence at all:
?Driving to Chicago that night, a sudden thought struck me. [ l ] ?Since leaving her, life has seemed pointless. 121 ?Walking down the boardwalk, a tall building came into view. [3]
In these examples the implied subject of the clauses is presumably I, but I does not occur as the subject of the matrix clauses. If we wish to keep the nonfinite clauses as they are, we rephrase the matrix clauses to introduce I a s subject; for example :
Driving to Chicago that night, I was struck by a sudden thought. [la] Since leaving her, I have felt that life seemed pointless. [2a1 Walking down the boardwalk, I saw a tall building. [3al
Clauses involved in this type of error, as in [l-31, are UNAITACHED clauses. Here are some further examples of unattached clauses:
?After serving on several committees, the association elected her their secretary-treasurer.
?Friend of statesmen andpatron of the arts, many honours were bestowed on him.
?While in a hospital near the school, her teachers visited her regularly.
32
1122 Syntac t ic a n d semant ic func t ions of subord ina te clauses Nonfinite a n d verbless adverbial c lauses 1 123
?To see theprocession, I put the child on my shoulders. ?Being the eldest, the responsibility fell particularly on my shoulders. ?Although the latest model, they didn't like the car. ?Advised to study anthropology, his choice was psychology instead. ?An author of cotisiderable distinction, people flocked to her public
lecture.
The same error may occur. when an -ing clause is the complement of a preposition :
?On reaching the summit, the view delighted us all.
As with [l-31, we can interpret correctly the implied subject in these sentences, but these unattached clauses are frowned upon. Such clauses are totally unacceptable if the sentence provides no means for identifying the implied subject:
*Reading the eveningpaper, a dog started barking. *Using these techniques, a wheel fell off. *A result of the rise inprices, our economy is suffering.
Sometimes the error suggests an absurd interpretation:
*Opening the cupboard, a skeleton fell out. *Grilled on charcoal, everyone enjoyed the fish they ciught. *Having eaten our lunch, the steamboat departed.
The attachment rule does not apply, or at least is relaxed, in certain cases:
(a) The clause is a style disjunct (cf 15.21), in which case the implied subject is the subject of the implied clause of speaking, normally I:
Putting it &ildly, you have caused us some inconvenience. His moral:principles, to befrank, begin and end with his own interests. To say the least, their techniques are old-fashioned.
(b) The implied subject is the whole of the matrix clause:
I'll help yoJ $necessary. ['. . . if it is necessary.'] Unknown to: his closest advisers, he hkd secretly negotiated with an
enemy emissary. ['It was unknown to his closest advisers that . . .'l The siren sounded, indicating that the air raid wasover. ['. . . which
indicated that. . .'] (c) If the impligd subject is an indefinite pronoun or prop it (cf 10.26), the construction is donsidered less objectionable:
When dining in the restaurant, a jacket and tie are required. ['When one dines.. .'l
Being Christmas, the government offices were closed. ['since it was . . .'l To-infinitive clauses are normal in this use:
To borrow booksfrom this library, it is necessary to register as a member of the library. ['For one to borrow. . .'l
(d) I n formal scientific writing, the construction has become institutionalized
Note
where the implied subject is to be identified with the I, we, and you of the writer(s) or reader(s):
When treating patients with language retardation and deviation of language development, the therapy consists, in part, of discussions of the patient's problems with parents and teachers, with subsequent language teaching carried out by them.
To check on the reliability of thejirst experiment, the experiment was replicated with a second set of subjects.
[a] The error of unattached clauses has traditionally been discussed in connection with participle clauses, particularly -ing clauses. Other traditional terms for the error are 'unattached', 'unrelated', 'pendant', and 'dangling' participle. [b] The acceptability of unattached clauses perhaps varies according to how easily the particular hearer or reader can perceive the implied subject. Participle forms that are lexicalized as conjunctions or prepositions are of course exempt from the attachment rule:
Prouided that a film entertains. few neonle care about its merits. . . . Considering its cost, this machine is not worth buying.
[c] As-phrases are sometimes placed initially when they are related to an element in final position or to no element at all. They then resemble unattached clauses:
?As aprotection against infition, we must seek increasingly to diversify our investments. ?As aprofessorofpoliticalscience, it has been interesting to spend a year in Germany.
[Presumably: '. . . I have found it interesting. . :l [dl Due to is generally accepted as a complex preposition synonymous with owing to. Some speakers, however, consider that due functions as an adjective in that collocation and therefore object to its use in 141 as an infringement of the attachment rule for verbless clauses:
?Due to bad weather, classes have been cancelled today. . [4 1 For those whoobject to (41, [4al provides an acceptable alternative:
Cancellation of classes today is due to bad weather. [W
Supplementive clauses When adverbial participle clauses and adverbial verbless clauses are not introduced by a subordinator, there may be considerable indeterminacy as to the semaniic relationship to be inferred. Infinitive clauses, although they exhibit a number of semantic relationships, present no particular problem in this respect, but cf 17.31f.
In their indeterminacy, adverbial participle and verbless clauses resemble the versatile relationships expressed by nonrestrictive relative clauses (cf 17.23) and the connective function of the coordinator and (cf 13.22ff). They are all capable of assuming, according to context, a more precise role:
Jason, told of his son's accident, immediately phoned the hospital. [ l] Jason, who was toldof his son's accident, immediately phoned the
hospital. [2] Jason was told of his son's accident, andhe immediatelyphoned the
hospital. [31
For all three sentences, although the mode of clause connection does not make this explicit, we infer a temporal sequence of events. On the other hand, in the next three sentences we infer that the logical connection between the clauses is primarily one of reason, although there is also a temporal sequence :
John, knowing that his wijk was expecting a baby, started to take a course on baby care. [4]
33
1124 Syntact ic and semant ic funct ionsof subordinateclauses
John, who knew that his wife was expecting a baby, started to take a course on baby care. [51
John knew that his wife was expecting a baby and hestarted to take a course on baby care. l61
In [7] the connection is one of reason without temporal sequence:
Julia, beinga nun, spent much of her life in prayer and meditation. [7]
Sentences [l], [2], [4], [5], and [7] all contain subordinate clauses, but only [I], [4], and [7] are adverbial clauses, since they can be positioned initially, medially, and (except for [l]) finally.
Adverbial participle and verbless clauses without a subordinator are SUPPLEMENTIVE CLAUSES; like nonrestrictive relative clauses and clauses in an and-coordination, they do not signal specific logical relationships, but such relationships are generally clear from the context. Subiectless supple- - - mentive clauses, ie those that (unlike supplementive absolute clauses, cf 15.58) do not have their own overt subject, resemble nonrestrictive relative clauses in another respect: the implied subject in the supplementive clause provides a link with the matrix clause rather as the relative pronoun provides a link in postmodifying relative clauses. The formal inexplicitness of supplementive clauses allows considerable flexibility in what we may wish them to convey. According to context, we may wish to imply temporal, conditional, causal, concessive, or circumstantial relationship. In short, the supplementive clause implies an accompanying circumstance to the situation described in the matrix clause. For the reader or hearer, the actual nature of the accompanying circumstance has to be inferred from the context. Here are some illustrations of process adverbials:
I
Using a sharp axe, Gilbert fought his way into the building. ['By using a sharp axd, . . .'l
Marilyn crawled through the narrow tunnel, hands infront. We spoke face to face. They stood dilently, their eyesfixed on the horizon. Elizabeth dijed in headfirst. They strolledjthrough the park with thqr arms intertwined.
Note [a] Clauses introduced by with and wirhour often convey little more than a vague notion of accompanying circumstance:
With rears ofjoy in her eyes, she saw her daughter married. Wirhour onyone nqficing, I slipped out of the rwm.
[bl In -ing clauses, verbs used dynamically tend to suggest a temporal link, and stative verbs a causal link: 1
Reachblg the river, we pitched camp for the night. ['When we reached the river, . . .'] Being afarmer, he is suspicious of all governmental interference.
PSince he is a farmer, . . .']
Subjectless supplementive clauses 15.61 The formal characteristics of subjectless supplementive clauses are:
Nonfinite and verbless adverbialclauses 1 1 25
(b) Their most typical positions ?n the superordinate clause are initial, final; and immediately after their antecedent, ie the noun phrase in the superordinate clause which is identical with their implied subject.
The position immediately after the antecedent poses the most difficulties for analysis. When subjectless supplementive clauses occur in that position, they may be indistinguishable from postmodifying participle clauses or (in the case of verbless clauses) from noun phrases in apposition. Thus the two constructions may merge in that it is impossible (and semantically unimportant) to decide whether the participle clause in [l] is to be regarded as functionally equivalent to the nonrestrictive relative clause in [la]:
This substance, discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized medicine. [ l ]
This substance, which was discovered almost by accident, has revolutionized medicine. [ W
Alternatively, it may be equivalent to a subjectless supplementive clause: I
Discovered almost by accident, this substance has revolutionized medicine.
There are, however, two types which in general may be unambiguously labelled supplementive:
(a) -ing clauses containing auxiliary verbs or the verb be:
The children, having eaten theirfill, were allowed to leave the table. The old man, being of sane mind, dictated and signed his will.
Such -ing clauses generally cannot be postmodifiers of noun phrases.
(b) verbless adjective clauses:
Lawson, implacable, contented himself with a glare of defiance.
Adjective clauses can, however, be nonrestrictive postmodifiers of noun phrases in certain circumstances:
(i) if the clause is lengthy and contains weighty information:
We took Joe, unable to stand because of weakness, to the nearest hospital. I met Betty, angry with me as always, at the luncheon.
. Contrast:
*We took Joe, weak, to the nearest hospital. *I met Betty, angry, at the luncheon.
(ii) if the adjective can be object complement in the complementation of the superordinate verb :
I found George, unconscious, a few hours later.
Contrast:
*I treated George, unconscious, at the hospital.
In initial position, the clauses are unambiguously subjectless supplementive clauses. For supplementive clauses in final position, cf 15.62.
(a) They are participle or verbless clauses.
34
1126 Syntactic and semantic functionsof subordinateclauses
Supplementive clauses in final position In spite of their resemblance to nonrestrictive relative clauses, supplementive clauses need not be separated from their matrix clause intonationallv when . -- --
they occur in final position. The following are therefore alternative renderings of the same sentence, differing only in that [l] has two focuses of information, whereas [2] has only one:
The manager BPPR~ACHED US, s ~ i ~ i n g . The manager approached us s ~ i ~ i n g .
One result of the alternative shown in [2] is the possible neutralization of the formal difference between nonfinite clauses functioning as supplementive clauses and those functioning as complementation of the verb. Thus [3] is ambiguous :
I saw Pam going home. [31
On one interpretation (that of the supplementive clause), I is the implied subject of going home, whereas on the other (that of verb complementation), Parn is the overt subject.
Another result of the lack of intonation is illustrated in [4] and [5]. When the -ing participle immediately follows certain finite verbs with existential meaning, the latter seem close to being aspectual catenatives (cf 3.49):
Frank sat reading the newspaper. Edith came running towards us.
Further, a sentence such as [6] is ambiguous in more than one way:
I caught the boy waiting-& my daughter. [61
In addition tolthe two possible structures of [3], this may be interpreted as having a thircf' structure, in which the nonfinite clause is a postmodifying clause :
'I caught the boy while I was waiting for my daughter.' [supplementive clause] :
'I caught the boy in the act of waiting for my daughter.'[verb compleflentation]
'I caught t l~? boy who was waiting far my daughter.' [postmodification]
On the analogy: of [2], we may identify the final adjective phrases of the following examples (where there is no intonational separation) as verbless supplementive clauses: ,
The mana$er approached us full of apologies.' He drove the damaged car home undismayed.
In each, the adjective phrase is in a copular relationship with the subject of the sentence, and is thus distinct from an object complement; which would be in a copular relationship with the direct object. Furthermore, an object complement could not normally be placed in initial position, whereas that position is perfectly natural for [7] and [S]:
FUN of apologies, the manager approached us. Undismayed, he drove the damaged car home.
Comparative clauses 1 127
Adjective phrases in final position that cannot be preposed are generally nonrestrictive postmodifiers of the preceding noun phrases (cf 15.61 for medial nonrestrictive postmodifiers), even though they are separated intonationally from the rest of the sentence:
The cows contentedly chewed the grass, green and succulent after the rain. ['which was green and succulent. . .'l
The drill quickly penetrated the layer of rock, loose and crumbly with years of weathering.
Noun phrases in final position that cannot be preposed are generally appositives of the preceding noun phrases:
Shirley sent us a gift, a boxof chocolates.
There is agradient relating the functional categories of subject complement and restrictive adjunct (cf 15.23) realized by a verbless supvlementive clause. We therefore find sentences in.which the final phrases cannot be preposed (at least without changing the meaning), because they are on the gradient towards subject complement status:
They ended the season bottom of the league. He came out of prison a changed man. He began life a Protestant. She emerged from the conflict victorious.
Note Prepositional phrases that may be construed as subject complement can also be viewed on the gradient between adverbial and complement (cflO.1 l): '
They ended the season at the bottonrof the league. He began life as a Protestant. She emerged from the conflict with a clear victory.
Comparative clauses
15.63 In a comparative construction, a proposition expressed in the matrix clause is compared with a proposition expressed in the subordinate clause with respect to Some STANDARD OF COMPARISON:
Jane is as healthy as her sister (is). [l]
The standard of comparison in [l] is health. Broadly conceived, comparison includes comparisons of EQUIVALENCE (cf
15.71), as in [l], and comparisons of SUFFICIENCY and EXCESS (cf 15.72ff), as in [2] and [3] :
Don is sensitive enough to understand your feelings. [21 Marilyn was too polite to say anything about my clothes. [31
35
