moga.gov.npmoga.gov.np/uploads/publicationFiles/8982_bbb612c8... · Growth of Nepal: An Econometric Analysis –Khim Lal Devkota 138 16 Demand-driven Governance: Contextual Agenda

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PRASHASAN(The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration)

July 2013, 124th Issue

Government of NepalMinistry of General Administration

Administrative Reform and Internal Management DivisionSingha Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal

Phone: 4200187, 4200367, 4200368, 4200369, Fax No.: +977-1-4200187Web: www.moga.gov.np, E-mail: [email protected]

Editorial Board

Durganidhi Sharma, Secretary – Chairman

Mukunda Raj Panthi, Joint Secretary – Member

Mahesh Acharya, Under Secretary – Member

Kamal Prasad Dahal, Section Officer – Member

Chakra Pani Acharya, Section Officer – Member Secretary

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–;/:jtL u'/fufO{ 99

11Does Aid Work? A Human Resource Perspective

–Lal Shankar Ghimire 110

12A brief Introduction of Street Level Bureaucrats and its Present Situation in the Context of Nepal

–Arjun Kumar Khadka 112

13Management Training to Government Auditors: A Case Study

–Janak Raj Gautam 122

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14New Public Management and its Significance in Nepalese Public Administration

–Kushal Pokharel 130

15The Impact of Fiscal Decentralization on District Economic Growth of Nepal: An Econometric Analysis

–Khim Lal Devkota138

16Demand-driven Governance: ContextualAgenda of Development in Nepal

–Narayan Bahadur Thapa147

17Factors Affecting Nepal’s Economic Development

Dr. Balkrishna Subedi 158

18Export Promotion in Nepal

–Dr. Suman Kumar Regmi 166

20

Book Review Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty

Dhruba Nepal

177

21

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181

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* k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldlt, @)^( sf ;+of]]hs tyf cWoIf, k|zf;sLo cbfnt . Email : [email protected]

PRASHASAN The Nepalese Journal of Public Administration2

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ljlwsf] zf;g • (Rule of Law) h;df plrt sfg'gsf] th'{df u/L dfgj clwsf/sf cfwf/e"t dfGotfnfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/L th'{df ul/Psf] sfg'gL Joj:yf / To;sf] ;d'lrt k|of]u,

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dfgj clwsf/k|ltsf] ;Ddfgdf hf]8 lbPsf] 5 . cyf{t\ nf]stGq, dfgj clwsf/ / ;'zf;gk|ltsf] k|lta4tfaf6 g} ;Eo d'n's lgdf{0f x'g;S5 .

;'zf;gsf ;Gbe{df g]kfnsf] k|of;

;'zf;gsf ;Gbe{df g]kfndf lj=;+= @))& ;fnb]lv sfg'gL /fHosf] dfGotfdf cfwfl/t ;dfh lgdf{0f ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy ljleGg k|of;x¿ gePsf xf]Ogg\ . t/ klg /fhgLlts slrËn, ;Qf :jfy{df s]lGb|t /fhgLlt, lzIff / hgr]tgfsf] sdL h:tf ljleGg sf/0f alnof] ;+j}wflgs /fHo Joj:yf lgdf{0f x'g g;Sbf d'n'sdf ;'zf;g sfod x'g ;s]g . @)$^ ;fnsf] hgcfGbf]ng kZrft\sf] ;+ljwfg Pjd\ ;/sf/L of]hgfdf ;d]t ;'zf;gsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cfTd;ft\ gu/]sf] klg xf]Og . t/ klg /fhgLlts cl:y/tf, nf]stflGqs ;+:s[ltsf] cefj, sfg'gL zf;gsf] dfGotfleq /xL sfo{ ug]{ ;+:sf/sf] sdL h:tf ljleGg sf/0fn] d'n'sdf ;'zf;g cy{k"0f{ x'g ;s]g . h;sf] kl/0ffd d'n'sn] 7"nf] Iflt a]xf]g'{ k¥of] . /fhgLlts cl:y/tfn] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ p2]Zod"ns / /fhgLlts OR5fzlQmsf] cefjn] k|zf;g ;+oGq k|efjsf/L agfpg ;s]g . ;]jfu|fxLsf] ljZjf; k|zf;gn] cfh{g ug{ g;Sbf /fhgLlt / k|zf;gk|lt cfd gful/ssf] u'gf;f] /lx/x\of] . @)^@÷)^# sf] hgcfGbf]ng kZrft\ o; jf:tljstfnfO{ dx;'; u/L d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ hgd'vL, hjfkmb]xL, kf/bzL{ tyf hg;xeflutfd"ns agfO{ To;sf] k|ltkmn ;j{;fwf/0fnfO{ pknAw u/fpg] p2]Zon] lj=;+= @)^$ ;fndf æ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng_ P]g, @)^$ hf/L ul/of] . o; P]gn] sfg'gsf] zf;g, e|i6frf/d'[Qm / r':t k|zf;g, ljs]Gb|Ls/0f, cfly{s cg'zf;g, ;fj{hlgs sfo{ / ;|f]tsf] s'zn Joj:yfkg ug]{ clek|fo /fvL ;'zf;g kfpg] gful/ssf] clwsf/nfO{ Jojxf/df ptfg]{ k|lta4tf JoQm u¥of] . k|zf;g ;+oGqnfO{ ;]jf k|bfos ;+oGq tyf ;xhstf{sf] ¿kdf lnO{ d'n'sdf ;'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"lt lbg ljleGg Joj:yf u¥of] . h;cg';f/ sfo{ ;~rfngsf cfwf/, ;/sf/n] clVtof/ ug]{ gLltx¿, k|zf;lgs sfo{sf] ;~rfng / lhDd]jf/L, k|zf;lgs sfo{ ;Dkfbg ubf{ ckgfpg' kg]{ sfo{ljlw, kbLo pQ/bfloTjsf] lgjf{x, gful/s j8fkq /fVg'kg]{ Joj:yf, 3'DtL;]jfsf] ;~rfng, ;fj{hlgs ;'gjfO{, u'gf;f] Joj:yfkg, cg'udg tyf d"NofÍg ljlw h:tf Joj:yfx¿ 5g\ . P]gsf] p2]ZonfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpg ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng_ lgodfjnL, @)^% hf/L ul/Psf] 5 . ;'zf;gsf] Joj:yfkg / ;~rfngsf ;DaGwdf P]g sfg'gn] h] h:tf] Joj:yf u/]sf] eP tfklg ;ª\qmd0f sfnsf] hl6ntfn] k|zf;gn] glthfd'vL kl/0ffd lbPsf] pT;fxjw{s cj:yf eg] b]lvGg . ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg / ;~rfng_ P]g, @)^$ n] dGqLsf] lhDd]jf/Lb]lv sfof{no k|d'vsf] lhDd]jf/L tf]s]sf] b]lvP klg sfo{sfl/0fL clwsf/ lglxt k|wfgdGqLsf] lhDd]jf/Lsf ;DaGwdf eg] :ki6 Joj:yf u/]sf] b]lvGg .

/fHosf] sfd sf/jfxL nf]stflGqs k4lt cg'¿k v'nf / kf/bzL{ agfO{ gful/sk|lt hjfkmb]xL / lhDd]jf/ agfpg, ;fj{hlgs lgsfodf /x]sf] ;fj{hlgs dxTTjsf] ;"rgfdf cfdgful/ssf] kx'FrnfO{ ;/n / ;xh agfpg tyf gful/ssf] ;';"lrt x'g] xsnfO{ ;+/If0f / k|rng u/fpg] p2]Zon] ;"rgfsf] xs;DaGwL P]g, @)^$ hf/L ul/Psf] 5 . o; P]gn] v'nf ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/L e|i6frf/sf] /f]syfd / ;'zf;gsf] :yfkgfdf ;xof]u k'Ug] p2]Zosf


;fy ljleGg Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . v'nf ;+:s[lt / ;lqmo ;"rgf k|jfx k|0ffnLdf sfd ug]{ cfbt galg;s]sf sf/0f cem klg /fHo ;+oGq v'nfkgsf] ;+:s[ltdf cEo:t eO;s]sf] 5}g . o;}u/L g]kfn ;/sf/n] ;'zf;gsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ ;fsf/ agfpg] p2]Zon] ;/sf/L lg0f{o k|lqmof ;/nLs/0f lgb]{lzsf, @)^%Ù ;/sf/L vr{ ldtJolotf sfod ug]{ lgb{]lzsf, @)^%Ù ;]jf cleofg ;~rfng lgb{]lzsf, @)^%Ù ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sfo{qmd ;~rfng sfo{ljlw, @)^%Ù ;fj{hlgs ;'gjfO{ sfo{ljlw, x]nf] ;/sf/ sfo{qmd nufotsf ljleGg Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . o:t} ;DklQ ;'4Ls/0f ;DaGwL P]g sfg'gsf] th'{df, ;fj{hlgs vl/b P]gsf] lgdf{0f e|i6frf/ lj?4sf] ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3Lo dxf;lGwsf] cg'df]bg h:tf ljleGg Joj:yf u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L ;'zf;gsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ ;fsf/ agfpg] clek|fon] ljleGg P]g sfg'g, lgb]{lzsf, /0fgLlt, sfo{of]hgf agfO{ ;~rfng u/]sf] ePklg To;sf] sfof{Gjog kIf sdhf]/ ¿kd} /x]sf] dfGg' kg]{ x'G5 . /fhgLlts OR5fzlQmsf] cefjdf k|zf;g ;+oGqsf] k|of;n] dfq ;kmntf k|fKt ug{ ;lsGg . g]kfnsf] k|zf;g oGqdf /fhgLtLs/0fn] kf/]sf] k|efjnfO{ cf+sng u/L sd{rf/L 6«]8 o'lgogsf] e"ldsf nufotsf ljifodf ;'wf/ ug{ /fhgLlts zlQmx¿ Pp6} lsQfdf pleg' h¿/L 5 .

g]kfn ;ª\qmd0f sfnsf] kL8faf6 al9/x]sf] 5 . gofF ;+ljwfg aGg g;Sbf ljlwsf] zf;g vnaln/x]sf] 5 . b08xLgtfsf] ;+:s[ltn] k|zf;g oGqnfO{ sdhf]/ agfPsf] 5 . /fHo ;+oGqsf] j}wflgs Psflwsf/ vl:sFbf] 5 . /fHo Joj:yfk|ltsf] gful/s ljZjf; a9\g ;ls/x]sf] 5}g . e|i6frf/ / clgoldttfn] ;'zf;gsf dfGotfnfO{ sdhf]/ agfPsf] 5 . ca klg /fhgLlts zlQmx¿ a9L lhDd]jf/ gx'g] xf] eg] d'n's c;kmn x'g ;Sg] vt/fx¿ a9\bf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df d'n'sdf ;'zf;g sfod ug{ /fhgLlts zlQmx¿ Ps} 7fpFdf pleg' h?/L 5 .

k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/

/fHosf] gLlt lgod tyf sfg'g sfof{Gjog ug]{ /fHosf] :yfoL ;+oGq ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g xf] . hgtfsf ;d:ofnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{;Sg] Ifdtfo'Qm k|zf;g ;+oGq lgdf{0fsf lglDt ;fk]lIft ¿kdf ;'wf/ x'g'k5{ . ablnFbf] r'gf}tL / cj;/sf aLr ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g lhDd]jf/, pQ/bfoL / kf/bzL{ eO{ sfo{ ug]{ ;+:s[ltsf] ljsf; ug{ ;s]df nf]stGqfTds ;fdflhs cfwf/ alnof] x'g;S5 . g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf ;+/rgfut, ;+:yfut Pjd\ k|zf;lgs ;d:ofx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . ;f+u7lgs ;+/rgf, hgzlQm / ;|f]t ;fwgaLr ;fd~h:otf b]lvGg . Ps} k|s[ltsf sfo{x¿ ljleGg lgsfox¿af6 eO/xFbf sfo{qmddf bf]xf]/f]kg /x]sf] 5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ kl/0ffdd'vL agfpg Jofks ;'wf/sf] h?/L 5 . o; ;Gbe{df g]kfn ;/sf/åf/f ul7t k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldlt, @)^( n] ;d]t b]xfosf] ljifodf ;'wf/sf] cfjZostf cf}+NofPsf] 5 M–

!= :jf:Yo If]qdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/

cfd gful/ssf] hLjg;Fu :jf:Yo ;]jfsf] k|ToIf ;DaGw /x]sfn] :yfgLo txdf ;/sf/af6 lgz'Ns ¿kdf ljtl/t cf}ifwLx¿ ;dodf g} k'Ug] Joj:yf ug]{, cf}ifwLsf] u'0f:t/ sfoddf


ljz]if Wofg lbO{ cf}ifwL vl/bdf x'g;Sg] clgoldttfnfO{ /f]Sg lgoldt cg'udgsf] Joj:yf ug]{, dfkb08 ljk/Lt sfd ug]{ lghL :jf:Yo ;+:yfx¿ pk/ s8f sf/jfxL ug'{sf ;fy} b'u{d If]qdf cg'ejL lrlsT;sx¿ /xg] aGbf]a:t ug]{ .

@= ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|jfxdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/

zL3|, ;'ne / u'0f:t/Lo ;]jf k|fKt ug]{ gful/ssf] g};lu{s clwsf/ ePsfn] 3'DtL;]jf sfo{qmdnfO{ lgoldt ¿kdf ;~rfng ug]{, pTs[i6 ;]jf k|bfg ug]{ sfof{nonfO{ ;Ddfg ug]{ k/Dk/fsf] ljsf; ug]{, b'u{d If]qdf ;xh ¿kdf ;]jf k|jfx ug]{ Joj:yf ldnfpg] .

#= ;fj{hlgs ;DklQ tyf ;|f]t ;fwgsf] pkof]udf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

/fHosf]ifaf6 k|fKt ug]{ cfly{s ;xfotf lglZrt dfkb08sf] cfwf/df dfq ljt/0f ug]{ / To:tf] ;xfotf lng] JolQmx¿sf] gfdgfd];L ;fj{hlgs ug]{, e|d0f eQfsf] b'¿kof]u ePsfn] e|d0f k|ltj]bg clgjfo{ ug]{, ;fj{hlgs ;DklQsf] nut cBfjlws ug]{ / cg'udgsf] k|efjsf/L Joj:yf ug]{ / ;fj{hlgs Pjd\ ;/sf/L ;DklQ b'¿kof]u ug]{nfO{ s8f sf/jfxL ug]{ .

$= ;fdflhs ;'/Iff eQf ljt/0fdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

h]i7 gful/s tyf c;Qm nufot /fHoaf6 ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf lglDt ljt/0f ul/g] eQfdf clgoldttf / b'¿kof]u ePsf] eGg] /x]sfn] cfly{s jif{leq} ;DalGwt kIfn] ;f] eQf kfO;Sg] u/L :yfgLo lgsfoaf6 sd{rf/L v6fO{ ljt/0f ug]{, ;DalGwt kIfsf] gfddf a}+sdf vftf vf]nL eQf hDdf x'g] Joj:yf ldnfpg] / b'¿kof]u ug]{nfO{ s8fOsf ;fy sf/jfxL ug]{ .

%= :yfgLo ;/sf/nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

:yfgLo lgsfosf] lgjf{rg cljnDa ul/g' kg]{, uf=lj=;=df ;lrjx¿sf] kbk"lt{ # dlxgfleq ul/;Sg], ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng_ P]g, @)^$ / tT;DaGwL lgodfjnLn] lglb{i6 u/]sf] k|lqmofsf] cg';/0f u/L sfo{;Dkfbg ug]{ u/fpg], :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/Lsf] lgo'lQm lglZrt dfkb08sf] cfwf/df ug]{ Joj:yf nfu" ug]{, o:t} :yfgLo ;]jf cfof]usf] u7g ug]{ .

^= ahf/ cg'udg tyf lgodg ;DaGwdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

sf6]{lnË, s[lqd cefj, ld;fj6 ug]{, cvfB kbfy{ laqmL ug]{, gfktf}n 7uL ug]{, d"No ;"rL g/fVg], Dofb gf3]sf] jf u'0f:t/ gePsf] j:t' pTkfbg laqmL ljt/0f ug]{ h:tf sfnf]ahf/L sfo{nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ ;'/Iff lgsfo nufot ;DalGwt lgsfosf k|ltlglw ;d]t /x]sf] ;+oGq /xg] u/L lglZrt of]hgf agfO{ lgoldt cg'udg ug]{ / bf]ifLpk/ sf/jfxL ug{ kmf:66«ofs k|0ffnL cjnDag ug]{, d'2f rnfpg], pkef]Qmf lzIff ;~rfng ug]{ Pjd\ pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f P]gn] Joj:yf u/]sf kl/ifb\ / ;ldltx¿sf] a}7s tTsfn ;'rf¿ ug]]{ .


&= cj}w ¿kdf ;~rflnt pBf]usf ;DaGwdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

sfg'gsf] zt{ / dfkb08 ljk/Lt r'/]If]q nufotsf ljleGg :yfgdf ;~rflnt qm;/ nufotsf vfgL pBf]ux¿ tTsfn aGb ug]{, u}/sfg'gL lsl;dn] sfg'gsf] /Lt k'u]sf] sfuh v8f u/L k|fs[lts ;|f]t ;fwgsf] b'¿kof]u ug]{ lsl;dn] ;~rflnt pBf]usf ;DaGwdf To:tf] sfo{ ug]{nfO{ sf/jfxL ug]{, dfkb08 adf]lhd pBf]ux¿ ;~rfng 5g\ 5}gg\ < eGg] ;DaGwdf lgoldt cg'udg ug]{ / dfkb08 ljk/Ltsf pBf]unfO{ sf/jfxL ug]{ .

*= oftfoft tyf 6«flkms Joj:yfkgdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

;8ssf] ef/jxg IfdtfeGbf a9L ef/ af]Sg] ;jf/Lsf] Ohfht /2 ug]{, oftfoft ;DaGwdf :ki6 /fli6«o gLlt agfpg], lglZrt dfkb08 agfO{ k'/fgf ;jf/L ;fwgnfO{ lj:yflkt ug]{, l;lG8s]6 k|0ffnLnfO{ Jofjxfl/s ¿kd} cGTo ug]{, ;8sdf cj/f]w k'¥ofpg]x¿nfO{ lgoGq0fdf lnO{ sf/jfxL ug]{, ;jf/L rfns cg'dlt k|fKt JolQmnfO{ lglZrt cjlwsf] k|lzIf0f lbP/ dfq ;af/L rnfpg :jLs[lt lbg], 6«flkms Joj:yfkgnfO{ k|ljlwdf cfwfl/t agfpg] / ;fj{hlgs oftfoftsf rfnsx¿sf] kf]zfs lgwf{/0f ug]{ .

(= ef}lts k"jf{wf/ lgdf{0fdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

;x/L If]qdf PsLs[t of]hgf tof/ u/L nfu" ug]{ u/fpg] / ejg dfkb08 ;+lxtf s8fOsf ;fy kl/kfngf ug]{ u/fpg] .

!)= hUuf pkef]u ;DaGwdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

Jojl:yt ;x/Ls/0fsf nflu e"–pkof]u gLltsf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog ug]{ u/fpg] .

!!= lzIff If]qdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

ljBfno ;~rfngsf] lglZrt dfkb08 tof/ ug]{, dGqfnon] gLltut s'/f x]g]{, To;sf] sfof{Gjog ljefu / :yfgLo txaf6 ug]{ u/fpg], lzIff;DaGwL P]g sfg'gsf] kfngfsf ;DaGwdf lgoldt cg'udg ug]{ / P]g tyf sfg'gn] lglb{i6 u/]sf] dfkb08 ljk/Lt sfo{ ug]{x¿nfO{ s8fOsf ;fy sf/jfxL ug]{, lrlsT;f zf:qsf] cWoognfO{ u'0f:t/Lo agfpg g]kfn d]l8sn sfplG;nsf] ;+/rgfdf ;d]t ;'wf/ u/L ;f] sfplG;nnfO{ ;an agfpg] .

!@= ;'/Iff Joj:yfnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

ck/fwsf] /fhgLtLs/0f / /fhgLltsf] ck/fwLs/0f cGTo x'g'kg]{, k|x/L gful/s ;fem]bf/Ldf ;'/Iff Joj:yfkg gLlt cjnDag ug]{, k|x/L ;]jfdf ;Ifd hgzlQm cfslif{t ug{ k|x/L ;]jf cfof]u u7g ug]{, k|ljlwdf cfwfl/t k|x/L cg';Gwfg k4ltsf] ljsf; ug]{, cfGtl/s ;'/Iff gLlt th'{df ug]{ / k|d'v lhNnf clwsf/Lsf] 5gf]6 lglZrt dfkb08sf] cfwf/df ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{ .


!#= e|i6frf/sf] /f]syfd / lgoGq0fdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

/fli6«o ;ts{tf s]Gb|nfO{ ;fj{hlgs kb wf/0f u/]sf JolQmsf] ;DklQ cg'udg ug]{ clwsf/ k|bfg ug]{, ;fj{hlgs kb wf/0ff u/]sf ;a}sf] jflif{s ¿kdf ;DklQ ljj/0f bflvnf ug]{ Joj:yf k|of]hgljxLg b]lvPsfn] To;sf] k'g/fjnf]sg ug]{, e|i6frf/ ;Defljt If]qsf kbflwsf/Lx¿sf] ;DklQ ;fj{hlgsLs/0fsf] gLlt clVtof/ ug]{, e|i6frf/sf] cg';Gwfg / sf/jfxL ug]{ clwsf/ ePsf lgsfox¿sf] ;fwg ;|f]t / Ifdtf clej[l4 u/L tLgnfO{ ;an agfpg], ;fj{hlgs vl/b P]g÷lgodsf cJofjxfl/s Joj:yfdf ;'wf/ u/L ;f]xL cg'¿k To;sf] k|efjsf/L ¿kdf nfu" ug]{ u/fpg] / ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng_ P]g÷lgod / ;"rgfsf] xs;DaGwL sfg'gnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg] .

!$= sd{rf/L 6«]8 o'lgogsf ;DaGwdf ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

pQ/bfoL / lhDd]jf/ sd{rf/L k|zf;gsf] ljsf; ug{ cflwsfl/s 6«]8 o'lgogsf] lgjf{rg oyfzL3| u/fpg], 6«]8 o'lgogsf kbflwsf/Lsf] cfrf/;+lxtf lgdf{0f u/L nfu" ug]{ u/fpg] / sd{rf/L 6«]8 o'lgogsf ;DaGwdf /fhgLlts bnx¿n] Pp6} wf/0ff agfO{ clxn]sf] Joj:yfdf k'g/fjnf]sg ug]{ .

!%= lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;an agfpg ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

;¿jf cg'dfgof]Uo agfpg] / ;¿jf cjlw k'u]kl5 hlxn] klg ;?jf ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf ug]{, h]i7tfdf cfwfl/t a9'jf k4ltsf] ljsf; ug]{, lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf @$ 3 -!_ sf] ljz]if a9'jfsf JolQmx¿nfO{ oyfzL3| ;dfof]hg ug]{ / o;/L ;dfof]hg ubf{ of]Uotf k'u]sf JolQmx¿df xLgtfaf]w x'g glbg] u/L ;dfof]hg ug]{, j}b]lzs cWoog / 5fqj[lQsf] :ki6 dfkb08 agfpg], lgofds lgsfox¿sf] b/aGbL k'g/fjnf]sg ug]{, sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] ;t{ ljk/Lt labf :jLs[t gu/fO{ a:g] sd{rf/LnfO{ cljnDa ljefuLo ;hfo k|f/De ug]{ / ljefuLo ;hfo ubf{ ;jf]{Rr cbfnt / k|zf;sLo cbfntn] lglb{i6 u/]sf] l;4fGtsf] cg';/0f u/L lg0f{o ug]{ .

!^= k|zf;sLo clwsf/Ln] Goflos sfo{ ;Dkfbg ubf{ ug{kg]{ ;'wf/

k|zf;sLo lgsfon] u/]sf] km};nf sfof{GjognfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg] tyf k|zf;sLo lgsfoaf6 x'g] km};nf sfof{Gjog ug]{ ;+/rgf, ljlw / k|lqmofsf ;DaGwdf :ki6 Joj:yf ug]{ . k|zf;sLo lgsfon] ug]{ Goflos lg0f{osf ;DaGwdf b]xfosf l;4fGt cg';/0f u/L lg0f{o ug]{ –

clwsf/If]q gePsf] ljifodf s'g} sf/jfxL / lg0f{o gug]{,•k|ltjfb ug]{ df}sf glbO{ lg0f{o gug]{, •cfkm\gf] lgxLt :jfy{ ePsf] ljifodf lg0f{o gug]{,•k|j[Q efjgf, b'/fzo, sk6k"0f{ / jb\lgot lsl;dn] lg0f{o gug]{,•lg0f{o ubf{ ;a't k|df0fsf] d"NofÍgåf/f Goflos dgsf] k|of]u u/L lg0f{o ug]{,•


lgldQ clwsf/Ln] Goflos k|s[ltsf] lg0f{o gug]{,•clwg:y sd{rf/Ln] k]; u/]sf] l6Kk0fL ;b/ ug]{ kl/kf6Lsf] cGTo u/L lg0f{o krf{ v8f u/L •lg0f{o ug]{{,

Goflos clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg gug]{,•Goflos cg'zf;gleq /xL sfo{ ug]{ afgL a;fNg] ,•:jljj]sLo clwsf/sf] b'¿kof]u gug]{,•kf/bzL{k"0f{ lsl;daf6 sf/jfxL ug]{,•lgwf{l/t ;dodf g} lg0f{o ug]{ kl/kf6Lsf] ljsf; ug]{, •lg0f{o ubf{ cfwf/ / sf/0f vf]nL lg0f{o ug]{,•Goflos clwsf/sf] k|of]u lgb]{zg / kl/kqsf cfwf/df gug]{,•lhDd]jf/ / pQ/bfoLk"0f{ lsl;dn] sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ . •

!&= ljljw ;'wf/

k|To]s dGqfnon] cfkm\gf] sfo{If]qleq /xL /fli6«o gLlt th'{df ug]{, j}b]lzs /f]huf/sf ;DaGwdf >d dGqfno / k//fi6« dGqfnoaLrsf] ;DaGw :ki6 ug]{, If]qLo k|zf;gsf ;DaGwdf ljBdfg Joj:yfsf] k'g/fjnf]sg u/L ;|f]t ;fwg / ljz]if clwsf/ k|bfg u/L To;nfO{ k|efjsf/L e"ldsf k|bfg ug]{ of vf/]h ug]{, jftfj/0fLo k|efj d"NofÍgsf sfdx¿ k|efjsf/L ¿kn] ug{ u/fpg jftfj/0f lg/LIfs lgo'Qm ug]{, jg hËnsf] ;+/If0fsf lglDt lhNnf jg sfof{nosf k|d'vnfO{ pQ/bfoL agfpg], dlxnf lx+;f lgoGq0f ug{ :yfgLo txdf ;'/IffsdL{ / clwsf/sdL{sf] ;+o'Qm PsfO u7g ug]{ . /fhb"t lgo'lQmsf nflu :ki6 dfkb08 agfpg] / /fhb"tdf lgo'lQm kZrft\ lglZrt cjlw;Dd To:tf JolQmnfO{ ljz]if k|lzIf0f lbP/dfq ;]jf ug{ k7fpg] Joj:yf ug]{ .

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ljsf;sf] kmn ;dfg ¿kdf ;a}df ;'lglZrt ug{ æ;'zf;gÆ cfjZos 5 . /fHo, gful/s ;dfh, lghL If]q ;a}n] cf–cfkm\gf] e"ldsf lgjf{xdf zflGtsf] vf]hL, :jtGqtf, ;fdflhs Gofo / ;dGofo, bLuf] ljsf;, åGåsf] Joj:yfkg, ck/fwsf] lgoGq0f, ul/aL lgjf/0f tyf c;dfg cfosf] cGTo, jftfj/0fsf] ;+/If0f, ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/ / ;'b[9Ls/0f, dfgj clwsf/ / nf]stGqsf] clej[l4 h:tf s'/fdf s]lGb|t ug'{k5{ . ljZjJofkLs/0fsf] hl6ntfleq kl/jt{gsf] ;'lglZrttfsf nflu /fHosf] Ifdtfdf clej[l4 Tolts} cfjZos 5 . sdhf]/ ljlwsf] zf;g / hjfkmb]xL ljgfsf] /fhgLlt tyf b08xLgtfsf] ;+:s[ltn] ;'zf;gnfO{ hLjGt agfpg ;Qm}g . d'n'sdf ;'zf;g ePg eg] zf;g ug]{ Ifdtf, /fHosf] j}wtf / zf;g ug]{ clwsf/sf] dfGotfdf g} cf3ft k'Ug ;S5 . g]kfn nfdf] ;dob]lv /fhgLltsf] k|of]uzfnf eO/x]sf sf/0f /fhgLlts cl:y/tfn] ;'zf;g ;xh x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . o; ;Gbe{df /fhgLlts :yfloTjsf] ;fy;fy} sd{rf/LtGqdf


lhDd]jf/L kG5fpg] k|j[lQsf] cGTo ub}{ ;'zf;g ;+:s[ltsf] lgdf{0f clxn]sf] cfjZostf xf] . o;}u/L b08xLgtfsf] ;+:s[ltaf6 hjfkmb]lxtfsf] ;+:s[lttkm{sf] ¿kfGt/0f ;'zf;gsf] lglDt dxTTjk"0f{ kIf ePsfn] hjfkmb]lxtfsf] ;+:s[lt / k|lta4tfsf] sfof{Gjogåf/f æ;'zf;gÆ cy{k"0f{ x'g ;S5 eGg] dfGotfdf k|zf;g ;~rfng x'g'k5{ . o;f] ePdf g} k|zf;g oGq ljZj;gLo, kl/0ffdd'vL, pQ/bfoL / ;Ifd x'g;S5 . g]kfnsf] ljBdfg ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ k|lqmofd'vL eGbf kl/0ffdd'vL tyf ;]jfu|fxLk|lt lhDd]jf/ agfpg d"ntM b]xfosf] ;'wf/ cfjZos 5 M–

k|zf;g oGqnfO{ bnLos/0faf6 d'Qm /fVg ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf cfwf/e"t d"No dfGotf •;DaGwL l;4fGtx¿nfO{ ;+ljwfgdf ;'lglZrt ug]{,

sd{rf/L k|zf;gdf bnLo cfwf/df 6«]8 o'lgog :yfkgf ug]{ xf]8afhLnfO{ cGTo u/L ;a} •/fhgLlts zlQmx¿ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] lgikIftf, Jofj;flostf / ;Ifdtfdf k|lts"n c;/ gkg]{ u/L 6«]8 o'lgogsf ;DaGwdf Pp6} b[li6sf]0fsf;fy Ps} lsQfdf pleg' kg]{,

:yfgLo lgsfonfO{ pQ/bfoL / hgd'vL agfpg :yfgLo lgsfosf] cljnDa lgjf{rg u/L •:yfgLo lgsfodf sd{rf/Lsf] aGbf]a:tnfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ :yfgLo ;]jf cfof]usf] :yfkgf ug]{, To;}u/L ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿nfO{ r':t agfpg ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfg ;]jf cfof]usf] ;d]t u7g x'g'kg]{,

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ æk|0ffnLpGd'vÆ agfpg sd{rf/Lsf] lgo'lQm, kb:yfkgf, ;?jf, •a9'jf, ljefuLo sf/jfxL, j[lQ ljsf;sf ljleGg kIfx¿df kf/bzL{ k|0ffnL cjnDag ug]{, sd{rf/Lsf] dgf]an pRr agfO/fVg ;f]xL cg'¿ksf] tnj ;'ljwf tyf k|]/0ffbfoL sfo{qmd nfu" ug]{, lghfdtL ;]jfdf ul/g] a9'jf j:t'ut, j}1flgs / cg'dfg of]Uo aGg ;s]sf] 5}g . sfo{;Dkfbgsf] d"NofÍg k4lt j}1flgs gePsf] x'Fbf rfs8L k|yfn] k|>o kfO/x]sf] sf/0f ;Ifd / of]Uo JolQmnfO{ k5fl8 kfg]{ c:j:y ultljlwx¿nfO{ lgoGq0f ug{ a9'jf k|0ffnLdf ;'wf/sf] cfjZostf 5 . o;sf lglDt ljleGg 9f]sfx¿af6 a9'jf u/fpg] Joj:yf a9'jf ;DaGwL cGt/f{li6«o d"No dfGotf ;Ët b]lvGg . a9'jfsf ;DaGwdf ljefuLo sf/jfxLdf k/]sf jf tf]lsPsf] kbLo lhDd]jf/L ;Gtf]ifhgs ¿kdf axg gu/]sf sd{rf/L afx]snfO{ kbf]Gglt ug]{ u/L æh]i7tfdf cfwfl/t a9'jf k|0ffnLÆ nfu" ug]{,

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] x/]s txdf ;dfj]zLs/0fsf] l;4fGtnfO{ dfq cfwf/ agfpFbf æof]Uotf •k|0ffnLÆ IfL0f eO{ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g k|efjsf/L x'g g;Sg] cj:yf >[hgf x'g ;Sg] ePsfn] k|lzIf0f / tflndåf/f cNk;+Vos tyf clwsf/af6 jl~rt ePsfx¿sf] ;zQmLs/0f ug]{ gLlt clVtof/ u/L Ps txdf dfq ;dfj]zLs/0fsf] l;4fGt cjnDag ug]{,

b'u{d If]qdf /fHosf] cl:tTjsf] af]w u/fpg ;Ifd / cg'ejL JolQmx¿nfO{ ;d]t k7fpg] gLlt •cjnDag u/L b'u{d If]qdf ;]jf u/]sf cfwf/df a9'jf ug]{ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ug{ ;lsPdf b'u{d If]qdf /fHon] Gofo u/]sf] cg'e"lt x'g ;Sg] ePsfn] To;tkm{ /fHo uDeL/ x'g'kg]{,

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf OdfGbfl/tf sfod ug{ sfd sf/jfxLdf kf/blz{tf / hjfkmb]lxtf •;lxt sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ k|lqmofdf ;'wf/ u/L ;fj{hlgs kbdf a;]sf JolQmx¿sf] ;DklQ


;fj{hlgsLs/0f ug]{ gLlt nfu" ug]{,

nx8 jf /fhgLlts efuaG8fsf cfwf/df dGqfnox¿ yKg] 6'qm\ofpg] h:tf c:j:ys/ •cEof;nfO{ lgoGq0f u/L j:t'ut cfwf/df sfg'gåf/f g} dGqfnosf] ;+Vof lgwf{/0f ug]{ / ;f]xL cg'¿k ;f+u7lgs ;+/rgf, sfo{ ljefhg,+ gLlt / sfg'gdf ;'wf/ ug]{,

cGt/f{li6«o ¿kdf ljsl;t ePsf ;'zf;gsf cfwf/e"t dfGotfx¿nfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/L To;sf] •k|of]u / kfngf s8fOsf ;fy nfu" ug]{,

v/fa sfd ug]{ jf ck/fwhGo sfo{ ug]{nfO{ /fhgLlt tyf k|zf;g st}af6 klg ;+/If0f gu/L •b08 / ;Ddfgsf] plrt k|of]u ug]{,

k|zf;lgs lgsfox¿sf] sfd sf/jfxLdf ljB'tLo zf;g k4ltsf k|lqmofx¿ k|of]u ub{} •k|zf;gnfO{ k|ljlwd}qL agfpg],

;'zf;gsf lglDt ;fj{hlgs ;'gjfO{, ;fj{hlgs n]vf k/LIf0f, ;fj{hlgs dt ;j]{If0f tyf •u'gf;f] Joj:yfkg h:tf s'/fx¿ k|efjsf/L ¿kdf nfu" ug]{ .

cGTodf ;'zf;gsf lglDt k|l;4 bfz{lgs ODofg'o]n sfG6n] eg] h:tf] æ;Eo / ;+Dj[4 ;dfh lgdf{0fsf] d'Vo afws / cj/f]w ljut / jt{dfgsf] o'4 / lx+;f dfq lhDd]jf/ geO{ To:tf] o'4 / lx+;fnfO{ eljiodf klg lg/Gt/tf lbg] ;f]r g} xf] . To:tf] ;f]rsf] cGTo u/L lglZrt d"No dfGotfdf cfwfl/t /fhgLlts, sfg'gL / g}lts hudf pleP/ sfd ug]{ /fHo Joj:yfsf] lgdf{0f ug{ g;s];Dd ;Eo ;dfh lgdf{0f x'g ;Sb}gÆ . o;}u/L åGålj1 A.Curle eG5g\ –

æSolutions reached through negotiation may be simply expedient and not imply any change of heart. And this is the crux of peace. There must be a change of heart, without this no settlement can be considered secureÆ=


hfkfg / g]kfnsf] lghfdtL sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg M Ps t'ngfTds rrf{

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!= ljifo k|j]z

hfkfgsf] ;+ljwfgn] lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;+/If0f u/]sf] 5 . ;fj{hlgs kbflwsf/Lsf] 5gf]6 / avf{:tLsf] clwsf/ sfg'gtM hgtfdf /xg] / o;sf] cEof; 8fo6 / dlGqkl/ifb\ dfkm{t\ ul/g] Joj:yf ePsf] kfOG5 . cGo clwsf/ / st{Josf klg cfˆg} vfn] k|fjwfg / cEof;x¿ /x]sf 5g\ . egf{ k"j{b]lv cjsfz kZrft\ ;d]tsf sfo{df ;/sf/n] uxlsnf] lhDd]jf/L lnPsf] kfOG5 . of]Uotd\nfO{ lgik If tj/n] 5fGg] Joj:yf, pTk|]l/t / l6sfO{ /fVg] pkfox¿sf] cjnDag, tflnd / ljsf;df hf]8, bIftf / sfo{;DkfbgnfO{ k|f]T;fxg ug]{ gLlt, lghLIf]q;Fu sd{rf/L ljlgdo Joj:yf, cgfjZos x:tIf]kaf6 arfp, g}ltstf / pknlAwd"ns sfo{ ;+:s[lt Pjd\ ;fdflhs dof{bf / k|lti7f h:tf ljz]iftfx¿ hfkfgsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf kfOG5g\ . oL / o:tf cg]sf}+ ljz]iftfx¿ dWo] sltko ljz]iftfx¿ g]kfnL ;Gbe{;Fu ;dfg vfnsf 5g\ / sltko ljifox¿ ckgfpg nfos 5g\ . k|:t't n]vdf oL k|;+ux¿nfO{ rrf{ ug]{ k|oTg ul/Psf] 5 .

@= hfkfgL lghfdtL ;]jfsf] ;+lIfKt Oltxf;

hfkfgsf] lghfdtL ;]jfsf] Oltxf; s]nfpFbf !& cf}+ ztfJbLsf] ;d|f6 gf/fsf] zf;g sfn;Dd

* ;x ;lrj, cy{ dGqfno Email: [email protected]


k'luG5, h;df lrlgof k|zf;lgs 5fk lyof] . klZrdL 9fFrf jf k|efjsf] k|zf;gs} s'/f ug]{ xf] eg] ;g\ !*^* sf] d]hL ;Qfsf] k'g{:yfkgf sfn :d/0fLo 5 . ;g\ !**%, csf]{ pNn]Vo jif{ xf] h'g jif{ ;/sf/ ;+rfngsf nflu Soflag]6 k|0ffnL k|f/De ul/of] . ;g\ !**( / !*() df ;+ljwfg 3f]if0ff / 8fo6 (Diet) sf] k|f/De x'g' cufj} !**& df lghfdtL ;]jfdf klxnf] k6s k/LIff k|0ffnL ;'? e};s]sf] lyof] . ;d|f6sf] rfs/sf ¿kdf egf{ ul/Psf kbflwsf/Lsf ;§f ;Dk"0f{ hgtfsf] ;]js (Servents of the whole people) sf] ¿kdf sfod x'g hfkfgL lghfdtL ;]jfn] ;g\ %) sf] bzs;Dd s'g'{ k¥of] . k|yd ljZj o'4kl5 hfkfgL k|zf;g ;}Gojfbsf] 5fofFdf k¥of] Pjd\ zf;gdf ;]gf / kfl/jfl/s Jofj;flos 3/fgf -;'ld6f]df], d'T;'O{, ldT;'lj;L / oz'bf h:tf_ sf] jr{:j /Xof] . k|zf;g pgLx¿s} ldn]dtf]df rNYof] / lxt ;fwgfdf /dfpFYof] . tyflk o; cjlwdf g} hfkfgL cy{Joj:yfn] km8\sf] dfg{] nIf0f b]vfO{ ;s]sf] lyof] . ljz]iftM !($^ sf] ax'rlr{t x'j/ ld;gsf] !($& df k|fKt k|ltj]bgn] ;fdfGtL z}nLsf] k|zf;lgs Joj:yfnfO{ ¿kfGt/0f u/L ;fj{hlgs ;]jf sfg'gsf] ljwfog, ;zQm s]Gb|Lo sd{rf/L lgsfosf] >[hgf, sd{rf/Lsf] lxt /Iff, of]Uotf k|0ffnL, bIftf, ;dtf / sfo{;Dkfbg :t/Ls/0f / kb juL{s/0f h:tf ljifodf ;'wf/ x'g'kg]{ s'/f cf}+NofpFb} ;'emfj lbPsf] lyof] . sfnfGt/df hfkfgsf] k|zf;lgs ;zQmtfsf] ;'qfwf/sf ¿kdf of] ;'emfjnfO{ lnOG5 .

hfkfgsf] Oltxf;sf] cWoog ubf{ s] s'/f :ki6 x'G5 eg] bf]>f] ljZj o'4kl5 ljgf zt{ cfTd;dk{0f u/]sf] hfkfgn] & jif{;Dd cd]l/sL ;]gfsf] clwgtfdf /xFbf g} cfkm"nfO{ ;}Gos/0fsf ;§f k|hftfGqLs/0f u/L ljsf;, lgdf{0f / z}lIfs lj:tf/sf] cleofgdf Jofks ¿kdf ;fd]n u/fof] h;sf] glthfsf ¿kdf o'4 hGo ljeLlifsfsf sf/0f Wj:t k|fo cy{ Joj:yfsf] ltj| k'g{pTyfg, ltj| cfly{s j[l4 / l:y/ ;Dj[l4 sfod x'g ;Sof] . cd]l/sfn] ckjfbsf s]xL kIf afx]s hfkfgnfO{ x¿jf / sdhf]/ ePsf] cj;/df cfˆg} clwg:y /fvL /fVg] u/L zf]if0fsf k~hf km}nfpg' -x¿jf kIfnfO{ k|foM o;} ul/G5_ sf ;§f o;sf] /fHo tyf cy{tGqsf] k'gM;{+/rgf, ;anLs/0f / c;}Gos/0f4f/f cfˆgf] ;zQm ;fem]bf/ /fi6«sf ¿kdf :yflkt x'gdf ;3fof] . o;/L hfkfgL /fHo Joj:yfsf] k'g;{+/rgfdf cd]l/sf / ;xof]uL v]dfsf b]zx¿af6 pbf/tfk'j{s ;xof]u ul/Psf] atfOG5 . clwgtfsf] ;dflKtkl5 k|hftflGqs ;/sf/sf] bLuf]kgf sfod /xf];\ egL k|zf;lgs ;'wf/sf] cu|;/tf lnP/ cd]l/sfn] 7"nf] u'g nufPsf] kfOG5 . o; qmddf /fhgLlt1, ;/sf/L sd{rf/L / Jofj;flos 3/fgfsf] lqsf]0ffTds ;dGjon] clt /fd|f] e"ldsf lgjf{x u/]sf] s'/fnfO{ ljz]if :d/0fLo dflgG5 . o'4sf sf/0f Wj:t ePsf] d'n'ssf] /fxt, k'gM:yfkgf / ljsf;sf nflu cd]l/sf, ljZj a}+s / o'lg;]km cflbn] ;g\ !($^ b]lv !(^^ ;Dd 7"nf] ;xof]u u/]sf] / !(() lt/ dfq hfkfgn] ljZj a}+ssf] shf{ e'Qmfg ul/;s]sf] kfOG5 . %) sf] bzssf] dWo]b]lv &) sf] bzssf] ;'?;Ddsf] sfnv08nfO{ !! k|ltzt j[l4sf] hfb'do cjlw (Japanese Miracle) dflgG5, o;} cjlw -!(^$_ df hfkfgn] cf]nlDkssf] cfof]hgf / OECD sf] ;b:otf kfPsf] lyof] . &) sf] bzsdf k|zf;gsf] o:tf] k|efj lyof] ls Diet nfO{ An extension of the bureaucracy eGg yflnPsf] lyof] . ;g\ @))( df Democratic Party of Japan n] lht]kl5 lbPsf] gf/f, “Leadership by politics” ;fob oxL kl/l:ylthGo kl/0ffd xf] . h;n] g]t[Tjsf] xs nfUg] /fhgLltn] ;f] k'gMbfaL k|:t't ug'{k/]af6 k|zf;gsf] ;zQmtf / /fhgLltsf] lg/Lxtf emlNsG5 . hfkfgL ljsf;sf cWootfx¿n] lgsfn]sf] lgisif{ cg';f/ cu|0fL cfly{s zlQmsf ¿kdf cEo'bo u/fpg ;dlk{t x'g] ;femf ;xdlt, lxt ;d"xsf] Jofks pkl:ylt hf] bn;Fu cfa4 5g\, Ps kf6L{sf]


jr{:j (Liberal Democratic Party - LDP) / k|ltli7t / blj{nf] sd{rf/LtGq o;sf] ljsf;sf $ k|d'v :tDe dflgG5g\ . sd{rf/LtGq hfkfgsf] ;Dj[l4 ofqfsf] k|d'v stf{sf] ¿kdf /xFb} cfPsf] 5 . o;df cfnf]rsx¿ ;d]tsf] dt}Sotf kfOG5 .

hLjg ko{Gt /f]huf/L, lghL If]q / lghfdtL ;]jfaLr sd{rf/L cfbfgk|bfg, gLlt lgdf{0fdf uxlsnf] e"ldsf, pRr:t/Lo sd{rf/L 5gf]6 k/LIffdf s]xL ;Lldt ljZjljBfno Pjd\ sfg'g tyf cy{zf:q ljifosf] nuftf/sf] jr{:j, !()( b]lv g} dlxnfn] 5gf]6 k/LIffdf efu lng kfpg] Joj:yf, /fhgLlts / k|zf;lgs If]qaLr u7hf]8, kl/jt{g u|x0fzLntf, ;+u7g vf]Ng kfpg] eP klg x8tfn ug{ gkfpg] Joj:yf, lghL If]q;Fu t'ngLo tna, pRr uf}/j / nIfpGd'vtf (High pride and sense of mission) h:tf ljifox¿ dxTTjk"0f{ /x]sf 5g\ .

Jofks cy{df hfkfgL lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ /fli6«o / :yfgLo u/L @ efudf afF8g ;lsG5 . /fli6«o ;fj{hlgs ;]jfnfO{ ;fdfGo ;]jf (Regular Service) / ljz]if ;]jf (Special Service) eg]/ 5'§ofOG5 . ;fdfGo ;]jfdf of]Uotf k|0ffnL cg'¿k 5flgPsf sd{rf/L k5{g\ eg] ljz]iftkm{ k|wfgdGqL, dGqL nufotsf / dgf]lgt /fhgLlts kb k5{g\ .

#= /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfo (National Personnel Agency NPA) sf] e"ldsf / sfdx¿

k|d'v cfo'Qm, cfo'Qm / dxf;lrj ;d]t /xg] /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfo (NPA) n] of]Uotf k|0ffnL, tna lgwf{/0f, tflnd / ljsf; Pjd\ ;]jf ;'/Iffsf ljifodf lgikIftf tyf ;dGofoLstf sfod x'g] u/L ;g\ !($* b]lv s]Gb|Lo sd{rf/L lgsfosf] cleefjsLo e"ldsf lgjf{x ub}{ cfPsf] kfOG5 . sd{rf/Lsf] dfldnfdf ;jf]{Rr (Apex) lgsfosf] e"ldsfdf /x]/ of] lgsfon] hfkfgsf] ;Dj[l4df sd{rf/L ju{sf] ct'ngLo of]ubfg h'6fpg ;Ifd /x]sf] b]lvG5 .

o;sf sfdx¿ lgDggfg';f/ /x]sf] kfO{G5 M

lgo'lQm, a9'jf / cjsfz ;DaGwL lgodx¿sf] JofVof (Rules concerning appointment, promotion and retirement);egf{ k/LIff ;+rfng (Conduct recruitment examinations);tna / cGo ;'ljwfsf ljifodf ;'emfj (Recommend revisions in salary and plan alternative remuneration systems);tflnd sfo{qmdsf] ;+rfng / ;dGjo (Coordinate and conduct training programs);sfo{ jftfj/0f / sNof0fsf] sf/jfxL (Take charge of working conditions and welfare);cg'zf;g / g}ltstfsf ljifosf] cg'udg (Monitor discipline and ethics);dGqfno / lgsfox¿n] u/]sf k|lts"n sfd pk/ k'g/fjnf]sg (Review adverse action taken by ministries and agencies).

d"ntM of] /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] of]Uotf k|0ffnLsf] ;+/Ifssf ¿kdf cfkm"nfO{ pEofPsf] 5 . >d clwsf/sf] ;Lldt dfqfdf dfq k|of]u ug{ kfpg] hfkfgL sd{rf/L ju{n] /fhgLltsf] sf]kefhgaf6


hf]ufpg] / k|lti7f a9fpg] ljifodf lg/Gt/ lqmofzLn /xg] cleefjssf ¿kdf o;nfO{ lnPsf 5g\ .

s]Gb|Lo / :yfgLo lgsfosf] ;+/rgfM

hfkfgsf] s]Gb|Lo lgsfo, dGqfnosf] sd{rf/L Joj:yfsf] agf]6 jf kb;f]kfgsf] l:ylt ;fdfGotM o:tf] /x]sf] 5 M

Junior StaffSection ChiefAssistant Division DirectorDeputy Division DirectorDirector of semi independent office in a DivisionDivision Director in a BureauDivision Director in the Minister’s SecretariatCouncilor assigned to a Bureau or Deputy Bureau DirectorBureau Director Vice MinisterAdministrative Vice Minister

dGqfno tyf ;/sf/L s]Gb|Lo lgsfox¿sf] ;+/rgf

$= sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL sfg'gL Joj:yfx¿

hfkfgsf] ;fj{hlgs If]qdf sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;+Vof #$ nfv @( xhf/ /x]sf] 5 eg] cf+lzs ;do sfd ug]{ sd{rf/L ! nfv $@ xhf/ /x]sf 5g\ . k|wfgdGqLsf] cWoIftfdf /fli6«o lghfdtL k|zf;g ;'wf/ sfof{nosf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 . o;af6 k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;/sf/sf] lgoldt / h?/L ljifosf ¿kdf sfod ePsf] k|l:6G5 / ljBdfg sfg'gL Joj:yf nufotsf k|zf;g ;'wf/;Fu


;DalGwt ljifox¿nfO{ lg/Gt/ k'g/fjnf]sgsf] kl/lwleq kfl/Psf] kfOG5 . d"ntM k|zf;g;Fu ;DalGwt sfg'gx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

National Public Service Act National Public Service Ethics Act, 1999 National Public Service Ethics Code, 2000 National Public Service Accident Compensation Act Employee Organization 1,478 and members...106823 (in2011) Remuneration Act, 2010 Administrative Procedure Act, 1993 Freedom of Information Act, 1997 Protection of Personal Information Act, 2003 Basic Law on National Public Service Reform, 2008 Evaluation Law, 2001.

%= sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgsf ljleGg kIfdf ePsf cEof;x¿

%=!= egf{

egf{sf nflu z}lIfs of]Uotfsf] aGb]h gx'g' hfkfgL sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgsf] Ps ljz]iftf eGg ;lsG5 . 5gf]6 k/LIff g} cToGTo} :t/Ls[t x'gfn] cfwf/e"t z}lIfs of]Uotfsf] ;Ldf g/fv]sf] elgG5 . ;fdfGotM 6f]lsof], Sof]6f] ljZjljBfnosf dfgljsL -cy{zf:q_, sfg'g, ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g, lj1fg h:tf ljifosf t/f]tfhf :gftsx¿ k|foM egf{ k/LIffdf pQL0f{ x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ lghL ljZjljBfnotkm{ jf;]bf ljZjljBfnosf :gftsx¿ klg 5gf]6 k/LIffdf a9L dfqfdf pQL0f{ x'g] qmd a9]sf] atfOG5 . cy{ dGqfno, k//fi6« dGqfno, jfl0fHo dGqfno / k|wfgdGqL sfof{no h:tf lgsfo sd{rf/Lsf nflu cfsif{s dflgG5g\ . ljz]if1 / pRr:t/Lo hgzlQmsf] sdL gxf];\ egL 58\s] k|j]zsf] Joj:yf klg ul/Psf] 5 . egf{df pd]/ / /fli6«otfsf] k|df0f eg] k]; ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . Fast Streamer sf] egf{ k/LIffsf] ;+rfng /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] ub{5 / of] jif{sf] ! k6s x'G5 . Regular streamer sf] egf{ eg] /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] agfPsf] vfsfsf] kl/lwleq /x]/ ;Da4 dGqfno jf lgsfox¿n] ug{ ;S5g\ . /f]rs kIf s] 5 eg] ljZjljBfnox¿n] egf{ tof/Lsf 5'§} sIffx¿ rnfpF5g\ . cToGt k|lt:kwL{ / sflan JolQm dfq o:tf] k/LIffdf ;kmn x'g;S5 / p efUodfgL 7xl/G5 . 8fS6/sf] nflu eg] o:tf] k|lt:kwf{Tds k/LIffdf ga;Lsg g} ;]jfdf k|j]z u/fpg] ;xh Joj:yf 5 . egf{ k4ltdf kl/jt{g u/L ;g\ @)!# b]lv gofF Joj:yf nfu" ePsf] 5 .

%=@= tflnd / ljsf;

/fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfo cGt{utsf] National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA) n] d'n'ssf] sd{rf/L tflnd tyf ljsf; sfo{qmdsf] ;dli6ut of]hgfsf] th'{df, sfof{Gjog, ;dGjo / s]Gb|Lo lgsfo (Nodal Agency) sf] e"ldsf lgjf{x ub{5 . NIPA sf d'n'se/L ( j6f zfvf jf Jo'/f]x¿


5g\ . If]qut / k|fljlws k|s[ltsf dGqfnox¿sf cf–cfˆg} tflnd ;+:yfx¿ 5g\ .

tflnd d"ntM b'O{ lsl;dsf lbg] u/]sf] kfOG5, sfo{:yndf (On the job training) / sfo{:yn aflx/ (Of the job training) . ;g\ @)!! df @*,))) sf]if{ ;+rfng u/]sf] kfOG5 . tflndsf cGt{j:t' k|sf/fGt/df lgDgfg';f/ /x]sf] kfOG5 M

Team work, honest and cooperative administration focussing on culture, value and traditions,High morale and ethical background,

“Whistle- blowing” system,

Study on each Ministry’s policy,

Women focused training,

Personnel evaluation training,

Training for midcareer,

Study fellowship, theme or office focused training,

Peer and supervisor coaching,

Expectations on public employees,

Leadership training,

Administrative forum,

Fair public service management,

“Aspen” method training,

Overseas fellowship programs,

Mentort,

Prevention of sexual harassments,

Instructors training,

Safety for national public Employee,

Life planning Seminar,

Public private personnel exchange program,

Generalist - specialist rotation mechanism,

Politicization of admn./Administratization of politics,

Total quality management, quality circle,

Building mutual understanding among the employee.

plNnlvt a'Fbfx¿n] hfkfgL sd{rf/LtGqsf] l;sfO tyf ljsf; k4ltsf] emNsf] lbG5g\, h;n] ;fdlos 1fg, ;Lk / k|j[lQ xfl;n u/]/ cfkm"nfO{ wfl/nf] agfpg, x/ If0f abln+bf] ljZj kl/j]z ku]{Ng / tbg's"nsf] k|lt:kwf{Tds gLlt cufNg ;/sf/nfO{ ;'emfpg] ;fdYo{ /fVg] u/L sd{rf/LnfO{ ;j{yf tTk/ /fv]sf] kfOG5 .


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/fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] sfod u/]sf] j[xQ/ vfsfsf] bfo/fdf /x]/ dGqfnout ¿kdf sd{rf/Lsf] a9'jf x'G5 . a9'jf lg0f{odf Joj:yfkgsf] af]njfnf /xG5, s'g} kb l/Qm x'g' / b/vf:t lbg' kb}{g . a9'jfsf cfwf/x¿df egf{ x'Fbfsf] >]0fL, ;d"x / ljifo If]q, h]i7tf, k|lt:kwf{Tdstf, sfo{ ;Dkfbgsf] c+s, JolQmTj, z}lIfs of]Uotf, u'0f, ljz]if of]ubfg, ;+u7gsf] k|s[lt / k|lti7fsf cfwf/df a9'jf x'G5 . ;fdfGotM a9'jf # jif{df x'G5 . ;fdfGotM a9'jfdf ;dfg ;xsdL{aLrdf g} s8f k|lt:kwf{ x'G5 .

sd{rf/Lx¿ ;fdfGotM @ k|jfx (Strem) af6 ;+u7gdf egf{ ePsf x'G5g\ . d]3fjL / clt t]lhnf dfly plNnlvt ljZjljBfnox¿df /fd|f] u/]sfx¿ Fast Streamer sf ¿kdf zfvf k|d'v jf clws[tsf ¿kdf ;/sf/L ;]jfdf k|j]z ub{5g\ hf] ;De|fGt (Elite) sxlnG5g\, a9'jfdf klg cufl8 x'G5g\ . csf]{ wf/ eg] cln sdhf]/ z}lIfs k[i7e"ldsf JolQm jf Fast Streamer sf] k/LIffdf cnL tndfly k/]/ kf; x'g g;s]sf t/ ;/sf/L hflu/df ?lr /fVg] dw'/fvfn] JolQmx¿ x'G5g\ hf] Regular Streamer sxlnG5g\ / cl3Nnf] wf/ eGbf bf]>f]:t/sf] Jojxf/, 5gf]6, k|lti7f / ;'ljwf lnP/ hflu/ wfG5g\ . a9'jfdf klg of] eGbf cl3Nnf] wf/n] u|fXotf kfpF5 .

oxfF of] s'/f Vofn ug'{ k5{ ls pRr kbdf kof{Kt b/aGbL gx'gfn] jl/i7td\ clwsf/Lx¿ lghL If]qsf k|lti7fgx¿df hfg] qmd a9]sf] kfOG5 lsgls ;]jf ;'ljwfdf vf;} cGt/ x'Gg, cem lghL If]qdf a9L ;'ljwf ;d]t kfOg ;S5 . sd{rf/L a9'jf eO{ k|zf;lgs pkdGqL;Dd x'g ;Sg] b]lvG5 .

%=$= ;?jf

;fdfGo1 (Generalist) / ljz]if1 (Specialist) aLr sfo{ 3'dlkm/ jf ljlgdo x'g;Sg] Joj:yf x'gfn] ;fdfGotM dGqfnox¿aLr sd{rf/Lsf] ;?jf x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . Exchange of personnel and secondment sf ¿kdf ;?jfnfO{ lnPsf] b]lvG5 .

Soflag]6 ;]qm]6]l/o6 / Soflag]6 sfof{noaLr, :yflgo ;/sf/ / :yfgLo sfof{noaLr Pjd\ ;/sf/;Fu cfj4 lgsfoaLr sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;?jf x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . s]Gb|Lo lgsfo / :yfgLo lgsfo aLr eg] sd} dfqfdf sd{rf/Lsf] ljlgdo x'g] ub{5 . ;?jfsf] cfj[lQ ;fdfGotM # jif{ /x]sf] kfOG5 . :d/0fLo / cgf}7f] s'/f s] 5 eg] ;/sf/L / lghL If]qsf k|lti7fgaLr klg sd{rf/Lsf] n]gb]g x'G5 . g]kfndf h:t} dlGqkl/ifb\ / cy{ dGqfnosf] af]njfnf, dxTTj / cfsif{0f a9L /x]sf] kfOG5 . sd{rf/Ln] ;+;bdf ljz]if cfdlGqt ;b:osf ¿kdf cledt ;d]t JoQm ug{ kfpg] Joj:yf /x]sf] kfO{G5 .

%=%= tna tyf cGo Joj:yf

sfg'gtM sfd / lhDd]jf/Lsf cfwf/df tna / cGo ;'ljwf tf]Sg] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 . sfo{ 306f, sfo{ jftfj/0f / ;dfhsf] cj:yf cflbsf cfwf/df /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon]] l;kmfl/; u/]sf cfwf/df tnadf ;dfof]hg ug]{ ul/G5 . ;f] lgsfo n] x/]s jif{ tna eQfaf/] l;kmfl/z u5{ .


tnadf dfl;s kfl/>lds, u|]8 / :6]k j[l4 kb{5g\ . !& j6f tna ;"rL /x]sf] hfkfgL tnj ;+/rgfdf ;fdfGotM a9'jf / ljz]if sfo{bIftfsf cfwf/df u|]8 sfod ul/G5 h'g ! b]lv !) u|]8;Dd x'G5 . sfo{;Dkfbg d"Nof+sgsf qmddf lbOg] % >]0fLsf] juL{s[t :t/ cg';f/ a9'jfsf cnfjf Ifdtfsf cfwf/df tnasf] j[l4 kfOnf, :6]k r9fOG5 . :6]k j[l4 eg] jif{sf] ;'?df k|bfg ul/G5 . h;nfO{ lgDg tflnsfsf cfwf/df k|:6\ofpg ;lsG5 M

l;=g+ >]0fL u'0f :6]k j[l4

! A Extremely good * :6]k

@ BVery good ^ :6]k

# C Good $ :6]k

$ D Not very good @ :6]k

% E Not good ) :6]k

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!= lgjf{x vr{ wfGg d2t k'¥ofpg] eQfx¿ M

kfl/jfl/s eQf•lgjf; eQf•oftfoft eQf•kl/jf/ 5f]8]/ ;?jf x'Fbfsf] eQf •

@= ef}uf]lns jf :yfgLo eQf

If]qLo eQf•6f9f ;?jf eQf•b'u{d eQf•lr;f] If]q ;?jf eQf•;d'b|kf/ v6\bf kfpg] eQf•

#= vf; lhDd]jf/L / st{Jo jfktsf] eQf

Joj:yfkg eQf•ljbfsf lbgdf sfd u/]jfktsf] eQf•sl7g sfd u/]jfktsf] eQf•

$= cf]e/6fOd eQf

cf]e/6fOd eQf•/fqL l8p6L eQf•


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/fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfosf] l;kmfl/;df dlGqkl/ifb\ / ;+;bn] tna lgwf{/0f ub{5 . l;kmfl/; ubf{ /fli6«o cj:yfdf % k|ltzteGbf a9Ln] kl/jt{g ePsf] l:yltdf h'g;'s} avt / cGoyf jif{sf] Ps k6s l;kmfl/; ul/G5 . lghL If]q k|d'v / cfsif{s /f]huf/Lsf] If]qsf ¿kdf /x]sfn] ;/sf/L tna sfod ubf{ lghL If]qn] sfod u/]sf] tnanfO{ Ps d'Vo cfwf/sf ¿kdf lnO lg0f{o ul/G5 . ;g\ @)!! sf] dxfe"sDk, ;'gfdL tyf km'lsl;df k|sf]k kZrft\sf] cfly{s ;+s6 df]rg ug{ egL hfkfgsf] ;+;bn] sd{rf/Lsf] tnadf *=& k|ltztn] s6f}tL u/]sf] lyof] . o;df /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] s8f cfklQ hgfPsf] lyof] .

%=^ cfrf/ ;+lxtf ;DaGwL hfkfgL Joj:yf

National Public Service Law !($* cg';f/ hfkfgsf] sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgdf sd{rf/L cfr/0fnfO{ 7"nf] dxTTj lbOPsf] 5 . o; cg';f/ lgDg kIfdf hf]8 lbOPsf] 5 M

sfg'g / pRr kb:ysf] cfb]zsf] kfngf,1. ;/sf/L uf]Kotfsf] kfngf,2. >d clwsf/df aGb]h, o'lgog vf]Ng kfpg] t/ x8tfn ug{ k|ltaGw 5 . ;f}bfjfhL / 3. ;Demf}tf ug{ kfpg] Joj:yf ug]{ ljw]os ;+;bdf ljrf/fwLg 5,

/fhgLlts sfo{df aGb]h, bnsf] ;b:o aGg / dt xfNg kfpg] t/ g]tf aGg / r'gfj 4. n8\g gkfpg],

cGo Joj;fo ug{df k|ltaGw -cjsfz ko{Gt ;d]t aGb]h_5. ;fj{hlgs ;]jfsf] cj1f ug{ k|ltaGw,6.

gofF National Public Service Ethics Law, @))) cg';f/ lgDg s'/fnfO{ klg cfr/0f ;DaGwL lgod dflgPsf] 5 M

;/f]sf/jfnf jf cGo;Fu /sd, pkxf/, shf{, cfltYotf, lgz'Ns ;]jf lng gx'g],7. ;/f]sf/jfnf;Fu ofqf jf uNkm v]Ng gx'g],8. s/bftfsf] bfloTjdf k':ts n]vg, ;Dkfbg, ljdf]rgdf ;+nUg x'g gx'g],9.


;Dk"0f{ ;dfhsf] ;]jssf] ¿kdf 10. (Servent of the whole community) lgikIf ;]jfk|jfx,

lghL / ;fj{hlgs sf/f]jf/aLr e]b, ;Ldf /]vf sfod ug]{ / kbLo x}l;otsf] b'¿kof]u u/L 11. lghL nfe glng],

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^= sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL cGo dxTTjk"0f{ ljifox¿

cfwf/e"t >d clwsf/

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;]jf ;'/Iff / arfj

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sfo{;Dkfbg d"Nof+sg / bIftfnfO{ k|f]T;fxg

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pRr Joj:yfksLo kbdf ;/b/ !) k|ltztdfq dlxnf sfo{/t /x]sf 5g\ . dlxnfsf] cg'kft #)


k|ltzt;Dd k'¥ofpg] p2]Zo /fv] klg cf/If0fsf] eg] s'g} k|fjwfg /x]sf] b]lvGg .

cjsfz / hLjgofkg of]hgf

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cg'zf;g / cfr/0fsf lgodx¿

hfkfgL sd{rf/LtGqsf] P]ltxfl;s k[i7e"ld / w/ftnLo oyfy{tf cg's"n abln+bf] ;fdflhs d"No dfGotf ;fk]If x'g] u/L cg'zf;g, cfr/0f / g}ltstfsf lgodx¿ sfod u/]/ lghfdtL ;]jfsf] lgi7fsf] k|aw{g ul/Psf] 5 / hgcfnf]rgfaf6 arfO{ k|lti7fk"0f{ t'NofOPsf] 5 . sfo{ ;+:s[lt / g}ltstfnfO{ a9fjf lbg Ethics Act, Ethics Board, Ethics Focal person sf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 .

&= ljs]Gb|Ls/0f / :yfgLo zf;g Pjd\ sd{rf/L Joj:yf

;+ljwfgsf] wf/f (@, (#, ($ / (% df :yfgLo zf;gaf/] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 . :yfgLo :jfoQtf, ljQ, s/ / :yfgLo ;]jf ;DaGwL cnUu} sfg'gL Joj:yf 5 . :yfgLo lgsfosf] ;+Vofsf] s'/f ubf{ $& j6f k|b]z jf k|fGt (Prefectures) / !,&(! j6f gu/kflnsfx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . ldtJolotf / cfly{s ;DefJotf a9fpg Ps cfk;df ljno x'g] / ufleg] qmdsf sf/0f :yfgLo lgsfosf] ;+Vof 36\bf] 5 .

:yfgLo lghfdtL ;]jfsf xsdf :yfgLo ;/sf/ PSn}n] jf Pscsf{;Fu ldnL ;+o'Qm ¿kdf :yfgLo ;fj{hlgs ;]jf sfg'g cg';f/ /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfon] tf]s]sf] j[xQ/ vfsfleq /x]/ of]Uotf k|0ffnL cg';f/ sd{rf/L egf{ ul/G5 . ue{g/ jf d]o/n] sfg'gtM lgo'Qm / avf{:t ug{ ;S5 . /fli6«oeGbf :yfgLo lgsfodf sfo{/t sd{rf/L a9L -@& nfv ^( xhf/_ 5g\ .

*= gofF kxnx¿;"rgfsf] clwsf/ ;DaGwL, gLlt d"Nof+sg ;DaGwL, k|zf;lgs k|lqmof ;DaGwL / •lghLs/0f ;DaGwL / k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;DaGwL gofF sfg'gsf] Joj:yf,

Whistle blowing• k|0ffnL @))% af6 z'? ePsf], / glthf /fd|f] b]lvPsf],

Ethics week• l8;]Dj/ klxnf] ;ftf dgfpg yflnPsf],

:yfgLo / s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/sf] ;+o'Qm ;Dd]ng ug{ yflnPsf], •:yflgo :jfoQtf P]g k'g/fjnf]sg ug{ yflnPsf],•sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgdf ;'wf/sf k|oTgx¿ ul/Psf],•


/fhgLlts j[Qåf/f k|zf;lgs k|flwsf/ xfaL ePsf] eGb} ;+;b / dGqLkl/ifb\df •pkl:yltdf lg?T;fxg, gLlt lgdf{0fdf eGbf sfof{Gjogdf Jo:t /xg /fhgLltsf] cfu|x,

lj=;+= !(() df cfly{s dGbL cfP;Fu} ljZjJofkL cfly{s ;'wf/, pbf/Ls/0f, •lghLs/0f / ;/sf/sf] e"ldsfsf] k'gJof{Vofsf] k|efjsf] kmn:j¿k sd{rf/LtGqsf] sfo{If]q, clwsf/, ;+u7g / ;+Vofdf s6f}tL (Decrementalism), clgodg, lgIf]k0f, ;+u7gfTds k'g;{+/rgf, Ph]G;Ls/0f, ;+:yfgLs/0f / ;xsf/Ls/0f h:tf sfo{ eO{ 5l/tf] ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ff cg''';f/ rNg] qmd ;'? ePsf],

km's'l;df jf k"jL{ hfkfgsf] e"sDk / ;'gfdLsf] sf/0f pTkGg ;+s6sf] ;fdgf ug{ egL •h'g @)!! kl5 sd{rf/Lsf] tnadf &=* k|ltztn] s6f}tL,

sd{rf/L egf{ k4ltdf ;'wf/,•;fd"lxs ;f}bfjfhLsf] clwsf/ :yflkt,•pRr txdf /fhgLlts lgo'lQmsf] bfo/f lj:tf/ .•

;g\ @))% df hfkfgsf] hg;+Vof pRrtd\ ljGb'df k'Ubf !@ s/f]8 &) nfv ePsf]df ;g\ @)%) df !) s/f]8df x|f; (Depopulation) x'g] nIf0f /x]sf] tyf cf};t cfo'df #) k|ltztn] a9f]Q/L eP cg'¿k ;fdflhs ;+/rgfdf h]i7 gful/ssf] cg'kft (Aging society) x]/rfxsf] bfloTj / cjsfz j[lQsf] /fzL a9\bf] qmddf /x]sf]n] cjsfzsf] pd]/ xfnsf] ^) af6 a9fP/ ^% agfpg] r/0fa4 sfo{sf] yfngL ePsf] 5 . o; qmddf ^) jif{sf] k]G;g kfpg] pd]/nfO{ ;g\ @)!# b]lv x/]s # jif{df ! jif{ a9fpFb} @)@% ;Dddf ^% jif{ k'¥ofpg] gLlt lnOPsf] 5 . o;/L k]G;g bfloTj / tna Jooef/aLr tfnd]n ldnfP/ s'n bfloTjdf cgfjZos j[l4 gx'g] t'NofOPsf] 5 .

ljs]Gb|Ls/0f / lgIf]k0fdf Jofkstf, ldtJolotf / sfo{bIftf a9fpgsf nflu :yfgLo •lgsfox¿ Pscsf{df ufleg] qmd rfn',

pkxf/, uNkm, cfltYotf u|x0f, cjsfzf]Q/sf] j[lQ, ;]o/sf] ckm/, j}b]lzs e|d0fsf •gfddf lglxt :jfy{sf] v]n a9]sfn] k];fut g}ltstf / cfrf/sf lgodx¿, tflnd / Ethics Board sf] Joj:yf,

Politicization of Administrators and Administratization of politicians• dfkm{t\ Pscsf{aLr ;dGjo / ;dembf/Lk"0f{ ;xsfo{sf] Joj:yf ePsf] 5 .

(= cfnf]rgfx¿

aflx/Lofsf] b[li6df hfkfgL k|zf;lgs Joj:yf clt /fd|f] / Jojl:yt k|tLt eP klg hfkfgL hgtf eg] o;sf] Ifdtf, z}nL, Jojxf/ / ;+rfngdf ;Gt'i6 5}gg\ . cfnf]rgfsf b]xfo adf]lhdsf s]xL afGsLx¿n] ;'wf/ / kl/dfh{gsf] u'Ghfo;nfO{ emNsfPsf] kfOG5 M

Go"g kf/blz{tf, k|lqmofdf a9L cNdlng], ;':t / ck|f;+lus ;f]r Pjd\ sfo{9fFrf / 9/f{n] •g/fd|/L lslrPsf], !(() kl5 Bubble economy collapse x'Fbf k"jf{g'dfg / ;fdgfsf] ;zQm /0fgLlt cl3 ;f/]/ d'n'snfO{ arfpg g;s]sf],

/fhgLltn] pko'Qm ¿kdf xfFSg g;Sbf gLlt lgdf{0fdf / ljsf;df xfdL g} xtf{stf{, •


g]t[Tjstf{ xf}+ eGg] efjgf sd{rf/L ju{df /x]sf] kfOg' / ;/;tL{ x]bf{ ;To h:tf] b]lvg',

;g\ !**& df ;'? ul/Psf] sd{rf/L egf{ k/LIf0f k4ltdf sfnfGt/df klg tflTjs ¿kdf •kl/jt{g gul/+bf sd{rf/LtGqdf ;De|fGtjfb (Elitism) xfaL e} 6f]lsof] ljZjljBfno / cy{zf:q / sfg'g ljifosf] jr{:j sfod /xg',

gLlt / ljsf; b[li6df b"/blz{tf / /fhgLlts t6iytfsf] a9\bf] hg ck]Iff,•;g\ !((# df • LDP sf] #* jif]{ zf;gsf] cGTo;Fu} sd{rf/LtGq / /fhgLltsf aLr k|zf;gsf] ljutsf] gLlt lgdf{0f / /fhgLlts k|s[ltsf ljifo ;d]tdf b]lvPsf] jr{:jsf] ljifonfO{ lnP/ dgf]j}1flgs b/f/ /x]sf],

;]jf ;'ljwfsf ljifodf /fli6«o sd{rf/L lgsfo• pk/ a9L lge{/ eO{ ;fd"lxs ;f}bfjfbL h:tf] cTofjZos nf]stflGqs k4ltsf] pk]Iff x'g k'u]sf],

pRr txdf /fhgLlts lgo'lQmsf] afx'Notfn] of]Uotf k|0ffnL lgolGqt x'g k'u]sf], pRr •txdf j[lQ ljsf;sf] cj;/ clt ;fF3'/f] ag]sf],

dx+uf] / e2f ;+/rgf /x]sf] egL cfnf]lrt x'g] u/]sf] .•

!)= hfkfgsf] sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgaf6 l;Sg ;lsg] s'/fx¿

;}4flGts cfwf/df sltko If]qdf ;dfgtf kfOP klg sof}+ If]qdf l;Sg nfossf w]/} kIfx¿ 5g\ . tL dWo] s]xL s'/fx¿M

;d"x efj1. gf (Team Spirit) McrDdsf] s'/f s] 5 eg] hfkfgL sd{rf/Lx¿sf] JolQmut cfwf/df d"Nof+sg x'G5 t/ sfo{ lhDd]jf/L ;fd"lxs ¿kdf tf]lsPsf] x'G5 . ;d"x efjgfdf sfd ubf{{ pTkGg x'g] Synergic effects nfO{ ehfP/ pknlAwnfO{ pRrtd\ cfbz{ ljGb' xfl;n ug{ o:tf] ul/Psf] / of] ;kmn ePsf] a'lemG5 . tflnd / lg/Gt/ cWoog tyf ljsf;sf] cj;/ Go"g ePsf] g]kfnL lghfdtL ;Gbe{df Peer learning, Learning by team work sf] ljifo cg's/0fLo 5 . gj o'jfaf6 gljgtd\ 1fg, ;Lk / kfsfaf6 gofFnfO{ cg'ejsf] s'/f ;f6km]/ ug{ ;s]df Jofj;flos pGgog x'g] lyof] ls <

dGqLkl/ifb\ jf ;+;bn] ug]{ sfd afx]sdf s]Gb|Lo sd{rf/L lgsfo 2. (NPA) g} sd{rf/L ljifos gLlt sfod ug{df lg0ff{os /xg] hfkfgL k/Dk/f ;j{yf cg's/0fLo nfU5 .

Ethics Board, Ethics Focal Person and Ethics Week3. sf] k|rng klg xfd|f] h:tf] g}lts w/ftn vl:sPsf] / hg cfnf]rgfsf] tf/f] ag]sf] lghfdtL ;]jfsf] k|lti7f k'g:yf{kgsf nflu pkof]uL k|tLt x'G5 .

sfo{;Dkfbgdf cfwfl/t tna / k|f]T;fxg Joj:yf klg pkof]4. uL b]lvG5 .

sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgdf lghL ;/sf/L ;fem]bf/L k4ltsf] klg gSsn ug]{ a]nf eof] 5. ls <

;}Go / k|x/L yKg dfq clek|]l/t x'g] / lghfdtLdf eg] slyt bft[lgsfosf] l;kmfl/;sf 6. gfddf s6f}tLsf] s/f}+tL rnfpg] lg0ff{osn] hfkfgsf] sd{rf/L hg;+Vof cg'kft /


ljsf;df kl/rfngsf] s'/fnfO{ klg Vofn ug'{k5{ ls <

d'n'ssf] cfly{s l:ylt / lghL If]qsf] tnadfgsf] :t/;Fu ;fdf~h:o x'g] u/L x/]s 7. jif{ tna ;dfof]hg x'g] ;doa4 k4lt klg xfd|f tna lgwf{/ssf nflu /fd|f] kf7 x'g ;S5 .

hLjgko{Gt ;]jf / cjsfz pk|fGt ;d]t lhDd]jf/L lng] sd{rf/L sNof0f gLlt, sfo{ 8. clek|]/0ff / e|i6frf/ lgoGq0fsf nflu pkof]uL x'g] s'/f hfkfgsf] cg'ejaf6 b]lvPsf]n] g]kfnL gLlt lgdf{tfsf nflu klg pkof]uL x'g] b]lvG5 .

hfkfgsf] k|zf;lgs Oltxf; ;fdGtL Joj:yfsf] pkh ePklg /fhgLlts kl/jt{g;Fu} 9. k|zf;gn] cfkm"nfO{ ¿kfGtl/t u/L ;Dk"0f{ hgtfsf] ;]js (Servents of the whole people) sf ¿kdf cfkm"nfO{ kl/0ft ug{ ;Ifd ePsf] s'/f xfd|f nflu klg pbfx/0fLo x'g ;S5 . k6s k6s u/L /fhgLltdf cfd"n kl/jt{g cfO;s]sf] / lzIff, ;"rgf / ;+rf/ Pjd\ cfly{s kl/b[Zo (Landscape) Jofks ¿kn] ¿kfGtl/t ePsf] ;Gbe{eGbf 7Ls pN6f] x'g] u/L g]kfnsf] k|zf;gn] eg] ;fdGtL x}sdL :jefjnfO{ g} sfvL RofkL /fv]sf] 5 / hgtfsf] ;]js x}g zf;ssf ¿kdf cfkm"nfO{ k|:t't ul//x]sf] la8Djgfk"0f{ l:yltnfO{ abNg] ls <

;Dk"0f{ u'0f:t/ Joj:yfkg / u'0f rqmsf] cjwf/0ff nufot ;"rgfsf] xs ;DaGwL 10. Joj:yfx¿n] hfkfgL k|zf;lgs k|0ffnLsf] bIftf, k|efjsfl/tf k|jw{gdf ;3fPsf] b]lvPsfn] g]kfnsf] nflu klg pkof]uL x'g] b]lvG5 .

/fhgLlt / k|zf;gaLr ;dembf/L / ;xsfo{ ,gLlt lgdf{0f / /fi6« lgdf{0fdf xft]dfnf] 11. ug]{ k2lt ;j{yf cg's/0fLo 5 .

xs / clwsf/sf gfddf clt /fhgLlts[t g]kfnsf sd{rf/L ;+3 ;+u7gx¿n] k];fut 12. lgi7f / g}lts d"Nosf] pRr cfbz{nfO{ sfod ug{ hfkfgL sd{rf/Lx¿n] b]vfPsf] Tofu / ;dk{0fnfO{ ckgfpg] cfF6 ug{ ;Snfg\ jf rfxnfg\ <

/fli6«o ljsf;df cGo ;/f]sf/jfnf eGbf ;zQm / ha/h:t e"ldsf v]n]sf] s'/fdf uf}/j 13. / k|lti7fsf] (Dignity and Pride) efjgf / pRr dgf]an sfod u/L hg;]jfdf cem} ;dlk{t x'g] k|lt:kwL{ :jefj hfkfgL sd{rf/Ldf :jt:km"t{ ¿kdf hfu]sf] kfOG5 . xfd|f] k|zf;gn] cfkm"nfO{ nfUb} cfPsf] cg'r/ efj, s'zf;g, b08xLgtfsf] kf]ifs ag]sf] cf/f]knfO{ ldYof ;fljt ug{ / ;uj{ /fli6«o ljsf;sf] ;zQm ;fem]bf/L bfaL ug{ l9nf ug{ x'Gg ls <

ReferencesWikipedia.org.............Date accessed : Aug 2013.

Dabid, Osborne and Ted Gaebler (1992), Reinventing Government, Printice- Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi.

http://ssi.jinji.go.jp/top_e.htm.............Date accessed: Aug 2013.


Japanese Government, National Personnel Authority (2012), Profile of National Public Employees.

United Nations (2006), JAPAN, Public Administration Country Profile, Division for Public Administration and Development Management (DPADM), Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA).

Japan International Cooperation Agency (2013), Country Report for The Group Training Course In Governmental Human Resource Management For Senior Officials.Tokyo.

Gelal, Gangaram (2013), Public Personnel Administration in Nepal, Country Report for The Group Training Course In Governmental Human Resource Management For Senior Officials.Tokyo.


g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/x¿lzj/fd Gof}kfg] *

;f/f+z

;/sf/sf gLlt, of]hgf, sfo{qmd / lg0f{ox¿sf] ;~rf/sf ;fy} ;f]sf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog ug]{ bfloTj ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf /x]sf] x'G5 . ;/sf/nfO{ lqmofzLn u/fpg] d'Vo lhDd]jf/L ePsf] o; ;+oGqsf] lgoldt ;'wf/ Pjd\ Ifdtf clej[l4af6 g} ;/sf/n] cfkm\gf] nIo xfl;n u/L hgtf;Fusf] ljZj;gLotf sfod ug{ ;Sg] x'G5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] k|lt:kwf{Tds Ifdtfn] ;/sf/sf] ;f]r, nIo Pjd\ hgtf;Fusf] k|lta4tf / pQ/bfloTjsf] Jofjxfl/s ¿kfGt/0fdf 6]jf k'Ug] ePsfn] o;sf] lgoldt ;'wf/ ckl/xfo{ ePsf] 5 . ;fy} gful/s / ;/sf/aLrsf] ;DaGw, ;xsfo{ / ljZjf;nfO{ dha't agfO{ /fVg ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] sfo{z}nL Pjd\ sfo{k4lt hgd'vL x'g' h?/L 5 . o;sf nflu kl/jlt{t d"No dfGotfnfO{ ;d]t cFufNb} hgtfsf] dfu / ck]Iff cg's"n ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/ ug]{ sfo{ ckl/xfo{ x'G5 . d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/sf nflu ljut 5 bzsb]lvsf] k|of; ck]lIft ¿kdf pknlJwd"ns x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu ;'emfj ;ldlt u7g ug]{ t/ ;ldltsf ;'emfjx¿sf] sfof{GjognfO{ a]jf:tf ug]{ ;+:sf/ sfod} ePsf sf/0f g]kfndf k|zf;lgs ;'wf/ ck]lIft ¿kdf kmnbfoL x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;ldltaf6 a9L cfbz{ Pjd\ dxTTjfsf+IfL ;'emfjx¿ cfpg] u/]sf], ;'emfj sfof{Gjogsf nflu ;Ifd / lhDd]jf/ lgsfo v8f ug{ g;lsPsf]], ;'emfj sfof{Gjogsf nflu cfjZos >f]t, ;fwg, lhDd]jf/L / clwsf/sf] ;'lglZrttf x'g g;s]sf], ;'emfj sfof{Gjogsf] cj:yfsf] cWoog, ljZn]if0f Pjd\ ;dLIff ug]{ sfo{n] k|fyldstf gkfPsf sf/0f ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿ k|efjsf/L x'g ;s]sf 5|}gg\ . o; ;Gbe{df ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/nfO{ tTsfnLg Pjd\ bL3{sfnLg ;'wf/ /0fgLltx¿ tof/ u/L sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg' ckl/xfo{ ePsf] 5 . o;sf nflu ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnon] s]Gb|Lo k|zf;lgs lgsfosf ¿kdf g]t[TjbfoL e"ldsf lgjf{x ug]{ Pjd\ k|wfgdGqL Pjd\ dlGq kl/ifb\sf] sfof{no, cy{ dGqfno nufotsf lgsfox¿n] ;xof]uLsf] e"ldsf lgjf{x ug'{kg]{ h?/L ePsf] 5 .

!= k[i7e"ld

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] lqmofzLntfn] ;/sf/sf] ;kmntfnfO{ ;'lglZrttf k|bfg ub{5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ lgoldt ¿kdf lqmoflzn / :t/Lo u/fO{ /fVg o;sf] :j¿k, z}nL, k4lt Pjd\ k|s[ltdf ;fdlos ;'wf/ ul//xg' kb{5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ ;Ifd, ;'b[9, k|lta4, pQ/bfoL, sfdofjL u/fpg ;s]sf sf/0f ljZjsf w]/} d'n'sx¿ ljsf;df km8\sf] dfg{ ;kmn ePsf 5g\ . ef/t, a]nfot, dn]l;of, blIf0f sf]l/of, rLg h:tf d'n'sx¿ o;sf HjnGt pbfx/0f x'g\ . g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf ;'wf/sf] cf}krfl/s k|of; @))( ;fndf ef/taf6 cfPsf k|zf;gljb\ >L Pd=Pg=a'rsf]

* pk ;lrj, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno Email: [email protected]


g]t[Tjsf] sfo{ bnn] lbPsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf ;'emfjsf] sfof{Gjog kZrft\ ePsf] xf] . kl/jlt{t ;fdflhs, cfly{s Pjd\ /fhgLlts kl/j]z cg's"n k|zf;lgs ;'wf/ ug{] k|rng eP tfklg g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿ d"ntM /fhgLlts kl/jt{gaf6 k|efljt x'g] u/]sf] kfOG5 . ablnFbf] r'gf}lt / cj;/x¿nfO{ ;fdgf ug{ d'n'snfO{ ;Ifd u/fpg] clek|fon] ;/sf/n] cfkm\gf] Joj:yfkgnfO{ ;'wf/ ug'{ h?/L x'g] eP tfklg g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf clwsf+z k|of;x¿ /fhgLlts nx8 / xf]8afhLaf6 k|ToIf k|efljt ePsf b]lvG5g\ . @)!# ;fndf ul7t k|zf;g k'gu{7g cfof]usf clwsf+z dxTTjk"0f{ ;'emfjx¿ sfof{Gjogdf NofOPkl5 dfq g]kfn k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] cf}krfl/s yfngL ePsf] dflgG5 . ljleGg ;dodf lg/Gt/ ¿kdf k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu ;'emfj ;ldltx¿ u7g ug]{ t/ k|fKt ;'emfjx¿sf] sfof{Gjogsf nflu cfjZos k"jf{wf/x¿ tof/ ug{ g;Sg] ;d:of xfn;Dd klg sfod} /x]sf] 5 . @)^! ;fndf sfof{Gjogdf NofOPsf] zf;sLo ;'wf/sf] dfu{lrqsf] sfof{Gjogn] d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf s]xL pNn]vgLo kl/jt{gx¿ NofPsf] lyof] . @)$^ ;fnsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{g kZrft\ d'n'ssf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu u7g ePsf] pRr:t/Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u @)$* n] lbPsf ;'emfjx¿ k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu dxTTjk"0f{ cfwf/ x'g;Sg] b]lvPsf] eP tfklg oL ;'emfjx¿nfO{ sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg /fhgLlts Pjd\ k|zf;lgs g]t[Tjn] lhDd]jf/L glnPsf sf/0f g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] cj:yf cfh;Dd sdhf]/ g} /x]sf] 5 . @)$* ;fnsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{g kZrft\ klg ljleGg ;dodf ljleGg lsl;dsf k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldlt u7g ug]{ Pjd\ ;'emfj ;+sng ug]{ sfo{n] lg/Gt/tf kfPsf] 5 t/ sfof{Gjogdf lhDd]jf/L glng] ;+:sf/ sfod} /x]sf sf/0f o; If]qdf ;'wf/sf 7f]; ;+s]tx¿ b]lvg ;s]sf 5}gg\ .

;/sf/n] kl/jlt{t /fhgLlts Pjd\ ;fdflhs kl/j]z cg's"n gful/ssf kl/jlt{t cfsf+Iffx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug]{ k|lta4tf u/]sf] x'G5 . o:tf k|lta4tfx¿ ;/sf/L gLlt Pjd\ ;'wf/ of]hgfsf ¿kdf cfPsf x'G5g\ t/ o:tf gLlt jf ;'wf/ of]hgfsf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjogsf nflu k|zf;lgs ;+oGqsf] ;d]t ;fdlos ;'wf/ ug'{ cfjZos x'G5 . o; kl/k|]Iodf k|zf;lgs ;'wf/nfO{ /fhgLlts k|lta4tf k"/f ug]{ k|d'v cf}hf/sf ¿kdf ;d]t lng ;lsG5 . /fhgLlts k|lta4tf ljgf k|zf;lgs ;'wf/ ;+ej gx'g] g]kfnsf] oyfy{tfsf ;Gbe{df d'n'ssf] k|zf;lgs ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;+sngdf g} a9L cndlnPsf] 5 . /fhgLlts kl/jt{g kZrft\ k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu ;ldltx¿ u7g x'g] t/ ;ldltaf6 k|fKt ;'emfjx¿sf] sfof{Gjogsf nflu /fhgLlts rf;f], k|lta4tf / ;xdlt gx'g] ;fy} k|zf;lgs cu|;/tfsf] sdL x'g] u/]sf sf/0f k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿ ck]Iffs[t ¿kdf pknlJwd"ns x'g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . k'/fgf] ;+u7g ;+/rgf, cg'Tkfbs Pjd\ k|lqmof pGd'v sfo{ k4lt, lhDd]jf/L Pjd\ pQ/bfloTj glng] k|j[lt, k'/fgf k"jf{wf/ Pjd\ d]l;g cf}hf/x¿sf] k|of]u, sfo{d'vLeGbf ;'ljwfd'vL ;f]r / cfr/0f cg'zf;g kfngf gug]{ ;+:sf/ sfod} /x]sf sf/0f d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/d'vL x'g g;s]sf] :ki6 x'G5 . o; ;Gbe{df ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug{ ;lsg] ;xh ;'wf/sf pkfox¿af6 qmdzM bL3{sfnLg ;f]r Pjd\ nIotkm{sf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] cleofg yfngL ug'{kg]{ b]lvG5 .


@= g]kfndf ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿

@))* ;fndf nf]s;]jf cfof]usf] :yfkgf ePkl5 g]kfndf cf}krfl/s ¿kdf k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of; ePsf x'g\ eGg ;lsG5 . nf]s;]jf cfof]usf] :yfkgfkl5 ;/sf/L lgsfodf sfd ug]{ sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ of]Uotfsf cfwf/df lglZrt 5gf]6 k|lqmof cjnDag u/L l;kmfl/; ug'{kg]{ cjwf/0ff NofOof] . @))( ;fndf g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu cWoog u/L ;'emfj lbg ef/taf6 cfPsf] Pd=Pg=a'rsf] g]t[Tjdf ul7t k|zf;sLo k'gu{7g ;ldltn] lbPsf ljleGg ;'emfjx¿dWo] k|d'v ;lrjsf] Joj:yf ug]{ Pjd\ sd{rf/Lsf] lgo'lQm nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] l;kmfl/;df ug]{ Joj:yfnfO{ sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg hf]8 lbOPsf] lyof] . @)!# ;fndf tTsfnLg k|wfgdGqL >L 6+s k|;fb cfrfo{sf] cWoIftfdf u7g ePsf] k|zf;sLo k'gu{7g of]hgf cfof]usf] l;kmfl/;df lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)!# hf/L ePkl5 lghfdtL ;]jfn] sfg'gL ¿k wf/0f u¥of] . ;fy} k|zf;sLo sfo{nfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ k|zf;sLo sfo{ljlw P]g, @)!# ;d]t hf/L eof] . cfrfo{ cfof]un] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu lbPsf clwsf+z ;'emfjx¿ sfof{Gjogdf ;d]t cfPsfn] o;af6 g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/df dxTTjk"0f{ cfwf/x¿ tof/ ePsf] dflgG5 .

@)@% ;fndf >L j]bfgGb emfsf] cWoIftfdf u7g ePsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]un] lbPsf ;'emfjx¿dWo] zf;g k|0ffnLk|lt k|lta4 sd{rf/L k|zf;g agfpg], sd{rf/L k|zf;gsf nflu s]Gb|Lo lgsfosf] :yfkgf ug]{, nf]s;]jf cfof]usf] e"ldsf kb:yfkgf, ;?jf, b08 ;hfonfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fpg] h:tf sfo{nfO{ Jojxf/df sfof{Gjogdf NofOof] . @)#@ ;fndf 8f= e]ifaxfb'/ yfkfsf] ;+of]hsTjdf u7g ePsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]un] lbPsf ;'emfjx¿dWo] of]hgf PsfO{x¿sf] ;'b[9Ls/0f ug]{, sfo{ ljefhg / sfo{;Dkfbg lgodfjnLx¿nfO{ ;fdlos u/fpg], lhNnf sf]if lgoGqs sfof{no vf]Ng] h:tf ;'emfjx¿ sfof{Gjogdf NofO{ k|zf;g ;'wf/df yk cfwf/ tof/ ul/of] . @)$^ ;fndf d'n'sdf ePsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{gsf] efjgf cg's"n k|zf;lgs ;+/rgf, k4lt tyf k|j[lQdf ;'wf/ Nofpgsf nflu @)$* ;fndf tTsfnLg k|wfgdGqL >L lul/hfk|;fb sf]O/fnfsf] cWoIftfdf pRr:t/Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u u7g ul/of] . pQm cfof]un] g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu ;"Id cWoog Pjd\ ljZn]if0f u/L ;'wf/sf lj:t[t / dxTTjk"0f{ ;'emfjx¿ lbPsf] lyof] . ;/sf/L lgsfox¿df sfd ug]{ sd{Rff/Lx¿sf] ;'/Iffsf] ;'lglZrttf ug]{, ;/sf/L lgsfox¿nfO{ a9L dxTTj / ;fvsf sfo{df dfq ;+nUg ug]{ Pjd\ ;/sf/sf] e"ldsf k|a4{gfTds / k|]/0ffTds u/fpg], e|i6frf/ lgoGq0fsf] sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fpg], k|To]s sd{Rff/Lsf] sfd, st{Jo / pQ/bfloTj :ki6 ug]{, lg0f{osf txx¿ 36fpg] h:tf dxTTjk"0f{ ;'wf/sf sfo{x¿nfO{ Jojxf/df NofOof] . pRr:t/Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]u @)$* n] d'n'ssf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu dxTTjk"0f{ ;'emfjx¿ lbPsf] eP tfklg sfof{Gjog kIf sdhf]/ ePsf sf/0f cg's"n /fhgLlts Pjd\ k|zf;lgs kl/l:yltsf] cj:yfdf ;d]t ck]lIft ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsPg .

zf;sLo ;'wf/ sfo{qmdsf] dfu{lrq, @)^! sf] sfof{Gjogn] g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/df dxTTjk"0f{ cfofd yKg ;kmn ePsf] dflgG5 . k|To]s dGqfnodf ;lrjsf] cWoIftfdf kl/jt{g Joj:yfkg ;ldlt u7g ug]{, b/aGbL Pjd\ ;+u7g ;+/rgfdf ;'wf/ ug]{, ;a} lgsfox¿df gful/s a8fkq


nfu' ug]{, ;/sf/L sfdsf] gful/s ;'g'jfO{ ug]{, k|zf;lgs ;+oGqdf ;dfj]zL gLltnfO{ cjnDag ug]{ h:tf dxTTjk"0f{ cfofdx¿ ylkP . @)^@.^# df d'n'sdf cfPsf] /fhgLlts kl/jt{gn] d'n'ssf] k|zf;g ;+oGqsf] ;du| ;+/rgf, k4lt, :j¿k / z}nLdf kl/jt{g ug]{ p2]Zo :j¿k @)^% ;fndf k|zf;g k'gM;+/rgf cfof]usf] u7g eof] . t/ d'n'ssf] zf;g ;+/rgfsf] :j¿ksf ljifodf Plsg wf/0ff aGg g;s]sf] ;fy} ;/sf/sf] g]t[Tj kl/jt{g;F+u} o; cfof]usf kbflwsf/Lx¿sf] g]t[Tj ;d]t af/Daf/ kl/jt{g eO{ /xFbf o; cfof]uaf6 k|zf;g k'gM;+/rgfsf nflu 7f]; ;'emfjx¿ cfpg ;s]gg\ . pQm cfof]un] ljleGg r/0fdf ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|jfxdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/, g]kfndf ljB'tLo zf;gsf] k|a4{gdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/, lghfdtL ;]jfsf] Ifdtf clej[l4df ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/, /fi6«;]jsx¿sf] tna ;'ljwfdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/, lghfdtL ;]jfdf 6«]8 o'lgogsf] e"ldsfsf] ;DaGwdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/sf nflu ;'emfjx¿ lbPsf] lyof] . d'n'ssf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf ;Gbe{df @)^( ;fndf >L sfzL/fh bfxfnsf] ;+of]hsTjdf ljleGg dGqfnosf ;lrjx¿ ;b:o /x]sf] k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldltsf] u7g ePsf] 5 . pQm ;ldltn] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu tof/ u/]sf] k|f/lDes k|ltj]bg ;/sf/nfO{ a'emfO{ ;s]sf] 5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf ljleGg If]qdf ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/sf ;'emfjx¿ ;lxtsf] pQm k|f/lDes k|ltj]bgsf] sfof{Gjog sfo{of]hgf tof/ x'g g;s]sf sf/0f tTsfn sfof{Gjogdf cfpg ;s]sf] 5}g .

#= ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/ k|lqmofdf k|efj kfg]{ tTTjx¿

d'n'ssf] ;du| zf;g k4ltnfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fO{ ;/sf/ / hgtfaLrsf] ;DaGw Pjd\ ljZjf;nfO{ dha't u/fO{ /fVg k|zf;g ;'wf/ ckl/xfo{ ePsfn] x/]s d'n'sdf o; sfo{nfO{ k|fyldstf lbg] ul/G5 . k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] sfo{nfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbg' ;/sf/sf] k|d'v bfloTj klg xf] . ;du| ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ hgd'vL / hgpQ/bfoL u/fpg df}h'bf ;+fu7lgs ;+/rgf, sfg'gL Pjd\ gLltut ljifosf ;fy} k4ltut ;'wf/sf nflu ;/sf/sf] cu|;/tf ckl/xfo{ ePsf] x'G5 . o;sf nflu ;/sf/nfO{ ljleGg tTTjx¿n] k|efj kfl//x]sf] x'G5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu k|efj kfg]{ k|d'v tTTjx¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M

d'n'ssf] jt{dfg /fhgLlts ;xdlt, OR5fzlQm / ljZjf;,•k|zf;lgs g]t[Tjsf] rf;f], :ki6 lhDd]jf/L Pjd\ nugzLntf,•k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu tTsfn cfjZos b]lvPsf ;'wf/sf ljifo / If]qx¿,•;/sf/sf] ;|f]t, ;fwgsf] l:ylt Pjd\ pknJwtf,•;du| ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] df}h'bf ;+/rgfut cj:yf,•d'n'ssf] ;du| k|zf;lgs Ifdtf / cu|;/tf,•k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] sfo{df k|ToIf Pjd\ ck|ToIf ¿kdf ;+nUg x'g] ;+:yfx¿sf] ;dGjo / •;xsfo{,

cg'udg tyf d"Nof+sgaf6 cfPsf k[i7kf]if0fnfO{ lgoldt ;'wf/sf ¿kdf :jLsfg]{ gLlt •Pjd\ ;+oGq,


/fhgLlts tyf k|zf;lgs :jfldTj efj Pjd\ pQ/bfloTj,•;'wf/df ;/sf/sf] k|lta4tf, ;xof]u / lg/Gt/tf,•k|zf;g ;+rfngaf6 k|efljt x'g] d'n'ssf ;du| gful/s, ;]jfu|fxL, lxt ;d"xx¿sf] rf;f], •:jfy{ Pjd\ ;+nUgtf,

j}b]lzs ;xof]ustf{ Pjd\ nufgLstf{x¿sf] rf;f], :jfy{ / zt{x¿ .•

$= ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] k|of; k|efjsf/L x'g g;Sg'sf sf/0fx¿

g]kfndf ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] k|of; @))( ;fnb]lv lg/Gt/ ¿kdf x'b} cfPsf] eP tfklg o; If]qdf ck]Iffs[t ;'wf/ x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] pTkfbsTj Pjd\ u'0f:t/ j[l4 x'g g;s]sf], lghL Pjd\ u}/ ;/sf/L If]qsf] ;]jf k|jfxsf] t'ngfdf ;/sf/L ;]jf k|jfx sdhf]/ ePsf] ;fy} ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gk|ltsf] hgtfsf] ljZjf; Pjd\ e/f];f dha't x'g g;]sf] cj:yfn] ;d]t d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf cfjZos ;'wf/ x'g g;s]sf] tYo :ki6 ub{5 . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/nfO{ kl/jlt{t /fhgLlts g]t[Tjsf] rfxgf jf cfjZostfsf ¿kdf lng] ;+:sf/ sfod} ePsf sf/0f o; sfo{nfO{ lgoldt / ;femf bfloTjsf ¿kdf lng ;lsPsf] 5}g . o;sf sf/0f ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] sfo{ k|ltj]bg tof/ ug]{ t/ sfof{Gjog gx'g] cj:yfdf ;Lldt ePsf] 5 . ablnFbf] kl/j]znfO{ cfGtl/sLs/0f ug{ Pjd\ ;+u7gleqsf sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ sfo{ lhDd]jf/Lk|lt lhDd]jf/ / pTk|]l/t ug{sf nflu ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] ckl/xfo{tf eP tfklg g]kfndf ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fpg ;lsPsf] 5}g . o;sf k|d'v sf/0fx¿ lgDgfg';f/ /x]sf 5g\ M

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu j[xt\ /fhgLlts :jfldTjsf] cefj /x]sf],•;fj{hlgs k|zf;g;Fu ;/f]sf/ /fVg] lxt ;d"xx¿sf] ;xeflutf Pjd\ rf;f] Go"g /x]sf],•/fhgLlts Pjd\ k|zf;lgs g]t[Tjdf kl/jt{g :jLsf/ ug]{ ;+:sf/sf] cefj,•k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k'/fgf Ph]G8f gofF :j¿kdf Nofpg] t/ sfof{Gjogsf] lhDd]jf/L lng' •gkg]{ cj:yf sfod} /x]sf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf ;'emfjx¿ sfof{Gjog ug{sf nflu :ki6 lhDd]jf/L, clwsf/ Pjd\ •pQ/bfloTj ;lxtsf] ;Ifd ;+oGq tof/ ug{ g;lsPsf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] k|of;x¿ ;+:yfuteGbf ;+/rgfut kIfdf a9L s]lGb|t ePsf,•k|zf;lgs ;+oGq ;+rfns Pjd\ ;'wf/s sd{rf/Lx¿ k|zf;g ;'wf/k|lt k|lta4 Pjd\ •nugzLn x'g g;s]sf,

k|zf;g ;'wf/nfO{ lgoldt sfo{sf ¿kdf lg/Gt/tf lbg g;lsPsf],•;'wf/sf nflu cfpg] ;'emfjx¿ Jofjxfl/seGbf dxTTjfsf+IfL Pjd\ sfof{Gjog ug{ sl7g •x'g] lsl;dsf x'g] u/]sf,

;'wf/sf nflu cfjZos ;|f]t;fwg Go"g /x]sf]],•


k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu lg/Gt/ cfjZos x'g] bafa, ;xof]u, ;xsfo{ / ;dGjosf] sdL •/x]sf],

;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] sfo{ jf:tljs dfudf eGbf afx\o :jfy{, OR5f Pjd\ •cu|;/tfdf cfwfl/t x'g] u/]sf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu lhDd]jf/ lgsfox¿sf] cfk;L ;xof]u, ;xsfo{, ;dGjo Pjd\ •sfof{Gjog ;+oGq sdhf]/ /x]sf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu cfjZos :ki6 ;f]r, /0fgLlt, sfo{ of]hgfsf] sdL x'g'sf ;fy} ;'wf/ •If]qsf] k|fyldsLs/0f x'g g;s]sf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf gfddf x'g] clgoldttf / >f]t ;fwgsf] b'¿kof]u lgoGq0f x'g g;s]sf],•k|zf;lgs g]t[Tjsf] Ifdtf, cu|;/tf Pjd\ lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTjsf] sdL ePsf],•k|zf;g ;'wf/df cu|;/ eO{ pNn]vgLo sfo{ ug{] g]t[Tj Pjd\ ;+:yfnfO{ k'/:s[t u/L •k|rf/k|;f/ ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|fyldstf lbg g;lsPsf],

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf sfo{x¿sf] lgoldt cg'udg tyf d"Nof+sg u/L k[i7kf]if0f lbg] sfo{n] •k|fyldstf kfpg g;s]sf] .

%= g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/x¿

/fhgLlts kl/jt{gsf] k|efj:j¿k cu|;/ x'g] g]kfnsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/ /fhgLlts g]t[Tj kl/jt{gaf6 k|ToIf k|efljt x'g] u/]sf] 5 . kl5Nnf] /fhgLlts g]t[Tjn] cl3Nnf] g]t[Tjaf6 tof/ ePsf jf nfu" u/]sf ;'wf/sf gLlt, /0fgLlt tyf sfo{ of]hgfx¿nfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbg cu|;/ gx'g] ;+:sf/ sfod} /x]sf sf/0f k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿nfO{ Jojxf/df k|efjsf/L u/fpg ;lsPsf] 5}g . o;}sf sf/0f d'n'sdf ;'zf;g sfod ug]{ ;/sf/L gLlt Pjd\ sfo{of]hgf sfof{Gjog x'g ;ls/x]sf] 5}g . kl/jlt{t /fhgLlts Pjd\ ;fdflhs kl/j]zsf ;fy} /fli6«o Pjd\ cGt//fli6«o u}/;/sf/L, lghL ;+:yfx¿sf] ;'wf/sf t'ngfdf ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] cj:yf sdhf]/ /x]sf ;Gbe{df tTsfn dx;'; x'g] u/L k|zf;g ;'wf/sf sfo{x¿ cufl8 a9fpg' ckl/xfo{ eO{ ;s]sf] 5 . ;fy} gful/ssf kl/jlt{t cfsf+Iffx¿nfO{ dWogh/ u/L cGt//fli6«o :t/df k|lt:kwL{ tyf ;Ifd ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g :yflkt u/L ;'zf;g sfod ug{ h?/L eO{ ;s]sf] ;Gbe{df d'n'ssf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf :ki6 bL3{sfnLg ;f]r;lxt tTsfnsf ;'wf/sf sfo{x¿ yfngL ug'{ ckl/xfo{ ePsf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/x¿ lgDgfg';f/ /x]sf 5g\ M

;+/rgfut ;'wf/sf sfo{nfO{ pRr k|fyldstfsf ;fy yfngL ug]{ . sfo{ af]em Pjd\ •kl/jlt{t ;Gbe{ cg's"n x'g] u/L k'/fgf ;+/rgfx¿df ;'wf/ ug]{ . h:t}M x'nfs sfof{nox¿sf] sfo{ af]em sd xF'b} uPsf] Pjd\ lhNnf k|zf;g sfof{no, dfnkf]t sfof{no, oftfoft sfof{no h:tf lgsfox¿sf] sfo{ af]em a9\b} uPsf]n] o:tf lgsfox¿df b/aGbL Pjd\ ef}lts ;+/rgfdf ;'wf/ ug'{kg]{ h?/L ePsf] 5 . o;sf nflu :ki6 cfwf/ / dfkb08x¿ tof/ ug'{kg]{ .

lzIff, :jf:Yo, ;'/Iff, vfg]kfgL, ljB't h:tf cfwf/e"t cfjZostfsf ;]jf k|jfxdf •


k|efjsfl/tf Nofpgsf nflu ;]jfs]Gb|x¿df j:t' Pjd\ ;]jfx¿ ;dod} k'¥ofpg Pjd\ tf]lsPsf sd{rf/Lx¿af6} ;]jf k|jfx ug{sf nflu >f]t, ;fwg, cf}hf/ / k|ljlwsf] ;'lglZrttf ug'{kg]{ .

;fj{hlgs k|zf;lgs lgsfox¿df sd{rf/Lx¿sf] pkl:ylt a9fO{ ;]jf k|jfxnfO{ k|efjsf/L •u/fpg cgfjZos / sd dxTTjsf ;fj{hlgs labfx¿ s6f}tL ug]{ ;fy} l/Qm b/aGbL ;dod} kbk"lt{ ug]{, sfof{nodf sd{rf/Lsf] pkl:ylt lgoldt u/fO{ sfo{ pTk|]/0ff sfod u/fpg k|zf;lgs lgu/fgL Pjd\ lgoGq0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fpg'sf ;fy} tna ;'ljwfnfO{ cfsif{s u/fpg] .

;a} ;/sf/L sfof{nox¿df hgtfn] ;xh} a'em\g ;Sg] gful/s a8fkq nfu" ug]{ . o;nfO{ •qmdzM Ifltk"lt{df cfwfl/t u/fpFb} hfg] .

;]jf ljt/0f ug]{ sfof{nox¿df ;]jfu|fxL ;Gt'li6 kmf/fdsf] Joj:yf u/L ;]jfu|fxLaf6 •;]jfk|jfxsf] cj:yfsf] hfgsf/L ;+sng u/L To:tf sfof{nox¿df sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿sf] jflif{s sfo{ ;Dkfbg d"Nof+sgdf To;nfO{ klg cfwf/ dfGg] Joj:yf ug]{ .

k|zf;lgs sfo{sf] lgoldt cg'udg, lgu/fgL / lgoGq0f ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|fyldstf lbg] . o; •sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L u/fpg lhDd]jf/ kbflwsf/LnfO{ pTk|]/0ff;lxt v6fpg], cg'udgdf vl6g] sd{rf/LnfO{ jt{dfg dx+uL ;d]tnfO{ wfGg k'Ug] e|d0f eQf Psd'i6 pknAw u/fpg] / clgjfo{ ¿kdf e|d0f k|ltj]bg a'emfpg] Joj:yf ug]{ .

;fj{hlgs ;DklQ tyf >f]tsf] b'¿kof]u lgoGq0f ug{ k|wfgdGqL tyf dlGqkl/ifb\sf] sfof{no, •;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno, /fli6«o ;ts{tf s]Gb|, clVtof/ b'¿kof]u cg';Gwfg cfof]u h:tf lhDd]jf/ lgsfox¿sf] lgu/fgL a9fpg] . clgoldt sfo{sf] lhDd]jf/L lgsfo k|d'vn] lng'kg]{ Joj:yf ug]{ .

;fj{hlgs ;]jfsf ;DaGwdf Jofks k|rf/k|;f/ u/L ;fj{hlgs ;]jfk|ltsf] ;]jfu|fxLsf] •;r]tgf, ;xeflutf / bafanfO{ ;lqmo t'Nofpg] .

ahf/ cg'udg, lgodg tyf lgoGq0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg df}h'bf ;+oGqnfO{ a9L lhDd]jf/ •/ hjfkmb]xL u/fpg'sf ;fy} yk ;+oGqx¿sf] lj:tf/ ub}{ hfg] .

If]qLo k|zf;g sfof{nox¿nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg df}h'bf ljefux¿ vf/]h ug]{ ;fy} ljefudf •ePsf clwsf/x¿ If]qLo sfof{nox¿df k|Tofof]hg ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{ .

;/sf/L lgsfox¿df /x]sf sd{rf/L 6«]8 o'lgogx¿sf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu :ki6 b[li6sf]0f, •dfkb08, kfngf ug'{kg]{ cfr/0f nufotsf Joj:yf u/L k]zfut lxtdf sfd ug]{ Pp6f dfq cflwsfl/s 6«]8 o'lgog v8f ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{ .

e|i6frf/ lgoGq0f ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg o; sfo{df ;+nUg lgsfox¿sf] lhDd]jf/L •/ ;lqmotf a9fpg] . ;fy} e|i6frf/ x'g] ;Defjgf ePsf sfof{nodf sfd ug]{ kbflwsf/Lx¿sf] ;DklQ ljj/0f lgoldt ¿kdf cWoog, ljZn]if0f ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|fyldstf lbg] . e|i6frf/ lgoGq0fsf] sfo{df ;+rf/ dfWod, gful/s ;dfh, :yfgLo ;+3;+:yfx¿nfO{ ;d]t ;xefuL u/fpg] .


^= ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] tTsfnsf] ;'wf/nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg ug'{kg]{ Joj:yfx¿

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] ;'wf/sf nflu d'n'ssf] df}h'bf /fhgLlts, k|zf;lgs Pjd\ ;fdflhs cj:yfsf ;Gbe{df tTsfn ug'{kg]{ sfo{x¿sf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjogsf nflu df}h'bf ;+u7g ;+/rgf Pjd\ k4ltn] ck]Iffs[t pknlAw xfl;n x'g;Sg] b]lvFb}g . k|zf;g ;'wf/sf c;+Vo /fd|f / Jojxfl/s ;'emfjx¿ sfof{Gjogdf cfpg g;sL k|ltj]bgd} ;Lldt ePsf ljutsf] cg'ejn] df}h'bf Joj:yfdf ;'wf/ u/L k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of; cufl8 a9fpg' ckl/xfo{ ePsf] :ki6 u/]sf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/sf] sfo{nfO{ k|efjsf/L / lgoldt ug{sf nflu lgDgfg';f/sf] gLltut Pjd\ ;+/rgfut Joj:yf ug'{ cfjZos b]lvG5 M

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu tTsfn ug'{kg]{ ;'wf/sf] ;f]r ;lxtsf] sfo{gLlt, /0fgLlt Pjd\ •sfo{of]hgf tof/ ug]{ . ;a} dGqfno Pjd\ dGqfno :t/sf s]Gb|Lo lgsfox¿sf] ;+o'Qm sfo{6f]nLn] cf–cfkm\gf lgsfodf tTsfn ;'wf/ ug{ ;Dej ePsf ;'wf/sf sfo{x¿nfO{ ;d]6L ;+o'Qm ¿kdf sfo{of]hgf tof/ ug]{ .

;a} dGqfno Pjd\ dGqfno:t/sf s]Gb|Lo lgsfox¿df ljlzi6 >]0fLsf] ;lrjsf] ;+of]hsTjdf •s]Gb|Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ sfof{Gjog sfo{ ;ldlt agfpg] . pQm sfo{ ;ldltsf] ;+o]fhsn] sfo{of]hgf cg'¿ksf] sfo{ ;Dkfbgsf] k"0f{ lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTj lng] . o; sfo{ ;ldltn] u/]sf] sfo{sf] lgoldt cg'udg d"Nof+sg u/L cfjZos ;'emfj Pjd\ lgb]{zg ;lxt k'/:sf/ jf b08 ug{ d'Vo ;lrjsf] ;+of]hsTjdf /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno / cy{ dGqfnosf ;lrj ;lxtsf] pRr:t/Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ lgb]{zg PsfO u7g ug]{ .

s]Gb|Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ sfof{Gjog ;ldltn] cfkm" cGt/utsf lgsfox¿sf] ;'wf/sf nflu •cfjZostf cg';f/ :yfgLo :t/;Dd ;'wf/ sfof{Gjog ;+oGq tof/ ug]{ . dGqfno jf dGqfno:t/Lo s]Gb|Lo lgsfosf k|d'vsf] ;+of]hsTjdf ;DalGwt ljefu jf ljefu:t/Lo k|d'vx¿ ;d]tsf] cg'udg Pjd\ d"Nof+sg ;ldlt u7g u/L pQm ;ldltn] cfkm" cGt/utsf] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] sfo{nfO{ lgb]{zg, lgoGq0f Pjd\ k'/:sf/ jf b08 ug]{ sfo{ ug]{ .

s]Gb|Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ sfof{Gjog sfo{ ;ldltn] x/]s dlxgf pRr:t/Lo k|zf;g ;'wf/ •lgb]{zg PsfO{;dIf k|ult ;lxt 5nkmn tyf cg'ej cfbfgk|bfg ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{ .

cy{ dGqfnon] k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu cfjZos ah]6 ljlgof]hg ug]{ sfo{nfO{ pRr •k|fyldstfdf /fvL ;dod} lgsf;f lbg] Joj:yf ug]{ .

k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] k|ult ;d]tnfO{ cfwf/ agfO{ dGqfno Pjd\ dGqfno:t/Lo lgsfosf •k|d'vx¿sf] sfo{ ;Dkfbg d"Nof+sg u/L ;]jf cjlw 36fpg] jf a9fpg] Joj:yf ug]{ .

k'/fgf Pjd\ cg'ejL sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ ;]jfdf nfdf] ;do;Dd sfod /fvL sfo{;Dkfbgsf] •u'0ffTds Pjd\ kl/df0ffTds j[l4 ug{sf nflu xfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfaf6 clgjfo{ cjsfz x'g] %* jif{sf] ;do;LdfnfO{ j[l4 u/L ^) jif{ k'¥ofpg] .


&= lgisif{

;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] tTsfnLg ;'wf/ d'n'ssf] ;'zf;g sfod ug]{ cleofgsf ;Gbe{df cTofjZos ePsf] 5 . ;'zf;gsf] cleofgnfO{ ult k|bfg ug{ k|zf;lgs ;+oGqsf] Ifdtf, lhDd]jf/L, sfo{ pTk|]/0ff / pQ/bfloTj j[l4 ug'{ ckl/xfo{ x'G5 . o;sf nflu k|zf;lgs gLlt, /0fgLlt Pjd\ sfo{of]hgfsf] ;fy} ;+/rgfut Pjd\ ;+:yfut ;'wf/df Wofg lbg' cfjZos 5 . g]kfnsf] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g ;'wf/sf k|of;x¿ lgoldt / Jofjxfl/s x'g g;Sbf k|zf;g ;+oGqdf ck]Iffs[t ;'wf/ x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . k|zf;lgs ;+/rgf, sfo{ k4lt Pjd\ ;+:sf/, lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTj tyf sfo{ pTk|]/0ffsf cfwf/x¿df ;'wf/ x'g g;Sbf ;du| ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] sfo{:t/ sdhf]/ ePsf] 5 . k|zf;g ;+oGqsf] sdhf]/ sfo{;Dkfbg :t/sf sf/0f ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gaf6 ;/sf/ Pjd\ hgtfn] /fv]sf] ck]Iff k'/f x'g g;s]sf] cj:yf Psftkm{ /x]sf] 5 eg] csf]{tkm{ d'n'ssf] ;du| ;fdflhs Pjd\ cfly{s ljsf;n] ult lng ;s]sf] 5}g . o;sf ;fy} j}b]lzs nufgL Pjd\ ;xfotfsf] ;Defjgfx¿ ;d]t IfL0f x'Fb} uPsf 5g\ . o; ;Gbe{df d'n'ssf] ;du| k|zf;lgs ;+oGqnfO{ ;'wf/ ug{ bL3{sfnLg ;f]r Pjd\ nIo tof/ ug'{ h?/L ePsf] 5 . bL3{sfnLg ;f]r Pjd\ gLltsf cfwf/df tTsfn ug{ ;lsg] ;'wf/af6 k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] yfngL ug'{ ;fGble{s x'G5 . ;'wf/nfO{ lgoldt Pjd\ :yfoL sfo{sf ¿kdf k|fyldstfdf /fvL o;nfO{ ;a} lgsfox¿sf] ;femf bfloTjsf ¿kdf :jLsfg'{ cfjZos ePsf] 5 . k|zf;g ;'wf/sf] cleofgnfO{ lgoldt ¿kdf ult k|bfg ug{ k|wfgdGqL Pjd\ dlGqkl/ifb\sf] sfof{nosf] g]t[Tjdf cy{ dGqfno, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno / /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] e"ldsf dha't x'g' h?/L ePsf] 5 . ;fy} k|zf;g ;'wf/sf nflu ;w}+ k[i7kf]ifs 7flgg] gful/s ;dfh, ;]jfu|fxL ;d"x, :yfgLo lxt ;d"x Pjd\ j}b]lzs ;xof]u lgsfox¿sf] bafa, ;xsfo{ / ;dGjo ;d]t h?/L ePsfn] oL ;+3;+:yfx¿sf] ;d]t ;lqmotf ckl/xfo{ ePsf] 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdfu|Lx¿

k|zf;g k'gM;+/rgf cfof]u @)^% sf ljleGg k|ltj]bgx¿, k|zf;g k'gM;+/rgf cfof]u, @)^% .

lghfdtL ;]jfsf] ;f]rkq , k|wfgdGqL tyf dlGqkl/ifb\sf] sfof{no, @)^# .

k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldltsf] k|f/lDes k|ltj]bg, k|zf;g ;'wf/ ;'emfj ;ldlt, @)^( .

k|zf;g klqsfsf ljleGg cs+x¿, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

lghfdtL klqsfsf ljleGg c+sx¿, nf]s;]jf cfof]u .


Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] ;}4flGts cfwf/Zofds'df/ e§/fO{*

;f/f+zGoflos k'g/fjnf]sgnfO{ ;+ljwfgjfbsf] cfwf/e"t tTTjsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . ;+ljwfgjfbn] ;Lldt ;/sf/sf] kIfkf]if0f ub{5 . ;Lldt ;/sf/ eg]sf] sdhf]/ ;/sf/ xf]Og . of] t :j]R5frfl/tf ljgfsf] ;/sf/ xf] . sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] bfo/f / ;Ldfdf /xL sfg'gn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] k|lqmof / k2ltdf cfwfl/t /xg] ;/sf/nfO{ ;Lldt ;/sf/ elgG5 . hxfF ;/sf/ sfg'gsf] kl/lwdf ;Lldt /xG5 ToxfF gful/sx¿ clwsf/ ;DkGg x'G5g\ . hxfF gful/sx¿ clwsf/ ;DkGg x'G5g\ ToxfF k|hftGq /x]sf]dflgG5 . sfg'gn] l;h{gf u/]sf c+ux¿ sfg'gn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] ;Ldf / bfo/fleq /x] g/x]sf] k/LIf0f ug]{ clwsf/ ;+ljwfgn] pRr GofofnonfO{ k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg gfd lbOPsf] cbfntsf] To:tf] clwsf/sf] k|of]u c;fwf/0f clwsf/ If]q cGtu{t k|of]u ul/G5 . of] clwsf/ cbfntnfO{ c? c+ueGbf pRr / zlQmzfnL agfpg geO{ ;jf]{Rrtf k|Tofe"t u/fpg / sfg'gsf] zf;g axfn u/fpg sfod ul/Psf] xf] . ;+ljwfg / sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] clVtof/L / lgwf{/0f u/]sf] k|lqmof gf3]/ u/]sf sfd sf/jfxLnfO{ cdfGo / ab/ ug]{ ePsf]n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgnfO{ ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf sfod /fVg] clVtof/Lsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 .

! kl/ro

;+ljwfg s'g} klg d'n'ssf] /fhgLlts tyf sfg'gL b:tfa]h (Politico-legal document) xf] . kl5Nnf] ;dodf t ;+ljwfgnfO{ b]zsf] cfly{s, ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts b:tfa]hsf] ¿kdf klg lng yflnPsf] 5 . :jtGqtf, ;dfgtf / Gofosf] cfwf/zLnfsf] ¿kdf ;+ljwfg /x]sf] x'G5 -cfrfo{, @)^!_ . of] b]zsf] d"n sfg'g (Fundamental law of the land) klg xf] . ;+ljwfgn] /fHosf k|d'v c+ux¿sf] Joj:yf ug]{, tL c+ux¿sf] sfd, st{Jo / clwsf/nfO{ kl/eflift ug]{, pgLx¿sf] sfd sf/jfxLdf ;Ldf nufpg] / /fHo / gful/ssf aLrsf] ;DjGw lgwf{/0f ug]{ ub{5 . /fHosf c+ux¿n] ug]{ sfd sf/jfxL ;+ljwfgn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] bfo/fleq /xg' kb{5 / s'g} klg ;t{df ;+ljwfg ljk/Lt ePsf sfd sf/jfxLx¿ dfGo x'g ;Sb}gg\ eGGf] dfGotfnfO{ ;+ljwfgjfbsf] cjwf/0ffn] :yflkt u/]sf] 5 .** ;+ljwfgjfb cfkm}df To:tf] d"No jf dfGotf (Value) xf] h;n] zf;g jf ;/sf/sf] ckl/xfo{tfnfO{ c:jLsf/ ub}{g t/ To:tf] zf;g :j]R5frf/L, lg/+s'z jf cltjfbL gx'g] s'/fdf ;jf{lws hf]8 lbG5 . csf]{ zJbdf ;+ljwfgjfbn] ;Lldt ;/sf/sf] (Limited government) sf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ hgfpFb5 . ;Lldt ;/sf/ eGgfn] sdhf]/ ;/sf/ xf]Og . of] To:tf] ;/sf/ xf] h;sf p2]Zo / clwsf/x¿ kl/eflift x'G5g\ / To:tf] clwsf/ jf ZflQmsf] k|of]usf ;Ldfx¿

* ;xGofoflwjQmf, dxfGofoflwjQmfsf] sfof{no Email: [email protected]** Constitutionalism recognises the necessity for the government but insists upon limitation being pleaced upon its pow-ers. It cannotes in essence therefore, a limitation on government, the government, it is antithesis of arbitrary rule. Its opposite is despotic government, the government of will, insted of government of law (Mcllwain, :22).


tf]lsPsf x'G5g\ . cyf{t\ ;f/tM of] c;n ;/sf/ (Good government) xf] -zfSo, @)^%M@_ .

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg ;+ljwfgjfbsf] dxTTjk"0f{ tTTj xf] .* h;n] d'n'sdf ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf :yfkgf ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 . /fHo zlQmsf] k|of]udf x'g ;Sg] :j]R5frfl/tf /f]sL sfg'gsf] zf;g :yfkgf ug{sf nflu Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/ ;jf]{Rr GofofnonfO{ k|bfg ug]{ ul/G5 . of] d'n'sdf sfg'gsf] zf;g :yfkgf ug]{ / ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{RRftf :yfkgf ug]{ dxTTjk"0f{ cf}hf/ xf] . /fHosf c+ux¿n] ;+ljwfgaf6 j}wtf k|fKt u/]sf x'G5g\ . cfkm"nfO{ j}wtf k|bfg ug]{ tyf cfkm"nfO{ sfd st{Jo / clwsf/ k|bfg ug]{ ;+ljwfg ljk/Lt x'g] u/L ;+ljwfgsf] pkhsf] ¿kdf /xg] /fHosf lgsfox¿n] sfd sf/jfxL / lg0f{o ug{ kfpFb}gg\ eGg] dfGotfn] ;+ljwfgnfO{ d"n sfg'gsf] :yfg lbO{ ;+ljwfg;Fu aflemg] sfg'gx¿ aflemPsf] xb;Dd cdfGo x'g] Joj:yf ul/Psf] x'G5 . ;/sf/;Fu zlQmsf cgGt ;|f]tx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ . clgolGqt zlQmn] :j]R5frfl/tf hGdfpg] / :j]R5frf/L zf;gdf gful/s xs clwsf/ lgolGqt tyf s'l07t x'g] x'Fbf gful/s clwsf/sf] ;jf]{kl/tfsf nflu ;Lldt ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ff ljsf; ePsf] xf] ** h;nfO{ ;+ljwfgjfbsf] dd{sf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 .***

;+j}wflgs sfg'gsf] l;4fGtsf] ¿kdf :yflkt ePsf] zlQmsf] k[ysLs/0f tyf lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ngsf] l;4fGtn] zf;gdf :j]R5frfl/tf lgoGq0f u/L gful/s xs clwsf/sf] ;+/If0f ug]{ p2]Zo lnPsf] kfOG5 . of] cjwf/0ff ;Lldt ;/sf/sf] l;4fGt ljsf; u/L JolQmsf] :jtGqtfnfO{ clwsflws ;+/If0f ug]{ b[li6sf]0faf6 clek|]l/t /x]sf] kfOG5 ->]i7, @)%$_ . /fHosf ;a} c+u / lgsfox¿ ;+ljwfgn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] bfo/fdf ;~rfng x'g'kb{5 / ;+ljwfg ljk/Lt x'g] sfd sf/jfxLx¿n] j}wflgstf k|fKt ug{ ;Sb}gg\ eGg] dfGotfn] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] . zlQm k[ysLs/0f tyf lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ngsf] l;4fGtnfO{ Jojxf/df ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ Pp6f cfwf/ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/ xf] .**** lnlvt ;+ljwfgsf] cfjZos tTTjsf] ¿kdf :yflkt Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] cjwf/0ff sfg'gsf] zf;g, ;+ljwfgjfb / ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf sfod /fVg] ;zQm dfWodsf] ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . hgtfsf] df}lns xssf] ;+/If0f ug{sf nflu ;/sf/ Ps cfjZos k"j{zt{ xf] . t/ ;/sf/ cfkm} :j]R5frf/L aGof] cyjf hgtfk|lt pQ/bfoL aGg ;s]g eg] To;sf] /f]syfd ug]{ / /fHosf /fhgLlts c+ux¿sf] :j]R5frfl/tf lgoGq0f ug]{ pko'Qm sfg'gL dfWod Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg g} x'g ;S5 egL cfw'lgs ;+ljwfgn] o;nfO{ ;+ljwfgsf]

* ;+ljwfgjfbnfO{ /fhgLlts ;+ljwfgjfb / sfg'gL ;+ljwfgjfbsf] ¿kdf 5'§ofP/ x]g]{ ul/G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg sfg'gL ;+ljwfgjfbsf] kl/lwleq kb{5 . ** Judicial Review is one of the vital components of Rule of Law and Constitutional Supremacy. It is said that government has historically been the major violator of individual rights. Therefore, number of measures has been devised to reduce the authority of government. The separation of power is a method of removing the accumulation of power in anybody or groups hands, making it more difficult to abuse (Awasthi, 2002: 193).*** The doctrine of constitutionalism suggests that state power may be exercised within the framework and limitations of the constitution. ... Only the judicial review can maintain the concept of rule of law and the idea of liberal constitutionalism (Thompson, 1995: 342).**** Separation of power is the doctrine and practice of dividing the power of government among different branches to guard against abuse of authority (Liberman, cited in Awasthi, 2002:194).


df}lns rl/qleq ;dfj]z ug]{ u/]sf] kfOG5 -9'+ufgf, @)^!_ .

GofokflnsfnfO{ ;+ljwfgsf] ;+/Ifs / gful/s clwsf/sf] kl/kfns lgsfosf] ¿kdf lnOG5 .* ;+ljwfgn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] kl/lw gf3]/ ul/Psf sfd sf/jfxLx¿ cdfGo / ab/ ug]{ clwsf/ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGtn] GofofnonfO{ k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 . oxL clwsf/sf] k|of]u ub}{ sfo{kflnsf / Joj:yflksfn] u/]sf sfd sf/jfxLsf] ;+j}wflgstf k/LIf0f ul/G5 .** Gofokflnsfaf6} ePsf sfo{x¿ klg Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] bfo/fdf kg]{ u/]sf 5g\ .***

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg ;+j}wflgs sfg'gsf] dxTTjk"0f{ l;4fGt xf] . o;n] sfg'gsf] zf;g sfod /fVg] lbzfdf dxTTjk"0f{ e"ldsf lgjf{x ub{5 . of] l;4fGt s'g} klg d'n'sdf k|hftflGqs zf;g Joj:yf sfod /fVg] cf}hf/ klg xf] . Black’s Law Dictionary n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] kl/efiff o;k|sf/ u/]sf] 5 –

‘Judicial review may be defined as a “courts power to review the actions of other branches of government especially the courts power to invalidate legislative and executive actions as being unconstitutional.”

/fHosf ljleGg c+usf sfd sf/jfxLx¿sf] j}wflgstf k/LIf0f ug]{ Gofofnosf] clwsf/ g} Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg xf] . of] GofofwLz jf GofofnonfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf] o:tf] xltof/ xf] h;sf] k|of]u u/L GofofwLzx¿n] c;+j}wflgs / u}/sfg'gL sfd sf/jfxLx¿ cdfGo / ab/ 3f]if0ff ug{ ;S5g\ . ef/tLo ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Pp6f d'2fdf JofVof ub}{ eg]sf] 5 – “It comprises the power of court to hold unconstitutional and unenforceable any law or order based upon such law or any other action by a public authority which is inconsistent or in conflict with the basic law of the land.”****

@ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] p2]Zo

/fHooGqnfO{ :j]R5frf/L x'gaf6 /f]s nufO{ sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] :yfkgf ug'{ g} Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] p2]Zo xf] . ;fj{hlgs clwsf/Lx¿n] zlQmsf] b'¿kof]u ug{ gkfpg, cfd

* Judicial review is one of the instruments for checks and balances of government power through judiciary. Judiciary is considered as a custodian of the constitution. Judiciary checks the other state organs to go beyond the constitutional limits. Through the power of judicial review, judiciary controls the executive and legislative wings of government for their arbitrary use of power and protects the civil liberties (Thompson, 1995: 342).** By its inherent role, the judiciary is different from other coordinate branches of the state. It has a duty to protect the constitution and to see that other organs of the state work within their define orbit. The judiciary may get actively involved in progressive interpretation of the Constitution and the laws strengthening the rule of law and further extrapolating and entrenching the rights. As a creature of the constitution it can in no circumstance go beyond the constitutional framework which defines its power (Bhattarai, 2006: 33-34).*** Gofo ;Dkfbgsf] qmddf ePsf sltko sfd sf/jfxL pk/ pkrf/sf] j}slNks dfu{ gePsf] cj:yfdf ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/ cGtu{t To:tf sfd sf/jfxLx¿sf] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg ug]{ u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;sf] pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf cGgk"0f{ /f0ffsf] d'4fnfO{ lng ;lsG5 .**** L. Chandra Kumar Vs Union of India (1997) 3 SCC 261 (292): AIR 1997 SC.


gful/sn] k|efjsf/L ¿kdf ;]jf k|fKt ug{ ;s"g / sfg'g / Joj:yfsf] pRr ;Ddfg /xf];\ eGg] Wo]on] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGtsf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] .

The underlying object of judicial review is to ensure that the authority does not abuse its power and individual receives just and fair treatment and not to ensure that the authority reaches a conclusion which is correct in the eye of law.

sfg'gsf] j}wflgstf / k|zf;lgs lg0f{osf] a}wtf k/LIf0fsf nflu GofofnonfO{ :jtGq agfOg' Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] k"j{;t{ xf] . lgoGq0fsf] k|efjsf/L ;+oGqsf] cefjdf /fHosf c+ux¿n] :j]R5frf/L ¿kdf lqmofzLn x'g ;Sg] cj:yfnfO{ b[li6ut u/L of] clwsf/ GofofnonfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf] xf] . lgZro g} Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg Goflos ;jf]{Rrtf sfod ug]{ jf Goflos :j]R5frfl/tfnfO{ j}wflgstf lbg] l;4fGt xf]Og . ef/tLo ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Minerva mills Ltd vs. Union of India aLr ePsf] d'2fdf Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGtsf] af/]df elgPsf] 5 –

The Constitution has created an independent judiciary which is vested with the power of judicial review to determine the legality of administrative action and the validity of legislation. It is the solemn duty of the judiciary under the constitution to keep different organs of the state within the limits of the power conferred upon them by the Constitution by exercising power of judicial review as sentinel on the qui vive.*

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] :yfkgfsf nflu GofofnonfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf] Ps o:tf] c:q xf] h;n] /fHosf c? ;xsf/L c+ux¿ sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] ;Ldfleq /x]sf 5g\ 5}gg\ eGg] k/LIf0f ub{5 . To;}n] of] clwsf/nfO{ touchstone of the constitution elgG5 . R.K. Jain V. Union of India aLr ePsf] Pp6f d'2fdf elgPsf] 5 M– Judicial reviews is thus the touchstone and essence of the rule of Law.**

sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] l;4fGtsf k|jt{s dflgPsf PeL 8fo;Ln] eg]sf 5g\ M hxfF :jljj]s x'G5 ToxfF :j]R5frfl/tfsf] ;Defjgf clws x'G5 . pgs} zAbdf “Whenever there is discretion, there is room for arbitrariness and that in a republic no less then under a monarchy discretionary authority on the port of the Government must mean insecurity for legal freedom on the part of its subjects (Dicey, 1915: 202).

;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Pp6f d'2fdf JofVof ub]}{ eg]sf] 5 M zlQm k[ysLs/0f, ljlwsf] zf;g / gful/s xs clwsf/dfly ;b}j r'gf}tL pTkGg e}/x]sf cj:yfdf gful/ssf df}lns xs clwsf/sf] ;+/Ifs / ;+ljwfgsf] clGtd JofVoftfsf] x}l;otn] cbfntn] d'sbz{s eP/ sfo{kflnsfsf ;+ljwfg k|lts"n sfo{x¿nfO{ j}wflgstf k|bfg ug{ ;Sb}g . ;+ljwfg adf]lhdsf] ;/sf/ / ljlwsf] zf;g sfod u/fpg] bfloTj cGttM :jtGq Gofokflnsfdfly g} cfOkb{5 .*** sfg'gn] hlxn] klg

* Minerva Mills Ltd. vs Union of India (1980) 3 SCC 625 (677-78): AIR 1980 SC 1789 (1925-26). ** R.K. Jain Vs Union of India (1993) 4 SCC 119 (168). *** g]=sf=k= @)^& c+s ( lg=g+ *$%@=


;/sf/ sfg'g cg'¿k ;~rfng x'g'kb{5, ;/sf/n] sfg'g rnfpg] jf ;/sf/sf] OR5fnfO{ sfg'gn] j}wflgstf lbg] xf]Og eGg] dfGotf /fVb5 . (The Law requires that the Government should be subjected to the law rather than the law subject to the government (Takwani, 2010).

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/ dfkm{t\ cbfntn] /fHosf c+unfO{ sfg'gn] lbPsf] clVtof/Lsf] k|of]unfO{ lgu/fgL ub{5 / gful/s xssf] ;+/If0f ug]{ lbzfdf cfkm"nfO{ lqmofzLn u/fpFb5 . ljz]iftM of] sfo{kflnsLo / Joj:yfksLo clwsf/sf] k|of]unfO{ lgoldt / lgolGqt ug]{ clVtof/L xf] . Gofokflnsfsf sfd sf/jfxLx¿ klg Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] bfo/feGbf aflx/ kb{}gg\ .* Sheffield City Council V. Smart sf] d'2fdf elgPsf] 5 – Judicial review is the means by which the exercise of power by any public authority is strictly limited to the scope and purposes of the powers granted and subjected also to the common laws insistence on rationality and fairness.**

u0f]z kl~hof/sf] l/6 lgj]bgdf JofVof ub}{ ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] eg]sf] 5 M Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/ d'Vo ¿kdf b]xfosf] k|of]hgsf nflu ckl/xfo{ dflgG5M

gful/ssf] xs clwsf/ tyf :jtGqtfsf] /Iff Pjd\ To;sf] pkef]usf] ;'lglZrttfsf •nflu,

sfg'gL /fHo jf ljlwsf] zf;gsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf ;fy{s t'Nofpgsf •nflu,

;Lldt ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ lqmoflGjt ug{sf nflu,•zlQm k[ysLs/0f tyf lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ngsf] l;4fGtsf] k|efjsf/L k|of]u / kfngfsf •nflu,

;/sf/sf] sfd sf/jfxLx¿ tyf lg0f{ox¿nfO{ j}wflgs bfo/fleq ;Lldt ug{sf nflu,•Goflos :jtGqtf / ;Ifdtf ;'lglZrt ug{sf nflu,•/fHosf] sfo{sf/L lgsfosf] :j]R5frf/L Pjd\ lg/+s'z sfo{df lgoGq0f ug{sf nflu,•;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf sfod u/L ;+ljwfgsf] ;+/If0f ug{sf nflu .•

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg x'g g;Sg] egL ;+ljwfgn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf ;Ldf /]vfx¿ ;+ljwfgn] c+uLsf/ u/]sf cfwf/e"t l;4fGt, d"No tyf dfGotfx¿;Fu d]n gvfg] ePdf jf ;+ljwfgåf/f k|bQ df}lns xs xgg ug]{ vfnsf sfd sf/jfxL jf lg0f{ox¿ ;d]t Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] bfo/f aflx/ /fVg] ;+j}wflgs Joj:yf cfkm}+df klg ;jf]{Rr cbfntsf] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] ljifo x'g;Sg]5 . s'g} JolQmsf] k]zf, /f]huf/L tyf df}lns xssf] ¿kdf ;+j}wflgs ;+/If0f k|fKt cGo xs clwsf/;Fu k|ToIf ¿kdf ;DalGwt ljifodf ePsf lg0f{ox¿nfO{ Goflos cfTd;+odsf]

* o;sf] pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf cGgk"0f{ /f0ffsf] d'2fnfO{ lng ;lsG5 . ** (2002) EWCA Civ 4(2002) HLR 639 P.20


l;4fGtsf] gfddf Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] bfo/faf6 x6fpg ldNb}g . s'g} klg ;+j}wflgs lgsfodf g]kfnsf] k|wfg GofofwLz jf ;jf]{Rr cbfntsf jl/i7 GofofwLzx¿sf] ax'dt jf cNkdt ;+nUgtf ePsf] eGg] cfwf/df o:tf ;+j}wflgs lgsfox¿n] u/]sf lg0f{o tyf sfd sf/afxLn]] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgaf6 pGd'lQm kfpg ;Sb}gg\ . ;+ljwfgdf ul/Psf] Joj:yfnfO{ ;+s'rg ug]{ jf k"j{zt{ yKg] jf pQm ;+j}wflgs Joj:yfsf] k|of]unfO{ sl7g tyf af]lemnf] agfpg] lsl;daf6 pQm ;+j}wflgs Joj:yfsf] k|of]usf] ljifodf agfOPsf] P]gsf] Joj:yfsf] JofVof ul/g x'Fb}g . ;r]t u/fpg ;Sg] eGg] :jljj]sLo clwsf/n] :jfefljs ¿kdf ljifoj:t'sf] uDeL/tf / tYout ljZn]if0fnfO{ ljrf/ k'¥ofpg] cg'dlt lbG5 . olb To;af6 ;r]t gu/fOsg} kbd'Qm ug{‘kg]{ lgisif{df lg0f{o ug]{ clwsf/L jf lgsfo k'u]df To;nfO{ cGoyf eGg ldNb}g .*

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgnfO{ ;+ljwfgjfbsf] cfwf/e"t tTTjsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . ;+ljwfgjfbn] ;Lldt ;/sf/sf] kIfkf]if0f ub{5 . ;Lldt ;/sf/ eg]sf] sdhf]/ ;/sf/ xf]Og . of] t :j]R5frfl/tf ljgfsf] ;/sf/ xf] . sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] bfo/f / ;Ldfdf /xL sfg'gn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] k|lqmof / k2ltdf cfwfl/t /xg] ;/sf/nfO{ ;Lldt ;/sf/ elgG5 . hxfF ;/sf/ sfg'gsf] kl/lwdf ;Lldt /xG5 ToxfF gful/sx¿ clwsf/ ;DkGg x'G5g\ . hxfF gful/sx¿ clwsf/ ;DkGg x'G5g\ ToxfF k|hftGq /x]sf] dflgG5 . sfg'gn] l;h{gf u/]sf c+ux¿ sfg'gn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] ;Ldf / bfo/fleq /x] g/x]sf] k/LIf0f ug]{ clVtof/L ;+ljwfgn] pRr GofofnonfO{ k|bfg u/]sf] x'G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg gfd lbOPsf] cbfntsf] To:tf] clwsf/sf] k|of]u c;fwf/0f clwsf/If]q cGtu{t k|of]u ul/G5 . of] clwsf/ cbfntnfO{ c¿ c+ueGbf pRr / zlQmzfnL agfpg] clVtof/L xf]Og a? of] t ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf bfo/f ug]{ / sfg'gsf] zf;g axfn u/fpg] dfWod xf] . ;+ljwfg / sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] clVtof/L / lgwf{/0f u/]sf] k|lqmof gf3]/ u/]sf sfd sf/jfxLnfO{ cdfGo / ab/ ug]{ ePsf]n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgnfO{ ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf sfod /fVg] clVtof/Lsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 .

Brain Thompson eG5g\ – pbf/ k|hftGqsf] dfGotf / sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ Jojxf/df ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ Psdfq cf}hf/ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg xf] . (Only the judicial review can maintain the concept of rule of law and the idea of liberal democracy (Thompson, 1995: 342).)

# Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] ljlwzf:qLo cfwf/

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ljlwzf:qsf] k|fs[lts sfg'gsf] cjwf/0ff;Fu} ePsf] ljZjf; ul/G5 . n8{ nf]o8\;sf] ljlwzf:qdf n]lvPsf] 5 M– As main theme of Judicial review is to limit the government and protect the civilian people from arbitrary use of state power. It is right based concept that can be traced back to the law which contravened natural law should be struck down (Freeman, 2001: 104).

cl/:6f]6nsf] sfg'gsf] zf;g ;DaGwL cledt, l;;/f]sf] zfZjt Gofosf] cjwf/0ff (true law and * g]=sf=k= @)^ c+s # lg=g+= *#@( k[i7 #*!


right reason), PlSjgf;sf] dfgjLo sfg'g k|fs[lts sfg'gsf] pkh xf] eGg] b[li6sf]0f (every human law has just so much of the nature of law as it is derived from the law of nature) lkmlg;sf] normative Conclusion of natural law nfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] dfGotfnfO{ :yflkt ;+j}wflgs l;4fGt agfpg] cfwf/sf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 .

/fHo / ;/sf/sf] pQ/bfloTj / gful/s xslxt ;+/If0f ug'{kg]{ e"ldsfnfO{ kl/eflift ug]{ ;fdflhs ;Demf}tfsf] l;4fGtnfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGtsf] ljsf;sf nflu sf]z]9'+ufsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . xA;, ns / ?;f]åf/f km/s km/s ¿kdf of] l;4fGtsf] JofVof / ljj]rgf ul/Psf] eP klg o;n] :j]R5frf/L ¿kdf zf;g ;~rfng ug{ gkfOg] / zf;g;Qfsf] ;|f]tsf] ¿kdf hgtf /xg] dfGotf :yflkt u/]sf] kfOG5 .

To:t} dG6]:So"åf/f k|jlt{t zlQm k[ysLs/0fsf] l;4fGt, s]N;gåf/f ljsl;t d"Nox¿sf] txut >[+vnf (Hightiest level of norms in hierarchical structure), /fhfsf] :j]R5frf/L zf;g lj?4 ;g\ !@!% df hf/L ul/Psf] DofUgfsf6f{, ;g\ !^@* sf] Petition of Rights, 8f= af]gxdsf] d'2fdf ;g\ !^!) df k|wfg GofofwLz sf]sn] k|s6 u/]sf] ljrf/, ;g\ !^*( sf] Bill of Rights, Virginia Bill of Rights-1776, cd]l/sL :jtGqtfsf] 3f]if0ffkq, ;g\ !&&^, dflg; / gful/ssf] clwsf/ ;DaGwL k|mfG;]nL 3f]if0ffkq ;g\ !&*(, ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3sf] a8fkq, ;g\ !($%, dfgj clwsf/sf] ljZjJofkL 3f]if0ffkq ;g\ !($* nufotsf cGt/f{li6«o ;lGw dxf;lGwsf Joj:yfx¿n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;+:yfut ug{sf nflu dxTTjk"0f{ of]ubfg k'¥ofPsf] kfOG5 .

;g\ !*)# df/j/L lj?4 d]l8;gsf] d'2fdf cd]l/sfsf] ;jf]{Rr cbfntsf tTsfnLg k|wfgGofofwLz hf]g df;{nn] u/]sf] JofVof / k|ltkfbg u/]sf] l;4fGtsf] ljlwzf:qLo hudf Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGt plePsf] kfOG5 . To;kl5 lgdf{0f ePsf k|foM h;f] ;+ljwfgx¿n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgnfO{ ;+ljwfgåf/fg}] Jojl:yt u/]sf] kfOG5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf cfP/ ;+j}wflgs zf;g / k|hftflGqs k2ltnfO{ ;'Jojl:yt ¿kdf ;~rfng ug]{ dxTTjk"0f{ dfWodsf] ¿kdf Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGt ljsl;t ePsf] b]lvG5 .

$ zlQm k[ysLs/0fsf] l;4fGt / Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg

;+ljwfgjfbsf cfwf/e"t tTTjsf] ¿kdf /x]sf zlQm k[ysLs/0f / Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] l;4fGt Ps cfk;df cGt/;DalGwt /x]sf 5g\ / oL b'j} l;4fGtx¿ ;fj{hlgs clwsf/Lx¿sf] :j]R5frfl/tfnfO{ lgoGq0f u/L gful/sx¿nfO{ clwsf/ ;DkGg agfpg k|of]u ul/G5g\ . zlQm k[ysLs/0fsf] l;4fGtn] /fHosf k|d'v c+ux¿ aLr zlQm / clwsf/sf] ;d'lrt ljefhg ug'{ kg]{ dfGotf /fVb5 . ;fdfGotof s'g} klg k|hftflGqs zf;g Joj:yf c+ufNg] b]zx¿df sfg'g agfpg] clVtof/L Joj:yflksfnfO{ / sfg'gsf] sfof{Gjog ug]{ clVtof/L sfo{kflnsfnfO{ lbOPsf] x'G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/åf/f Gofokflnsfn] sfo{kflnsf / Joj:yflksfnfO{ k|bfg


ul/Psf] clVtof/Lsf cfwf/df tL lgsfon] ;Dkfbg u/]sf sfd sf/jfxLsf] j}wflgstf k/LIf0f u/L ;+j}wflgs tyf sfg'gL k|aGw sfod /fVb5 . To;}n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clVtof/Lsf] k|efjsf/L k|of]u ljgf zlQm k[ysLs/0fn] /fv]sf] p2]Zo k"/f x'g ;Sb}g . o;sf] ;fGble{stfnfO{ k'li6 ub}{ D.J. Gallian n]V5g\ – Without proper application of judicial review, purpose of separation of power cannot be achieved judicial review is justified not only to curb the arbitrary and absolute power of the major organs of the state but to protect and promote the rights of the citizens. ljwflosfn] lgdf{0f u/]sf] sfg'gnfO{ ljwflosfn] g} ;+zf]wg jf vf/]h u/]sf] jf To;pk/ ;+j}wflgstfsf] k|Zg p7L cbfntaf6 Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] dfWodaf6 vf/]h ePsf] cj:yfdf afx]s ljwflosL sfg'gsf] k|efjsfl/tfnfO{ ;dfKt jf lg:t]h ug]{ clwsf/ zlQm k[ysLs/0fsf] l;4fGt cg'¿k /fHosf] sfo{sfl/0fL zlQmsf] k|of]u ug]{ ;/sf/nfO{ x'g ;Sb}g . ;/sf/n] lg0f{o u/L hf/L u/]sf] kl/kq k|rlnt ;+ljwfg tyf g]kfn sfg'gdf pNn]v ePsf k|fjwfgx¿ cg's"n geO{ To;n] ;fj{hlgs lxt k|lt:yfkg ub{5 eg] To:tf] lg0f{o tyf kl/kqnfO{ dfGotf lbg ;lsFb}g . ;/sf/n] u/]sf] lg0f{o k|rlnt ;+ljwfg tyf sfg'gsf k|fjwfgx¿;Fu c;+ut eO{ To;n] ;j{;fwf/0fsf] sfg'g;+ut Jojxf/df a]d]nsf] cj:yf l;h{gf ub{5 eg] To:tf] lg0f{onfO{ nf]ssNof0fsf/L efjgfdf cfwfl/t / Gofo;+ut dfGg ;lsFb}g . dfnkf]t clws[t ;d]t ;+nUg ePsf] ;ldltaf6 k|To]s jif{ lgwf{/0f x'g] d"NofÍgnfO{ cfwf/ dfgL /lh:6«];g u/fpg] Joj:yfn] pQm d"NonfO{ cfwf/ dfgL hUuf /lh:6«];g u/fpg NofPsf]df y}nL sd /fv]sf] egL gLltut lg0f{o / kl/kqsf] cfwf/df k'gMdfnkf]t clws[tn] k|Zg p7fpg ldNb}g . sfo{ljlw / dfkb08 g} gtf]sL clwsf/ k|of]usf] cj:yf lbFbf To;n] :j]R5frfl/tf / :jR5GbtfnfO{ a9fjf lbg] vt/f /xg] x'G5 . k|rlnt sfg'gdf e}/x]sf] Joj:yfnfO{ kl/dfh{g jf ;+zf]wg u/L cs}{ Joj:yf ug'{ k/]df ;/sf/n] ;+j}wflgs tyf sfg'gL k|lqmofsf] cjnDagaf6 g} To:tf] ug{ ;Sg] x'G5 .*

% Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf d]f8nx¿

s'g} klg b]zsf] /fhgLlts k2lt, sfg'g k|0ffnL, Goflos :jtGqtf, zf;sLo :j¿k / ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtfsf cfwf/df Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf df]8ndf leGgtf /x]sf] x'G5 . ;fdfGotM o; ;Gbe{df tLg lsl;dsf df]8nx¿ /x]sf x'G5g\ M–

!_ cleof]hgfTds df]8]n (Adjudicatory Model)

@_ lgoGq0f df]8]n (Control Model)

#_ ;xeflutfd"ns df]8n (Participatory Model)

cleof]hgfTds df]8]ndf cbfntn] :jtGq / lgikIf ¿kdf sfo{ ;Dkfbg ub{5 / /fHosf c+ux¿ ;+ljwfg tyf sfg'gn] tf]lslbPsf] clwsf/ If]qdf a;]sf 5g\ ls 5}gg\ egL x]l/G5 . t/ lgoGq0f df]8]ndf cbfntn] k|zf;lgs tyf Joj:yflksfsf lg0f{ox¿nfO{ k"j{ lglZrt dfkb08sf cfwf/df k/LIf0f ub{5 / :j]R5frfl/tfnfO{ lgoGq0f ug]{ tyf :jljj]sLo clwsf/sf] ljj]s;Ddt k|of]u eP gePsf] hfFr ub{5 . oL b'O{eGbf leGg ;xeflutfd"ns df]8]nn] ;fdflhs cfly{s * g]=sf=k= @)^ c+s # lg= g+= *%*), k[i7 $&$


dfkb08 / ;"rssf cfwf/df Gofok"0f{ ¿kdf ;fdflhs tyf cfly{s ljsf; ug'{ kg]{tkm{ lqmofzLntf b]vfpF5 . eP u/]sf sfd sf/jfxL ab/ ug]{ gsf/fTds cjwf/0ffeGbf km/s ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu ;sf/fTds b[li6sf]0f /fv]/ sfo{ ;Dkfbg ub{5 .

^ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] If]q

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg k|zf;sLo sfg'gsf] s]Gb|Lo lgoGq0f ;+oGq (Central control mechanism of administration law) sf] ¿kdf /x]sf] 5 . s'g} klg lg0f{o jf sfd sf/jfxLsf] j}wtf (Legal validity) k/LIf0f ug]{ sfo{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgåf/f ul/G5 . of] clwsf/sf] k|of]u ubf{ d'2fsf] sf/jfxL / lsgf/fdf h:tf] ;fIfL k|df0f a'‰g] h:tf k|lqmof ;fdfGotofM cjnDag ul/+b}g . o;n] ljjflbt lg0f{osf] ;f/e"t kIfdf eGbf k|lqmofut kIfdf a9L hf]8 lbG5 . lg0f{odf :jR5tf / k"jf{u|x ljxLgtfsf] ck]Iff ub{5 . ;+ljwfgn] cjnDag u/]sf] zlQm k[ysLs/0f tyf lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ngsf] cj:yf, ;+j}wflgs jf ;+;bLo ;jf]{Rrtf, Gofonosf] :jtGqtf / GofofnonfO{ ;+ljwfgn] k|bfg u/]sf] clVtof/L tyf zf;sLo :j¿ksf cfwf/df Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] If]q / ;Ldf lgwf{/0f ePsf] x'G5 . To;}n] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] If]q / ;Ldfsf] s'g} lglZrt dfkb08 / cfwf/ /x]sf] 5}g . of] b]zlkR5] leGg leGg ¿kdf cEof; x'g ;Sg] b]lvG5 . To;}n] t ;+;bLo ;jf]{Rr /x]sf] ;+o'Qm clw/fHodf, /fi6«ktLo zf;g Joj:yf ePsf] ;+o'Qm /fHo cd]l/sfdf, ldl>t zf;g k|0ffnL /x]sf] k|mfG;df tyf ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf /x]sf] ef/tdf Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] cEof;df leGgtf /x]sf] 5 . gful/s ;zQmLs/0f tyf /fhgLlts :jtGqtfsf] cj:yfsf cfwf/df klg Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] cEof;df leGgtf /xg ;Sg] cj:yf b]lvG5 . ;fdfGotof Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] If]q cGtu{t b]xfosf ljifo kb{5g\ M–

!_ Joj:yfksLo sfo{ jf sfg'gsf] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg (Judicial review of legislation)

@_ sfo{kflnsf sfo{ jf k|zf;sLo lg0f{osf] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg (Judicial review of execution action or administrative decision)

#_ GofokflnsLo sfo{sf] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg (Judicial review of judicial action)

& Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf ;Ldfx¿

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg GofofnonfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf] ;LdfxLg cyf{t\ lg/k]If clwsf/ (Absolute power ) xf]Og . To;df ;+ljwfg tyf sfg'gn] lglZrt ;Ldf nufPsf] x'G5 . To:tf] ;Ldf d'VotM zlQm k[ysLs/0f tyf lgoGq0f / ;Gt'ngsf] l;4fGtsf] cjnDagsf] qmddf nufOPsf] x'G5 . k|hftflGqs kl/kf6Lsf] ;+:yfut ljsf; ug{ / pQ/bfoL ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ Jojxf/df ¿kfGt/0f ug{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/df ;Ldf nufOPsf] x'G5 . d'VotM o:tf ;Ldfx¿ b'O{ k|sf/sf x'G5g\ M–

!_ cleJoQm jf ;+j}wflgs tyf sfg'gL ;Ldfx¿ (Expressed or constitutional and statutory limitation)


@_ cGt/lgxLt jf cfTdlgolGqt ;Ldfx¿ (Implied or self-imposed limitation)

sltko cj:yfdf cf}krfl/s ¿kdf ;+ljwfg tyf sfg'gn] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf nflu ;Ldf lgwf{/0f u/]sf] x'G5 . /fHosf sfo{kflnsf / Joj:yflksf h:tf lgsfox¿ k|ltlglwd"ns ;+:yf ePsfn] oL lgsfon] ;Dkfbg ug]{ sltko sfd sf/jfxLx¿ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] bfo/feGbf aflx/ /flvPsf] x'G5 lsgeg] w]/} ljifodf pgLx¿ k|ToIf ¿kdf hgtfk|lt pQ/bfoL /x]sf x'G5g\ . jf/]g Pn= ju{/ n]V5g\ M– They (executive and legislation) are elected on certain policy and program which can be decided by political for a or “ballot box . g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfgsf] wf/f– #^ nfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg pk/sf] cleJoQm ;Ldf eGg ;lsG5 h;n] /fHosf gLlt lgb]{zs l;4fGtsf] sfof{Gjog eP gePsf] ;DaGwdf s'g} klg cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg gkfOg] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 .* To:t} ;+s6sfndf df}lns xs lgnDag ug{ ;lsg] Joj:yf,** ;+;bsf] ljz]ifflwsf/ ;DaGwdf cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg gkfOg] Joj:yf,*** ;+;bdf k|s6 u/]sf] ljrf/nfO{ lnP/ s'g} cbfntdf d'2f bfo/ gul/g] Joj:yf,**** lgjf{rg If]q lgwf{/0f cfof]uåf/f

* wf/f #^= cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg g;lsg]M -!_ o; efudf n]lvPsf ljifox¿ sfof{Gjog eP jf gePsf] ;DaGwdf s'g} cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg ;lsg] 5}g .-@_ /fHon] o; efudf plNnlvt l;4fGt tyf gLltsf] sfof{Gjog ug{ cfjZostf cg';f/ ;|f]t / ;fwg kl/rfng ug]{ jf u/fpg]5 .

** wf/f !$#= ;+s6sfnLg clwsf/ M -!_ g]kfn /fHosf] ;fj{ef}d;Qf, cv08tf jf s'g} efusf] ;'/Iffdf o'4, afXo cfqmd0f, ;z:q ljb|f]x jf r/d cfly{s lj>[ª\vntfsf] sf/0fn] uDeL/ ;Í6 pTkGg ePdf g]kfn ;/sf/, dlGqkl/ifb\sf] l;kmfl/;df /fi6«kltn] g]kfn /fHoe/ jf s'g} vf; If]qdf nfu" x'g] u/L ;Í6sfnLg cj:yfsf] 3f]if0ff ug{ jf cfb]z hf/L ug{ ;Sg]5 .===-&_ /fi6«kltaf6 pkwf/f -!_ adf]lhd ;Í6sfnLg cj:yfsf] 3f]if0ff jf cfb]z ul/+bf ;f] 3f]if0ff jf cfb]z axfn /x];Ddsf] nflu efu # df Joj:yf ePsf df}lns xs lgnDag ug{ ;lsg]5 . t/ wf/f !@ sf] pkwf/f -!_, -@_ / pkwf/f -#_ sf] v08 -u_ / -3_, wf/f !# / !$, wf/f !% sf] pkwf/f -@_ / -#_, wf/f !^, !&, !*, @), @!, @@, @#, @$, @^, @(, #) / #! tyf To:tf wf/f;Fu ;DalGwt wf/f #@ adf]lhd ;+j}wflgs pkrf/sf] xs / aGbL k|ToIfLs/0fsf] pkrf/ k|fKt ug{] xs lgnDag ul/g] 5}g .-*_ pkwf/f -&_ adf]lhd o; ;+ljwfgsf] s'g} wf/f lgnDag ul/Psf]df ;f] wf/fn] k|bfg u/]sf] df}lns xssf] k|rngsf] nflu s'g} cbfntdf lgj]bg lbg jf To; ;DaGwdf s'g} cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg ;lsg] 5}g .*** wf/f %^= ljz]ifflwsf/M -!_ Joj:yflksf–;+;bsf] a}7sdf k"0f{ jfs\ :jtGqtf /xg]5 / ;f] a}7sdf JoQm u/]sf] s'g} s'/f jf lbPsf] s'g} dtnfO{ lnP/ s'g} klg ;b:onfO{ kqmfp ug{, y'gfdf /fVg jf lgh pk/ s'g} cbfntdf s'g} sf/afxL rnfpg ;lsg] 5}g .-@_ Joj:yflksf–;+;bnfO{ cfˆgf] cfGtl/s sfd sf/afxL lgoldt ug{] k"0f{ clwsf/ /xg]5 / s'g} sf/afxL lgoldt jf clgoldt 5 jf 5}g egL lg0f{o ug{] clwsf/ Joj:yflksf–;+;bnfO{ dfq x'g]5 . o; ;DaGwdf s'g} cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg ;lsg] 5}g .**** wf/f %^-$_ Joj:yflksf–;+;bn] lbPsf] clwsf/ cGtu{t s'g} lnvt, k|ltj]bg, dtbfg jf sf/afxL k|sflzt u/]sf] ljifonfO{ lnP/ s'g} JolQm pk/ cbfntdf sf/afxL rnfpg ;lsg] 5}g . :ki6Ls/0fM pkwf/f -!_, -@_, -#_ / -$_ sf] k|of]hgsf nflu æJoj:yflksf–;+;bÆ eGgfn] Joj:yflksf–;+;bsf] / To;sf] s'g} ;ldlt ;d]tnfO{ hgfpg]5 .


ul/Psf] lgjf{rg If]qsf] lgwf{/0fsf ;DaGwdf s'g} cbfntdf k|Zg p7fpg gkfOg] u/L ul/Psf] Joj:yf*nfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/df cleJoQm ¿kdf nufOPsf] ;Ldf eGg ;lsG5 . t/ ;+j}wflgs Joj:yfn] dfq ;Ldf nufpg ;lsg] u/L cbfntn] JofVof u/]sf] 5 .**

;+ljwfg tyf sfg'gn] nufPsf] cleJoQm ;Ldfsf cltl/Qm Gofokflnsf cfkm}n] jf cGo tj/n] klg Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgdf ;Ldf nufOPsf] x'G5 . cbfntn] ckgfpg] Goflos cfTd;+od (Judicial self restraint) nfO{ o;sf] pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 . hgtfaf6 k|ToIf ¿kdf lgjf{lrt gePsf] / hgtfk|lt l;w} pQ/bfloTj axg ug'{kg]{ cj:yf gx'g] x'Fbf Gofofnon] cfkm"nfO{ ;+oldt ¿kdf k|:t't ug'{kb{5 eGg] dfGotfn] Goflos cfTd;+odsf] cjwf/0ffsf] ljsf; ePsf] xf] . Goflos lg¿k0f of]Uo ljifo gePsf] (question of justiciability), ;fj{hlgs gLlt lgdf{0fsf] ljifo ePsf] (Issue of public policy), /fhgLlts k|Zg ;dfj]z ePsf] (Political question), Joj:yflksfsf] a'l4dtf / ;Ifdtfsf] ljifo (Subject on legislative wisdom and competency), sfNklgs k|Zg ;dfj]z ePsf] (Hypothetical issues), s'6gLlts ;DaGw (Diplomatic relations), /fli6«o ;'/Iff (National Security), ;+s6sfnLg cj:yf (state of emergency), j}slNks pkrf/sf] k|aGw ePsf] (Alternative remedy), b'/fzoo'Qm efjgf (Malafied intention) / xsb}of (Locus standi) h:tf cfwf/df Gofofnon] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] qmddf cfTd;+od ckgfpg] ub{5 .***

* wf/f !%$s=-(_ lgjf{rg If]q lgwf{/0f cfof]uåf/f lgjf{rg If]q lgwf{/0f ul/Psf] Yjf pkwf/f -!)u_ adf]lhd k'g/fjnf]sg ul/Psf] ljifodf s'g} cbfntdf s'g} k|Zg p7fpg ;lsg] 5}g .** ;+ljwfgn] kl/sNkgf u/]sf] ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtfsf] l;4fGtnfO{ Jojxf/df sfof{Gjog ug{sf nflu wf/f !)& åf/f o; cbfntnfO{ k|bQ c;fwf/0f clwsf/sf] Pivotal Role /x]sf] 5 . o; cbfntsf] pQm c;fwf/0f clwsf/nfO{

ljwflosfn] agfPsf] s'g} klg sfg'gn] lgoGq0f jf ;Lldt ug{ g;Sg] -g]=sf=k= @)^*-!_ lg0f{o gDa/ *%#%, k[i7 @&_ .*** Goflos cfTDf;+odsf] pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] Pp6f l/6 lgj]bgdf u/]sf] JofVofnfO{ lng

;lsG5 . h;df e}/x]sf] sfg'gL Joj:yfn] df}lns xspk/ cg'lrt aGb]h nufPsf] jf cGo s'g} sf/0fn] s'g} sfg'g ;+ljwfg;Fu aflemPsf] cj:Yff eP c;fwf/0f clwsf/If]q u|x0f u/L o; cbfntn] cdfGo / ab/ 3f]lift ug]{ xf] . sfg'g k|0ffnL Pjd\ ;fdflhs ;+/rgf kl/jt{g ug]{ jf e}/x]sf] sfg'gdf yk Joj:Yff u/L sfg'g ;+zf]wgsf] ljifodf cfb]z hf/L ug]{ sfo{ ;fdfGotM cbfntsf] xf]Og . ;fy} sfg'gdf o; lsl;dsf] Joj:Yff yk ug'{ egL ;fdflhs cleoGtf -Social Engineering_ sf] ¿kdf cbfntn] Joj:Yfflksfsf] sfd ug{ ldNb}g . sfg'g k|0ffnL Pjd\ ;fdflhs ;+/rgf kl/jt{g ug]{ jf e}/x]sf] sfg'gdf yk Joj:yf u/L sfg'g ;+zf]wgsf] ljifodf cfb]z hf/L ug]{ sfo{ ;fdfGotM cbfntsf] xf]Og . s] s:tf] sfg'g k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ug]{ eGg] ljifo /fHosf] gLltut ljifo xf] . o:tf] /fHosf] 5'§} cËsf] clwsf/pk/ Gofokflnsfåf/f k|ToIf x:tIf]k x'g] u/L cfb]z hf/L ug{ ldNb}g . kmf}hbf/L k|s[ltsf] s;"/sf] kl/efiff ljwflosL gLlt -Policy_ sf] ljifo ePsf]n] df}h'bf kl/efiff / Joj:yfx¿df gLltut ¿kdf cbfntn] s'g} cfb]z jf lgb]{z ug{ ldNb}g . sfg'g jf s;"/sf] kl/efiffdf s'g} zAb yk ug]{ jf gug]{ eGg] s'/f lgtfGt ljwflosL sfo{If]qsf] ljifo xf] . jxfn /x]sf] sfg'gL Joj:yf dlxnf / k'?ifaLr e]befjk"0f{ 5 eg] klg ;f] Joj:yf ab/sf] dfu gu/]sf] cj:Yffdf s'g} sfg'gL Joj:YffnfO{ e]befjk"0f{ egL ;+zf]wg ug{ cfb]z lbFbf sfg'gsf] jfWosfl/tfdf k|Zg p7\g ;Sg] x'G5, To:tf] cj:yf ;+ljwfgtM :jLsfo{ klg gdflgg] egL JofVof ePsf] 5 -g]=s=kf= @)^* -$_ lg0f{o gDa/ *%*(, k[i7 %&!) .


* Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf cfwf/x¿

Gofofnon] ljleGg cfwf/df Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/sf] cEof; ub{5 . ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{RrtfnfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] ljjfb/lxt cfwf/sf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . df}lns clwsf/sf] xgg / ;+j}wflgs k|fjwfgsf] pNn+3gsf ljifo Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf cfwf/ x'g\ . Wade and Forsyth n]V5g\ M– Compliance of the Constitution and protection of civilian rights are the fundamental basis of judicial review. Judicial review is there where not confined to cases of plain excess of power; it also governs abuse of power, as where something is done unjustifiably, for the wrong reasons or by the wrong procedure (Wade and Forsyth, 2007: 35). Council of Civil Service Unions V Minister of State of Civil Service df Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf cfwf/sf af/]df ljZn]if0f ub}{ Lord Diplok n] illegality, irrationality and procedural irregularities nfO{ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf k|d'v tLg cfwf/sf] ¿kdf pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . klxnf b'O{ cfwf/x¿ ;f/ kIf;Fu ;DalGwt /x]sf 5g\ eg] t];|f] cfwf/ k|lqmofut cyf{t\ sfo{ljlwut kIf;Fu ;DalGwt /x]sf] 5 . clwsf/If]qsf] pNn+3g, sfg'gL q'6L, k|fs[lts Gofosf l;4fGtsf] pNn+3g, clwsf/sf] b'¿kof]u jf :j]R5frf/L k|of]u h:tf ljifo Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf cGo cfwf/x¿ x'g\ . l/rf8{ u8{g / l6d jf8{ n]V5g\ – It is established fundamental fact that on an application for judicial review, the court will not review the merits of the decision but will confine themselves to ensuring, In brief, that the authority did not out illegally, unreasonably or unfairly (Richard and Ward, 2002: 175).

( Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg / k'g/fj]bgdf leGgtf

Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg / k'g/fj]bg b'j} Gofofnosf] clwsf/ If]qleq kg]{ ljifox¿ x'g\ . b'j}n] u}/ sfg'gL sfo{nfO{ lgoGq0f ub{5g\ . b'j}sf] p2]Zo sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] :yfkgf ug'{ / gful/s xs clwsf/sf] hu]gf{ ug'{ g} xf] . t/ oL b'O{ ljifodf cfwf/e"t leGgtf /x]sf] 5 . k'g/fj]bg sfg'gL clwsf/ xf], Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg ;+j}wflgs clwsf/ xf] . k'g/fj]bg cbfntsf] ;fwf/0f If]qflwsf/ cGtu{t kb{5 eg] Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg c;fwf/0f clwsf/If]q cGtu{t kb{5 / cbfntsf] cGt/lglxt clwsf/sf] ¿kdf klg /x]sf] x'G5 . k'g/fj]bgn] tNnf] cbfntn] u/]sf] km};nf 7Ls 5 ls 5}g eg]/ hfFr k/LIf0f ub{5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgdf ;fj{hlgs clwsf/Lsf sfd sf/jfxLx¿ sfg'gsf] ;Ldfleq /xL k|of]u ul/Psf 5g\ ls 5}gg\ eg]/ k/LIf0f ul/G5 . sfg'gn] tf]s]sf] ;dofjlwleq k'g/fj]bg kl/;s]sf] x'g'kb{5 / o;df xbDofbsf] ljifonfO{ s8fOk"j{s kfngf ul/G5 . t/ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgdf j:t'ut cfwf/ / sf/0f b]vfpg ;s] ljnDa gnfUg klg ;S5 . k'g/fj]bgsf] ;'g'jfO{sf nflu lglZrt / k"j{ lgwf{l/t k|lqmofx¿ sfg'gn] tf]lslbPsf] x'G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] ;'g'jfO{ Jojl:yt ug]{ sfo{ cbfntsf] cGt/lglxt clwsf/sf] ¿kdf /x]sf] x'G5 . d'VotM Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] p2]Zo ;fj{hlgs clwsf/Lx¿nfO{ sfg'gn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] kl/lw gf£g glbg' xf] eg] k'g/fj]bgsf] p2]Zo tNnf cbfnt jf clwsf/Laf6 ePsf lg0f{osf] k/LIf0f ubf{ ;Rofpg' xf] . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg pRr cbfntnfO{ ;+ljwfgn] k|bfg u/]sf]


;'kl/j]IfsLo clwsf/ xf] To;n] ;fj{hlgs lgsfo jf clwsf/Ln] u/]sf] lg0f{o sfg'g ;Ddt /x]sf] 5 5}g egL hfFr ub{5 / tf]lsPsf] k|lqmof k"/f gu/]sf] cj:yfdf To:tf] lg0f{o ab/ ug{ ;S5 t/ ;fdfGotofM cfkm} ;RofP/ lg0f{o ub}{g . k'g/fj]bgsf] ;'g'jfO{ ubf{ tNnf cbfnt jf lgsfon] u/]sf] lg0f{o ab/ u/L dflyNnf] cbfntsf] d'2fsf] ljifoj:t'df k|j]z u/L gofF lg0f{o klg ug{ ;S5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] qmddf Gofosf dfGo l;4fGt, ;+j}wflgs d"No dfGotf / ;dtf, Gofo / ;b\ljj]s (equaty, justice and good conscience) sf] k|of]u ul/G5 t/ k'g/fj]bgsf] lsgf/f ubf{ sfg'gL tyf tYout k|Zgsf] lg/f]k0f ul/G5 . Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf nflu ;fdfGotofM pbf/ xsb}ofsf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] x'G5 t/ k'g/fj]bgdf xs k'u]sf] JolQmn] dfq tNnf] cbfnt jf lgsfosf] km};nf jf lg0f{o nfO{ r'gf}tL lbO{ k'g/fj]bg bfo/ ug{ ;S5g\ . k'g/fj]bg nufot pkrf/sf] j}slNks dfu{ ePsf] cj:yfdf ;fdfGotofM Goflos k'g/fjnf]sgsf] clwsf/If]q cfslif{t x'Fb}g . elgG5 k'g/fj]bgsf] clwsf/ sfg'gsf] l;h{gfsf] pkh xf] . t/ Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg ;+j}wflgs ;jf]{Rrtf / sfg'gsf] zf;gsf] :yfkgfsf nflu ;jf]{Rr cbfntnfO{ k|bfg cGt/lglxt clwsf/ xf] .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

;+ljwfgx¿

g]kfn ;/sf/ j}wflgs sfg'g, @))$

g]kfn cGtl/d zf;g ljwfg, @))&

g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg, @)!%

g]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg, @)!(

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k':tsx¿

Anand, A.S. (2004). Justice for Women, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.: Delhi.

Dicey, A.V. (1985). An Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (10th ed.), Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.

Thomson West (2004). Black’s Law Dictionary (8th ed.), Thomson West.

Thompson, B. (1995). Constitutional and Administrative Law, Lawman India: New Delhi.

Charles H. Mcllwain, Constitutionalism: Ancient and Modern, Cornell University Press: New York.

Basu, D.D. (2007). Commentary on the Constitution of India, Vol. 1, (8th ed.), Wadhwa


and Co.: Nagpur.

Barnett, H. (1996). Constitutional and Administrative Law, Lawman (India) Pvt. Ltd.: New Delhi.

Seervai, H.M. (1983). Constitutional Law of India, (3rd ed.), Vol. 1, N.M. Tripathi Private Ltd.: Bombay.

Tripathi, H.B. (2002). Fundamental Rights and Judicial Review in Nepal (Evolution and Experiments), Pairavi Prakashan: Kathmandu.

Wade, H.W.R. and C.F. Forsyth (2007). Administrative Law (9th ed.), Oxford University Press: New York.

Massey, I.P. (2005). Administrative Law (6th ed.), Eastern Book Company: Lucknow.

Berry, J. and Goldman (1992). The Challenge of Democracy (3rd ed.), Houghton Mifflin Company.

Freeman, M.D.A. (2001). Lloyd’s Introduction to Jurisprudence, (7th ed.) Sweet and Maxwell Ltd.: London.

Hidayatullah, M. (1984). Constitutional Law of India, The Bar Council of India Trust.

Jain, M.P. (2010). Indian Constitutional Law, Vol. 2 (6th ed.) Lexis Nexis Butterworths: Wadhwa, Nagpur.

Jain, M.P. (2007). Principles of Administrative Law (6th ed.), Wadhwa and Company:

Singh, M.P. (2008). V.N. Sukla’s Constitution of India (11th ed.), Eastern Book Company: Lucknow.

Pylee, M.V. (2003). Constitutions of the World (2nd ed.), Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.: Delhi.

Philips, O. H. and Jackson, (2001). Constitutional and Administrative Law (8th ed.), Sweet and Maxwell: London.

David, R. and J.E.C. Brierley (1985). Major Legal Systems in the World Today (3rd ed.), Stevens and Sons: London.

Dhungel, S.P. et al. (1998). Commentary on the Nepalese Constitution, DeLF: Kathmandu.

Snowiss, S. (1996). Judicial Review and the Law of the Constitution, Universal Law Publishing Co.: Delhi.

Allan, T.R.S. (2005). Constitutional Justice, Oxford University Press.

Wade and Bradly, (1965). Wade and Philips’ Constitutional Law, Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd.: London.

sgs ljqmd yfkf ;d]t -@)%$_, g]kfnsf] ;+j}wflgs sfg'gf -bf];|f] hGd_, lkm|l8«n, sf7df8f}+ .


df]xg k|;fb aGhf8], -@)$^_, ;+j}wflgs xs / Goflos k'g/fjnf]sg, dL/f aGhf8] .

Journals and Periodicals

All India Reporters (AIR)

Annual Survey of Nepalese Law, Nepal Bar Council

Essays on Constitutional Law, Nepal Law Society

Nepal Law Review, Nepal Law Campus

NJA Law Journal, National Judicial Academy

g]kfn sfg'g klqsf

;jf]{Rr cbft a'n]l6g

Dissertations/Thesis/ Research/Reports

Apurba Khatiwada, Judicial review of Laws inconsistent with the constitution, http://www.ksl.edu.np/cpanel/pics/judicial_review_in_nepal_apurba.pdf

Acharya, B. (1999). The Practice of Judicial Review of Legislation: Problems and Prospects, Unpublished LL.M. Dissertation submitted to T.U. Nepal Law Campus: Kathmandu.

Paudel, D.R. (2005). Enforcing Fundamental Rights through Judicial Review of Legislation: a Review of Nepalese Experiments, Unpublished LL.M. Dissertation, submitted to T.U. Nepal Law Campus: Kathmandu.

Subedi, N. (2000). Judicial Review of Administrative Action on Nepal: Challenges and Prospects, Unpublished LL.M. Dissertation submitted to T.U. Nepal Law Campus: Kathmandu.

pd]z sf]O/fNff ;d]t, -@)^#_, ;jf]{Rr cbfntaf6 hf/L ePsf lgb]{zgfTds cfb]zx¿sf] sfof{Gjog cj:yf, /fli6«o Goflos k|lti7fg, sf7df8f}+ .

pd]z sf]O/fNff ;d]t, -@)^&_, ;jf]{Rr cbfntaf6 hf/L ePsf lgb]{zgfTds cfb]zx¿sf] sfof{Gjog cj:yf, -ck|sflzt_ /fli6«o Goflos k|lti7fg, xl/x/ejg, nlntk'/ .

Gofo k|zf;gsf cfofdx¿ -@)^!_, ;f]kfg dfl;s .


g]kfnsf] lghfdtL k|zf;gdf 6«]8 o'lgog / ;?jf Joj:yfkg

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If you slaute your duty you need not slaute anybody if you plloute your duty you have to slaute everybody.-APJ Abdlu Klaam, Former President of India

nf]stGq hgtfsf] hghLjg / :jtGqtfsf] /Ifs xf], ljs[lt xf]Og . xfdLn] nf]stGqflGqs k2lt :jLsf/ t u¥of}F t/ c+ufNg ;s]gf}F, To;}sf] kl/0fltsf] Ps ¿k xf] g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf 6«]8 o'lgogsf kl5Nnf ultljlw / cEo:t ;+:sf/ . nf]stGqdf hg;Ddlt g} /fHo ;~rfngsf] cfwf/ x'G5 . hgtfsf] nf]slk||o dtsf cfwf/df /fhgLlts bnn] zf;gflwsf/ k|fKt ub{5g\ / hgtfsf] OR5f /x'Gh]n dfq /fhgLlts bn;Fu /fHo ;+rfngsf] clwsf/ /xG5 t/ xfd|f] nf]stGq ljlwaf6 geO{ k|ljlwaf6 ;~rfng ePsf] x'Fbf k|fljlws ¿kdf hf]8 36fpdf dfq ;Lldt /xL hgtfsf] ;fj{ef}ldstfdflysf] clwsf/ dfly v]njf8 ePsf] kfOG5 . nf]stGqdf ;a} gful/snfO{ ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ x'G5 t/ To;sf] sfo{n] ;j{;fwf/0f gful/s jf ;d'bfonfO{ c;/ kfg{, ;+ljwfg, P]g, sfg'g, ljlw / k2ltnfO{ ;+ul7t ePs} sf/0fn] tf]8\g kfOFb}g, Tof] t x'ntGq x'G5 . lghfdtL sd{rf/L t c´ gful/ssf] lt/f] / s/af6 tna vfg] ju{ ePsf]n] o;sf] ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/n] t c´ nf]stGq, ;+ljwfg, P]g, sfg'g / ljlwnfO{ Jojl:yt / cIf/; kfng u/L lau|]sf] /fhgLltnfO{ ;xL af6f]df Nofpg] ck]Iff ul/G5 . /fi6«;]js ePsf] gftfn] o;sf lqmofsnfkn] ;fd"lxs lxt / clwsf/nfO{ dha't kfg{‘ kg{] x'G5 t/ /fhgLlts kf6L{sf eft[ ;+u7gsf] ¿kdf lghfdtL ;+3 ;+u7gx¿ cfkm" lgs6 bnsf JolSt, ;d"x jf ljrf/sf] lxtdf dfq s]lGb|t ePsf] kfpF5f} . lghfdtL ;]jf P]gsf] Joj:yf cg'¿k sfd, st{Jo / clwsf/df sd} s]lGb|t eP/ bnLo d'2f / /+udf l;+xb/af/leq} klg lghfdtL ;]jfsf] cfr/0f t6:ytf, lgZkIftf / hg;]jf ljk/Ltsf sfo{pGd'v ultljlw x'g'n] ;du| ¿kdf ;Ifd lghfdtL ;]jfsf] OR5f /fVg] ;a} gful/s, lghfdtL sd{rf/L / /fHo ;+oGqdflysf] pkxf; / ;'zf;g sfod /fVg] /fHosf] bfloTj tyf p2]Zodfly s'7f/f3ft ePsf] 5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf g]kfnsf] lghfdtL g]t[Tjn] o; ljifodf v'n]/ af]Ng g;s] klg lghfdtL ;]jfleq x'g] / ePsf ljs[t sfo{sf] lj/f]w ug]{ l;nl;nf a9]sf] 5 . ;f}Gbof{Tds kf/fdf Psn 6«]8 o'lgogsf s'/f ;txdf cfP klg ;Lldt txeGbf dfly ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ x'g gx'g] kIfdf cfd sd{rf/L ;xdt 5g\\ . xfd|f] sd{ c;n / P]g sfg'gn] tf]s] cg'¿k x'g] xf] eg] laZjsf sd{rf/L ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ ePsf d'n'ssf] pbfx/0f lbP/ o;n] :yfkgf u/]sf] ;Eo ;+:sf/sf ;fy o;sf kIfdf jsfnt ug{ ;lsGYof] t/ b'ef{Uo To;f] x'g ;s]g . sd{rf/L ;+u7gx¿ lghfdtL ;]jfsf] ;d[l4 / pGgogsf nflu n8]sf eP ;fob g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf

* pk;lrj, k|wfgdGqL tyf dlGqkl/ifb\sf] sfof{no, l;+xb/jf/ Email: [email protected]


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ljZjdf 6«]8 o'lgog cfGbf]ng dhb'/x¿sf] sfof{j:yfk|lt Joj:yfks ;+j]bgzLn gePsf]n] ;fd"lxs ;f}bfafhLsf dfWodn] dhb'/sf] lxt ;+/If0f ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy z'? ePsf] kfOG5 . a]nfotdf k|yd ljZjo'4tfsf g} pBf]u k|lti7fgdf >ldsx¿n] cfjfh p7fpg yfn]sf lyP . vf;u/L ;g\ !($$ sf] cfO=Pn=cf]=sf] lkmnf8]lNkmof 3f]if0ffkqn] ljrf/ / cleJolQm tyf ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/nfO{ JolStTj ljsf;sf] cfjZos ;t{sf] ¿kdf :jLsf/ u/]sf]n] ;+ul7t x'g] cfjfhdf an k'u]sf] xf] . 6«]8 o'lgogsf] cjwf/0ff cf}Bf]lus ;DaGw, dhb'/sf] clwsf/ :yfkgfsf] nflu ;fd"lxs ;f}bfafhL / dflnsaf6 x'g zf]if0f lj?4sf] ;fd"lxs cfjfh xf] .

g]kfndf lj=;+= @)!^ sf] Go"g j}tlgs sd{rf/L ;+3sf] ¿kdf >dhLjLx¿sf] ;+u7g :yfkgf eP klg /fhgLlts Joj:yfsf] sf/0f v'nf / ;lqmo x'g ;s]g . lj=;+= @)$^ df k'g{:yflkt ax'bnLo k|hftGq kZrft\ d'n'sdf k|fKt /fhgLlts :jtGqtf / lj=;+= @)$& sf] g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+lawfgn] gful/snfO{ ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ :yflkt u¥of] . ;fy} lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( n] /fhkq cg+lst / o;sf] bf]>f] ;+zf]wgn] sfof{no k|d'v x'g] afx]s /fhkqf+lst t[tLo >]0fL;Dd sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ :yflkt u/]sf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g tyf lgodfjnLsf ljBdfg k|fjwfgn] lghfdtL 6]«8 o'lgogn] ug'{kg]{ sfdx¿, clwsf/ / st{Josf] :ki6 Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . cfr/0fsf] dxn cGt{ut lghfdtL sd{rf/Ln] ug{ x'g] / gx'g] sfdx¿sf] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . rfx] sd{rf/L ;+3;+u7gdf cfa4 xf];\ jf gxf];\ ;a}nfO{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]gsf k|fjwfgx¿ plQs} nfu" x'G5g\, s'g} ;+3;+u7gsf] cfa4tfn] 5'6 x'Fb}g / x'g' klg xF'b}g . klxnf] s'/f g]kfnsf] ljBdfg P]gsf k|fjwfgeGbf dfly s'g} sd{rf/L x'g g;Sg] g]kfnsf] ;+j}wflgs / sfg'gL k|fjwfg tyf cEof; xf] t;y{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]gdf ePsf k|fawfgsf] cfˆg} sd{rf/Ldfly klg sfof{Gjog ug{ g;Sg' ;/sf/sf] 7"nf] sdhf]/L xf] . s]xL ;/sf/L sdhf]/L tyf s]xL sd{rf/Lsf] /fhgLlts :jfy{sf] sf/0f ;du| 6«]8 o'lgogsf] cEof;;Fu g]kfnL hgtfn] c;xdlt hgfpg] lbSsnfUbf] ca:yf ;[hgf x'b}5 of] 6«]8 o'lgogsdL{n] a'´\g' kg]{ ljifo xf] . x'gtM t6:ytf / k|lta4tfaLrsf] nfdf] ax; kZrft\ ljleGg d'n'sdf leGgfleGg} lsl;dn] lghfdtL ;]jfdf /fhgLlts cEof; ePsf] kfOG5 . st} ljZjf;sf] e/df /fhgLlt / k|zf;g rn]sf] 5 t st} k|0ffnLut ¿kdf . s]xL cEof; x]/f+} M

a]nfotL cEof;M a]nfotdf /fhgLlt1 / k|zf;gaLr ;'dw'/ / ljZjfl;nf] ;DaGwdf lghfdtL / /fhgLltaLrsf] ;Eo cEof; rn]sf] 5 . hf] ;'s} jf h:tf] ;'s} ;/sf/ cfPdf klg lghfdtL k|zf;gdf of]Uotf k|0ffnL / ;]jf ;'ljwfdf km/s kb}{g eGg] dfGotf 5 / To:t} ePsf] klg 5 . a]nfotL lghfdtL ;]jf gful/s ;]jf k|jfxdf pTs[i6 dflgG5 .


cd]l/sL cEof;M cd]l/sfdf sd{rf/LtGq /fhgLltaf6 6f9f /xg'kg]{ dfGotf 5 . /fhgLlts g]t[Tjn] gLlt lgdf{0f ub{5g\ / To;sf] kfngf sd{rf/LtGqaf6 x'g' k5{ . lg0f{ox'g''eGbf klxn] sd{rf/Ln] gLltsf] /fhgLlt ug{ ;Sb5g\ t/ lg0f{o eO;s]kl5 sfof{Gjog ug'{k5{ . Spoli System af6 of]Uotf k|0ffnLdf cEo:t cd]l/sL lghfdtL ;]jf ;f{jhlgs ;]jf k|jfxdf pTs[i6 g} 5 .

ef/tLo cEof;M ef/tdf klg cd]l/sf h:t} t6:y lghfdtL ;]jf / /fhgLlt ug{ gkfOg] cEof; 5 . ef/tLo lghfdtL ;]jf ef/tsf] Pstfsf] k|tLs ;d]t dflgG5 . ;a}eGbf 7"nf] nf]stflGqs d'n's ef/tsf] lghfdtL ;]jfn] /fhgLltnfO{ 6f9} /fv]sf] kfOG5 .

g]kfnL cEof;M sl/a ^) jif{sf] cfw'lgs lghfdtL ;]jfsf] cEof; u/]sf] g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf af/Daf/ /fhgLlts x:tIf]tsf] r]k'jfdf k/]sf] 5 . ljutdf zf;s ju{af6 nf]s ;]jf cfof]u ;d]t lgnDag u/L of]Uotf k|0ffnLdfly r'gf}tL lbg]b]lv krf{ k|0ffnL dfkm{t\ lghfdtL ;]jfdf zf;sLo dt nflbPs} xf] . y/3/ e]6Lsf] k|yfaf6 hGd ePsf] o;sf] Oltxf; sfnf] ;dodf hjfg ePsf] / pb08 ;dodf kms]{sf] dfGg ;lsG5 . g]kfnsf] lghfdtL k|zf;gn] ljutdf hl6n / zf;sLo x:tIf]kaf6 ?dlnP klg qmdzM of]Uotf k|0ffnL / t6:ytfdf pGd'v ePsf] t xf] t/ t6:ytfsf] ;SsnL cEof;sf] cfef; eg] x'g kfPsf] 5}g .

kl5Nnf] ;dodf lghfdtL k|zf;gdf t6:ytf, lgZkIftf / k|lta4tfsf ljifodf w]/} ax;, cEof; / sfg'gL Joj:yf ckgfOPsf 5g\ . b]z cg'¿k, hgtfsf] a'´fOsf] :t/ / cfr/0f cg'¿k k2ltsf] ljsf; gu/Lsg} vfnL nf]stGqsf gfddf lgZkIf / t6:y /xg'kg]{ lghfdtL sd{rf/LnfO{ /fhgLlts clwsf/ lbOg' b]z ga'´L u/]sf] nf]slk|otfsf] gf6s dfq xf] . /fhgLltsdL{n] hgtfsf] ;fj{ef}lds clwsf/sf] /Iffsf] ljifodf lrGtg ug'{kg]{df lghfdtL sd{rf/Lsf] cbnLabnL, a9'jf 36'jf / b}lgs sfo{df k|fyldstf lbg' o;}sf] k|ToIf pbfx/0f xf] . cfh ;lrj aGg /fhgLltsf] ;xof]u lng' kg]{ cj:yf / o;n] ;[hgf u/]sf] / ug{] pRr k|zf;ssf] sdhf]/ dgf]ansf] kL8f / pTkfbsTjsf] :jvng lghfdtL k|zf;gn] dfq ef]Ug] xf]Og, ;du| d'n'sL zf;g Joj:yfn] ef]u]sf] 5 . lghfdtL k|zf;gdf pRr z}lIfs of]Uotf ePsf, bIftfo'St hgzlSt x'Fbf klg d'n'sn] hgtfdf kl/jt{gsf] cg'e"lt k|bfg ug{ g;Sg', ;]jf / pTkfbsTj sdhf]/ x'g'df oxL uGtJoxLg Pjd\ gb]lvPsf] /fhgLlts/0f lhDd]jf/ 5 . Right man in the right post eGg] ljZjJofkL cEof; / rfxgf ljk/Lt Our man in the good post sf] cEof; a9\b} uPsf] kfOG5, h;n] pko'{St xf]Og pknAw eL8nfO{ k|>o lbFb} cfPsf] 5 . lghfdtL k|zf;ssf] g]t[Tjsf] IfoLs/0fsf] dfks klg oxL cfwf/ aGb} uPsf] 5 . cfh sfof{nodf s;}n] s;}nfO{ sfd nufpg jf c¥xfpg sl7g 5, sd{rf/L of t l;6df x'Fb}gg\ of t s'g} cj;/ k|flKtsf] nflu ;+u7gsf sfof{no wfpFb} u/]sf kfOG5g\ . s'g} ;+u7gn] cf>o lbPg eg] s'g} sd{rf/Lsf] ;?jf xF'b}g, ePdf /fd|f dflgPsf 7fFpdf x'Fb}g jf /fd|f 7fFpdf ́ 'lSsP/ k/]5 eg] klg a:g kfO{+b}g . To;}n] xf]nf cfhsfn sd{rf/Ln] d kmnfgf] sd{rf/L eg]/ kl/ro lbg'eGbf kmnfgf] ;+u7gsf] kmnfgf] dfG5] jf kmnfgf]sf] kmnfgf] eg]/ kl/ro lbg] u/]sf] ;a} e'Stef]uL g} 5f} . o;n] sxfFsf] dgf]an, sxfFsf] pTkfbsTj / sxfFaf6 ;'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"lt ug{] /fHosf] OR5fk"lt{ x'G5 xf]nf <


sd{rf/Ln] hLjge/ ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|j]z ubf{ lglZrt ¿kdf pko'Qm j[lQ ljsf;sf] cj;/, Go"gtd hLjgofkgsf cfwf/, cfb{z kl/jf/sf] kfngkf]if0f, ;fdflhs k|lti7f nufotsf s]xL OR5f kSs} /fv]sf] x'G5 t/ To;kl5sf lbgx¿ tL cfbz{ sNkgf s]jn OR5fdf dfq} ;Lldt x'g yfNbf /fd|f g/fd|f sfdsf af/]df ;f]Rg afWo ePsf5g\ . t/ To;tk{m g /fHo g lghfdtL ;+u7gx¿sf] Wofg uPsf] 5 . sd{rf/Ln] kfpg] ;]jf, ;'ljwf / j[lQsf cj;/df 7f8} cGofo x'Fbf ;d]t ;du| lxteGbf bnLo lxt vf]lhg] cj:yfn] g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf klg /fhgLlts ́ '08 aGb} uPsf] eGbf cGoyf gxf]nf .

g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf l;4fGttM DofS; j]j/sf] t6:ytfdf cfwfl/t b]lvP klg cEof;df k|lta4tf xfaL x'Fb} uPsf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bf];|f] ;+zf]wg @)^$ n] ha nf]stGqsf] gfddf /fhkqf+lst t[tLo >]0fL;DdnfO{ 6«]8 o'lgogsf] clwsf/ lbof] To;kl5sf lbgdf g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf bnLotf a9]sf] xf] . nf]stGq eg]sf] bn dfq xf], ;a} hgtf s'g} g s'g} bnsf x'g'kg]{ a'´fO / cEof; g} xfd|f] jt{dfg ;+s6sf] sf/s xf] . nf]stGqdf bnx¿ k|f0f t x'g\ t/ To;sf] cEof;df nf]stflGqs k|f0f jfo' ePg eg] To;n] :j:y hLjg k|fKt ug{ ;Sb}g, xfd|f] ;d:of o;}df /x\of] . ;+;f/sf ;a} d'n'sdf sd{rf/LtGq 5, 6«]8 o'lgogsf] cEof; klg of] jf Tof] ¿kdf kSs} 5 t/ ;Eo ¿kdf P]g sfg'gn] lglb{i6 u/]sf ultljlw tyf sd{rf/Lsf xs clwsf/sf nflu nfu]s}n] xf]nf tL ;'wf/ / nf]stflGqs d"No ljt/0fsf lxdfotL dflgG5g\ . t/ xfdL sxfF ha ;?jf / a9'jfsf] ;do cfpF5 ta o'lgogsf] cl:tTj vf]hL u5f{}+ . /fd|f / dfnbf/ dflgg] sfof{nodf ;?jfsf] nflu xfgyfk x'G5 lsg < s] dgf]lj1fgn] sfd u5{ < g]kfnsf ;a} c8\8f Pp6} x'g'kg]{ jf ;dfg nfe / xfgLsf eflubf/ ;dfg dfkb08 kf/ ug{] ;a} sd{rf/L x'g' kg]{ xf]Og < o;df Ps dfu ug{], bf];|f] dfu cg'¿k lbg] ;a} bf];L 5g\ . dfnbf/ c8\8fdf hfg xfgyfk, 3';vf]/L rNg' e|i6«frf/ xf]Og < s'g} sfo{sf] p2]Zo g} unt x'G5 eg] /fd|f] kl/0ffdsf] ck]Iff s;/L ug{ ;lsG5 < j}b]lzs /f]huf/, cWofudg, dfnkf]t jf To:t}df hfg] / k7fpg] p2]Zo 7Ls gx'Gh]n hlt g} ;'zf;gsf ukm kmnfs] klg Tof] Joy{ 5 . To;}n] t xf] ljZj hxfF k'u] klg xfdL sfGnfd'lg /xgfsf] sf/0f . lsg cfh b}lgs ¿kdf cWofudg, j}b]lzs /f]huf/, dfnkf]t, lhNnf ljsf; nufotsf sfof{nosf] sfdsf gsf/fTds ;dfrf/ dfq cfpF5g\ t < /fHo jf 6«]8 o'lgogn] 5fg]/} k7fPsf ;Ifd sd{rf/Laf6 lbgbxf8} Pp6f g]kfnL n'l6G5 < lsg ljb]zdf xhf/f}+ si6 p7fP/ :jb]z lkm/]sL Pp6f gf/L anfTs[t x'G5] < Tof] ;a}sf] dgf]lj1fgdf sxLF st} /fhgLlts zlQmsf] e/f];f b]lvG5 .

;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnon] P]gsf k|fjwfg sfof{Gjog gu/L cg]sf}+ dfkb08 agfpFb} hfg' sfg'gsf] kfngf ug'{sf] ;§f s]jn cfkm\gf q'6L n'sfpg xf] . s;n] /f]s]sf] 5 ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnonfO{ P]g lgodfg';f/ ;?jf ug{ < Tof] ls nfu" ul/g' k¥of] ls t gug{]dfly sf/jfxL x'g' k¥of] . sf]xL x'Dnf, h'Dnf / sfnLsf]6sf] uf]nrSs/ t sf]xL cWofudg, pkTosfsf lhNnf k|zf;g / u[x dGqfnodf /hfOF ug{] of] P]gsf] ds;b jf k|fjwfg t x}g . To;}n] sfg'gsf] /Ifsn] g} sfg'gsf] pkxf; u/]s}n] g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf ;zQm x'g'sf] ;§f lg/xL / IfoLs[t x'b} uPsf] 5 . jf:tjdf g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jf cgf}7f] ;+qmd0fdf u'h|]sf] 5 . Psflt/ d'n'sdf /fhgLlts cl:y/tf /


ckl/kSj zf;g Joj:yf 5 . csf]{]lt/ hgtfsf gjLg rfxgf / gful/s r]tgfsf] :t/ Jofks a9]sf] 5 . o;sf] ;]t' lghfdtL ;]jf g} x'g] / lghfdtL ;]jfsf] ;Ifdtf;Fu} /fHosf] hgtf;Fusf] ;DaGw :yflkt x'g] eP klg hgrfxgf d'tfljs xfd|f ultljlwx¿ s]lGb|t x'g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . ;+ul7t x'g] clwsf/ /fHosf gful/s ;a}nfO{ x'g] eP klg /fHon] 5'§} bfloTj lgjf{x ug{ lghfdtL ;]jf u7g u/]sf] x'G5 . h;sf] sfo{ lgZkIf / k|efjsf/L ¿kdf ;]jf k|jfx ug{] / /fhgLlts g]t[TjnfO{ gLlt lgdf{0f ug{df ;3fpg] xf] . /fhgLltaf6 j}wtf k|fKt u/] klg cfkm" /fhgLlt gug{] o;sf] d"n l;4fGt xf] . /fhgLlts g]t[Tjsf] sfo{qmdnfO{ cfkm\gf] j}rfl/s ;xdlt jf c;xdlt h] eP klg bQlrQn] nfu" ug'{kg]{ x'gfn] g} o;nfO{ /fhgLlteGbf 6f9f /fVg vf]lhPsf] xf] . olb lghfdtL sd{rf/Ldf klg bnLo ljrf/ x'g] xf] eg] xfdL ;+;f/n] kmfn]sf] n"6 k|0ffnL (Spoil System) df k|j]z ug{]5f+} / of]Uotf k|0ffnLsf] ljgfz;Fu} ar]v'r]sf] ;]jf k|jfxsf] ;tx klg /ftf/ft elTsg]5 .

@= lghfdtL 6«]8 o'lgog / ;?jf Joj:yfkg

lghfdtL ;]jfsf] of]Uotf k|0ffnLsf] sb/, ;fj{hlgs ;]jfsf] k|jfesfl/tf / ;fd"lxs ;f}bfafhLsf] Joj:yfkgsf] p2]ZonfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]gn] 6«]8 o'lgogsf] u7g tyf o;sf] sfd st{Jo / clwsf/sf] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . vf; u/L 6«]8 o'lgogx¿n] lghfdtL sd{rf/Lsf] Ifdtf j[l4 tyf ljsf;sf h:tf ;[hgfTds sfdx¿, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff, ;]jf, ;'ljwf / cj;/ ;DaGwL sd{rf/Lsf] xs lxt / ;fd"lxs ;f}bfafhLsf sfdx¿ sfo{ ug{ ;Sg] k|fjwfg /x]sf] 5 . To;}u/L oL ;+u7gx¿ u'gf;f], kL/dsf{, cGofo, /fhgLlts x:tIf]k tyf e|i6frf/ h:tf ljs[lt cGTo tyf ;]jf ;'wf/, hjfkmb]lxtf / pQ/bfloTj clej[l4 u/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] k|efjsfl/tf / ultzLntf a9fpg] sfo{x¿ ;d]t 6«]8 o'lgogsf] bflo/fleq kb{5g\ .

g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfsf] ;a}eGbf ljjflbt ljifo ;?jf Joj:yfkg g} ePsf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] kl/R5]b $ bkmf !* df lghfdtL sd{rf/LnfO{ b]zsf] ljleGg ef}uf]lns If]qsf] cg'ej ;d]t lbnfpgsf nflu ;?jf ul/g] 5 eGg] Joj:yf 5 . P]= bkmf !* sf] pkbkmf !@ df o; bkmf ljk/Lt ;?jf ug{] kbflwsf/LnfO{ clVtof/jfnfn] ljefuLo sf/afxL ug{ ;Sg]5 / To:tf] ;?jf ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnon] /2 ug{]5 . ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnon] u/]sf] ;?jf eP g]kfn ;/sf/ dlGqkl/ifb\n] /2 ug{]5 eGg] Joj:yf 5 . :ki6 ¿kdf P]gn] ef}uf]lns If]qdf qmdzM ;?jf ug{], To;sf] sfo{ljlw nufotsf k|fjwfg /fv]sf]df g t P]g d'tflas ;?jf ePsf] cg'e"lt ul/Psf] 5 g t P]g adf]lh+d ;?jf gug{] clwsf/Ldfly ljefuLo sf/jfxL ePsf] ;'lgg kfOPsf] 5 . ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno lghfdtL ;]jfsf] s]Gb|Lo sd{rf/L lgsfo ePsf]n] ;Dk"0f{ sd{rf/Lsf] Joj:yfkgdf o;sf] ;Ifdtfn] k|efj k5{ . P]gsf] kljq p2]Zo cg'¿k ;?jf Joj:yfkg gePs}n] ;w}+ ;a}h;f] ;?jfdf 6«]8 o'lgogsf] x:tIf]k, gf/fafhL, ab/, ;lrj / sfof{no k|d'v y'lgg], s'6lk6 x'g] x'G5 . rfx] ;?jfdf ;DalGwt clwsf/Lsf] cGofonfO{ ;'wfg{xf];\ jf ;f+u7lgs :jfy{nfO{ d"t{ ¿k lbg xf];\ of] ljjflbt /xg ;s]sf] 5}g . ;fob g]kfndf bf]>f] hgcfGbf]ng kZrftsf ;?jfx¿ lgZkIf, kf/bzL{ / ljjfb/lxt x'g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . cGo ;dodf 6«]8 o'lgogsf ultlalwx¿ vf;} cfqmfds


geP klg o:tf] ;dodf ;a}sf] cl:tTj / nfe xflgsf] n]vfhf]vf x'G5 . a9'jfdf ;lrj, d'Vo ;lrj aGg afx]s cGo kbdf /fhgLlt ePsf] kfOFb}g / nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] k"0f{ ;+nUgtf x'G5 . cj;/ / sdfO{sf] nflu ;?jf k|0ffnLsf] Joj:yfkg d"n s'/f ePsf] 5 . 6«]8 o'lgognfO{ ufnL ug'{eGbf xfd|f k|0ffnL Jojl:yt ug{]tkm{ lghfdtL g]t[Tjsf] Wofg k'Ug ;s]sf] 5}g . To;}n] ;a}eGbf klxn] b]xfosf kIfx¿df Wofg lbO{ ;?jf k4lt lglZrt k|0ffnLdf cfwfl/t, ;doa4 / kf/bzL{ agfpg' h?/L b]lvG5 M–

sfg'gsf] kfngf ug{ g;Sg' g} 7"nf] sdhf]/L xf] . k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; gu/Lsg} xfdL s'g} •7"nf] ck]Iff ug{ ;Sb}gf}+ . sfg'gsf] :ki6 k|fjwfgsf] k|of]u u/L lghfdtL ;]jfdf sfo{/t sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ef}uf]lns If]qfg';f/sf] ;?jf ug{ g;Sg'n] lghfdtL ;]jfdf /fhgLlt x:tIf]k a9]sf] xf] . o;sf] nflu lgodfg';f/ klxnf] kb:yfkg s]Gb| To;kl5 qmdzM If]q, lhNnf u/]df s;}n] lrQ b'vfpg] 5}gg\ .

klxnf] kb:yfkg sDtLdf nf]s ;]jf cfof]unfO{ lbFbf ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnonfO{ ;xh x'g •;S5 / of]Uotf k|0ffnLsf] sb/ klg x'g hfG5 . To;kl5 qmdzM ;?jf k|0ffnLnfO{ ;doa4, kf/bzL{ / Jojl:yt ug'{ h?/L 5 .

lghfdtL g]t[Tj :jod\ klg sd{rf/LnfO{ /fhgLlt ug{ afWo agfpg lhDd]jf/ 5 . •sd{rf/Ln] cfkm" sfo{/t ;+u7gdf ckgTj cg'ej ug{ kfPsf] xF'b}g . ;fdfGo u'gf;f, ;?jf jf cj;/nfO{ g]t[Tjn] ljjfb /lxt agfpg] xf] eg] sd{rf/L ;+u7gx¿sf] z/0f k'Ub}gy] xf]nf t/ To;f] x'g ;s]g . x'nsf] OHht ug{] / PSnf]nfO{ x}sd b]vfpg] k|j[lQ g]t[Tjaf6 eO/x]sf] 5 . sfof{nosf k|To]s sd{rf/LnfO{ cfbz{ / lgZkIf Jojxf/ g]t[Tjaf6 x'g ;s]df lghfdtL ;]jfdf 6«]8 o'lgogx¿ h?/L kg]{ 5}gg\ . t/ To;f] gu/L ToxL sfd cfkm\gf sd{rf/Ln] eg] gug{] t/ x'nsf] gfd lnFbf dfq} ug{] ul/G5, o;df g]t[Tj lhDd]jf/ eO{ c;n Joj:yfks klg aGg ;Sg'k5{ . c´ t'R5 eP/} eGg] xf] eg] cfkm\gf sd{rf/Ln] cfb/k"j{s u/]sf] gd:sf/ ;d]t gkmsf{pg], gx]g]{] xflsdx¿ ;+u7gsf ;b:o x'F eg]dfq 9f]sfdf lng cfpg] k|j[lQ cGTo geP;Dd lghfdtL ;]jf ;'wf/ ug{ uf¥xf] 5 . cfkm\gf] ;+u7gsf] Joj:yfkgdf g]t[Tj lhDd]jf/ x'g] xf] eg] sd{rf/LnfO{ ;+u7gsf] z/0f h?/t gx'g ;S5 .

;?jf, a9'jf / cj;/sf] c;dfgtfn] a9fjf kfPsf] 5 . s'g} JolQm sf7df8f}+df a:bf •p;n] tflndsf] cj;/, j}b]lzs e|d0f tyf cWoogsf] cj;/, lzIffsf] cj;/ nufotsf ;a} cj;/ kfpF5 . ljb]zaf6 kms]{df cltl/Qm ;d"xdf a;]/ nf]s ;]jf k9\g / rfx]sf] 7fFpdf hfg;S5 t/ b'u{d 7fFpdf a;]sfn] dflysf ;a} cj;/ xQkQ k|fKt ug{ ;Sb}gg\ . kmntMpgLx¿ j[lQsf] nflu rflxg] cfwf/e"t s'/fx¿af6 al~rt x'G5g\ . o;n] sf/0f ;+u7gdf nfu]/ /fd|f] 7fpF, dgUo sdfO / rfF8f] j[lQ x'g] nfnrn] zlQmsf] k|of]udf wfpg] cj:yf cfPsf] 5 . o;sf] nflu a9'jfsf] jt{dfg cª\s k|0ffnL x6fO{ cfwf/ to ubf{ b'u{d hfg sd{rf/LnfO{ k|]l/t ug{]5 . slDtdf @ jif{ b'u{d If]qdf sfd gu/L a9'jfsf] pDd]bjf/ aGg gkfpg] k|fjwfg /fv]df sf7df08f}+d} sd{rf/L y'lk|g] /f]uaf6 d'Qm x'g ;lsg]5


/ ljsf;sf cj;/df ;dfgtf Nofpg d2t ug{]5 .

;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfnodf sd{rf/Lsf] /]s8{ g} Jojl:yt gePsf]n] g} d/]sf] JolQmsf] ;?jf, •Ps} JolQmsf] PseGbf a9L :yfgdf Ps} rf]l6 ;?jf / nfesf :yfgdf ;w+} pxL sd{rf/L sfo{/t /lx/xg] ;d:of b]vf k/]sf] xf] . lghfdtL lstfavfgfdf /x]sf] /]s8{nfO{ Jojl:yt u/L P]gsf k|fjwfg cg';f/ s'g sd{rf/L sxfF slt cjlw a;]sf] 5 To;sf] cfwf/df cfufdL ;?jf ug{] xf] / Tof] kf/bzL{ agfpg] xf] eg] ;?jfdf ljjfb x'g] b]lvFb}g . xfd|f ckf/bzL{ lqmofsnfkn] ljs[ltnfO{ k|>o lbPsf] s'/f s]Gb|Lo lgsfon] e'Ng xF'b}g .

;Ddflgt ;jf{]Rr cbfntsf] km};nfn] 6«]8 o'lgogsf kbflwsf/LnfO{ klg ;?jf ug{ ;Sg] •eg]sf] 5 t;y{ ;a} sd{rf/Lx¿nfO{ ;dfgtfsf] cfwf/df ;?jf ug{'kb{5 . olb 6«]8 o'lgogsf kbflwsf/Lx¿sf] ;?jf gug{] xf] eg] s]Gb|Lo kbflwsf/Lsf] b/aGbL ;fdfGo k|zf;gsf] cltl/Qm ;d"xdf sfod ug{ h?/L 5 . gful/ssf] k|ToIf ;]jf k|jfx x'g] :yfgdf To:tf sd{rf/L /fVbf ;]jf k|jfxdf k|lts"n k|efj kg]{ x'gfn] ;?jf ug{ gldNg] jf ;]jf k|jfxdf ;do lbg g;Sg] sd{rf/Lsf] Joj:yfkg cltl/Qm ;d"xdf ug{] / sfd ug{ rfxg] sd{rf/LnfO{ cltl/Qm ;d"xaf6 lhNnfdf v6fpg ;Sg' kg]{ . 7fFp cf]u6\g] t/ ;]jf gug{] Joj:yf tTsfn aGb ul/g' k5{ .

ljb]z k9]/ cfpg] sd{rf/LnfO{ sfof{nodf sfd ug'{kg]{ P]gdf plNnlvt k|fjwfg x6fO{ k9]/ •cfPsf] ! dlxgfleq s jf v >]0fLsf] lhNnfdf sfddf v6fpg] Joj:yf ubf{ ef}uf]lns cg'ej lbg / ;dfgtf Nofpg d2t ldNg]5 / lhNnfsf s]Gb|df ;?jf x'g] cj;/ kfpg] 5g\ .

$) jif{d'lgsf pk;lrj / $% jif{d'lgsf] ;x;lrjnfO{ lhNnfdf sfof{no k|d'v agfP/ •k7fpFbf ;]jf k|jfxdf r':ttf, e|i6frf/ 36fpg d2t ldNg] / %) dflysf sd{rf/LnfO{ P]gsf] k|fjwfg d'tfljs s]Gb|Lo lgsfodf gLlt lgdf{0fdf cg'ejsf] pkof]u ug{] u/L /fVbf pko'Qm x'g] / ;?jfdf lgod ;+ut Joj:yfkg x'g hfG5 .

6«]8 o'lgog ;DaGwL P]gsf] jt{dfg k|fjwfgnfO{ sfof{Gjog ug{ 6«]8 o'lgogsf] r'gfj u/fpg' •kb{5 . ;f] gx'Fbf;Dd 6«]8 o'lgogsf] s]Gb|Lo kbflwsf/L /x]sf] -k|To]s 6«]8 o'lgogaf6 @, # hgf k|ltlglw /xg] u/L_ 6«]8 o'lgog d~r u7g u/L ;/sf/;Fu ;fdflhs ;f}bfafhL tyf ;+jfb ug{ ;lsg] Joj:yf ug'{kb{5 . ;/sf/n] k|To]s ;d"x jf ;+u7g;Fu jftf{ ug{] Joj:yf k"0f{tM cGTo ug'{kb{5 .

sd{rf/L gful/ssf] /fhZjaf6 kflng] ju{ ePsf]n] ;a} sd{rf/L /fhgLlts k|f0fL aGg' h?/L •5}g . t;y{ gful/s ;]jf k|jfx ug{] ;d"x ePsf] / ;]jf k|jfx tyf gLlt lgdf{0fdf xfd|f] h:tf] ax'njfbL /fhgLlts ;+:sf/ ePsf] d'n'sdf sd{rf/L /fhgLlts bnsf ;b:o aGbf ;]jf k|jfx lgZkIf / :jtGq aGg g;Sg] x'gfn] sDtLdf /fhkqf+lst t[tLo >]0fL;Dd 6«]8 o'lgogsf] clwsf/ glbOg' g} /fd|f] x'G5 . r'gfjdf dtbfg clws[t aGg'k5{ . lhNnfdf sfof{no k|d'v aGg'k5{ . To;f] x'Fbf ljutsf] ;b:otfn] /fhgLlts k|efj kf5{ / ;]jf lgZkIf agfpg g;lsg]


eO{ ;]jf k|jfx kfpg] gful/s xsdf /fhgLlt xfaL x'G5 .

;lrjdf a9'jf ubf{ jl/i7 ;x;lrjnfO{ If]qLo k|zf;s, ;+:yfgsf] k|d'v, cfof]hgf k|d'v •h:tf lhDd]jf/Lk"0f{ / sfo{;Dkfbg dfkg ug{ ;lsg] sfo{df v6fpFbf glthf k|fKt ug{ / g]t[Tj ljsf; ug{ ;xh x'g] x'gfn] sfo{;Dkfbg ;D´f}tf u/L tL hf]lvdo'Qm / sfo{ s'zntf rflxg] sfddf v6fO{ To;s} cfwf/df a9'jf ug{] k|fjwfg /fVg'kb{5 . To:t} pk;lrjnfO{ k|d'v lhNnf clwsf/L, :yfgLo ljsf; clwsf/L h:tf sfddf v6fpFbf g]t[Tj, hg;Dks{, ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{] Ifdtf ljsf;, ljsf; k|zf;gsf] Joj:yfkg tyf ;]jf k|jfxdf gjLgtf k|fKt ug{ d2t ldNg]5 .

d'n'ssf] efjL ;+3Lotfsf] uGtJonfO{ dWogh/ u/L sd{rf/L Joj:yfkgdf cfh} Wofg lbg •h?/L 5 . ;DalGwt If]qsf, efiffsf sd{rf/LnfO{ tt\ tt\ :yfgdf ;]jf k|jfxsf] nflu v6fpFbf ;+3Lotfdf sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg ;xh x'g ;Sb5 .

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nf]s ;Ddltdf d'n's rNg] / sfg'gL zf;gk|ltsf] k|lta4tfnfO{ ;a}n] ;dfg ¿kdf nfu" ug{] xf] eg] d'n'sdf ;'zf;g c;Dej 5}g . g]kfnsf] ;+lawfgn] ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|jfxsf] nflu lghfdtL ;]jf nufotsf ;]jfx¿ u7g ug{] ;+j}wflgs k|Tofe"lt u/]sfn] lghfdtL k|zf;gsf] klxnf] sfd ;/sf/n] agfPsf gLltsf] sfof{Gjog / gful/s ;]jf k|jfx g} xf] . lghfdtL ;]jfsf s;}nfO{ klg sfd gu/L vfg 5'6 5}g . ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|jfxdf k|efjsfl/tf clej[l4 ug{], ;[hgzLn sfd ug{] nufotsf p2]Zo /fvL lghfdtL ;]jf P]gdf 6«]8 o'lgog ;DaGwL Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . t/ ;?jf a9'jfdf dfq lghfdtL 6«]8 o'lgogn] Wofg lbg] ugf{n] cfd ¿kdf lghfdtL ;]jfsf] 5lj g} wldlnPsf] 5 . cfk;L ljjfb, nf~5gf / /fhgLlts bnsf dtn] :jtGq, t6:y, lgZkIf / k|efjsf/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] sNkgfdf w'jfF nfu]sf] ;a}nfO{ cg'e"lt ePs} xf] . /fhgLlts x:tIf]k a9]sf] ;dod} :jod\ sd{rf/Lsf] bnLotf / efuaG8fn] d'n'sdf sfg'gsf] kfngf u/fpg] / cfd hgtfnfO{ ;'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"lt u/fpg] lhDdf lnPsf] ;/sf/n] cfkm\gf dftxtsf sd{rf/LnfO{ Gofo ug{ Pjd\ ;dfg cj;/ / b08 k'/:sf/ lbg g;Sgfn] /fHon] lnPsf] ;'zf;g s]jn ukmdfq xf] eGg s/} nfU5 . sfof{Gjogstf{ :jod cGofodf k/]sf] cg'e"lt u?Gh]n p;n] c?nfO{ Gofo s;/L ug{ ;Sb5 < lghfdtL 6«]8 o'lgogx¿n] cfkm\gf sfo{stf{eGbf cGofodf k/]sf, /fHon] ;'g'jfO{ gu/]sf, lje]bdf k/]sf / ;]jf k|jfxdf ljs[lt Nofpg], e|i6frf/ ug{], gful/snfO{ ;]jf k|jfx ;xh gug{] sd{rf/L, sfof{nonfO{ ;'wf/ ug{ tyf lghfdtL sd{rf/Lsf] j[lQdf /fhgLlts bn jf cGo If]qaf6 x'g] x:tIf]k lj?4df lgZkIftf / t6:ytfsf] nflu ;f}bfafhL / ;+jfb u/]df lghfdtL ;]jfdf 6«]8 o'lgogsf] Joj:yf kmnbfoL x'g]5 cGoyf bnLotf / cfkm\gfsf] nfe / enfOsf] nflu ;]jf k|jfx gu/L bnsf] ´08f af]Sg] 6]«8 o'lgogsf] cEof;n] gful/sn] lgZkIf ;]jf kfpg] xssf] pNn+3g x'g] Pjd\ gful/s ;]jfdf ;d]t lje]b l;h{gf x'G5 . o;af6 /fHosf] ;'zf;gsf] rfxgf s]jn sf]/f sNkgf dfq x'g]5 . Tof] b'Mvb lbgsf] cfudg klxn]


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;/sf/n] of]ubfgdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf sfo{qmd nfu" ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy cfly{s jif{ @)^^÷^& b]lv /f]huf/Laf6 kfl/>lds k|fKt ug]{ JolQmsf] s/of]Uo cfDbfgLdf Ps k|ltzt s/ nufpg] lg0f{o u¥of] . o;/L s/sf] ¿kdf ;+sng x'g] /sdnfO{ 5'§} /fh:j zLif{sdf hDdf u/L of]ubfgstf{x¿s} lxtdf vr{ ug]{ p2]Zo cg';f/ ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] ;lrjfno :yfkgf eO{ tb\cg'¿k sfd cufl8 al9/x]sf] 5 . xfn of]ubfgdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf cufl8 ;f/]sf] eP tfklg ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] kx'FrnfO{ bL3{sfndf cfd gful/sx¿;Dd k'¥ofpg' ckl/xfo{ 5 . Psftkm{ ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] cfjZostf /x]sf nlIft ljkGg ;d'bfo jf ju{x¿sf] 7"nf] hdft cgf}krfl/s If]qdf /x]sf] b]lvG5 eg] csf]{tkm{ :j/f]huf/df ;+nUg / b}lgs Hofnfbf/Ldf cfa4 cfd g]kfnLx¿sf] ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] cj:yf emg\ sxfnLnfUbf] 5 . s'g} klg lsl;dsf] cfo cfh{g ug]{ cj;/af6 jl~rt cfd hgtfsf] cj:yf / ltgsf nflu ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] k|aGw clt cfjZos 5 . cGttM ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifaf6} o:tf ;afnx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug'{kg]{ bfloTj >[hgf ePsf] 5 . /fHosf ljleGg lgsfox¿af6 ;~rflnt ljljw ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ;DaGwL sfo{qmdnfO{ qmdzM PsLs[t / ;+of]hg ub}{ PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf ;+rfng ug{sf nflu ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] k|efjsf/L kl/rfng ug'{sf] ljsNk b]lvFb}g .

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;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ cj;/ gkfpg]x¿sf nflu cj;/, ;+/If0f ljxLgx¿sf nflu ;+/If0fsf ;fy} oL b'j} k|fKt ug]{x¿sf nflu efjgfTds cg'e"ltsf] ¿kdf lng] ul/G5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] dfWodaf6 Hff]lvdx¿sf] ;fdflhsLs/0f tyf ;fd'lxsLs/0fsf ;fy} To:tf] hf]lvddf cfly{s ;x'lnotsf] k|aGw ;d]t ug]{ ul/G5 . ;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ ljZjJofkL dfgj clwsf/sf] ¿kdf ;d]t cfTd;ft ul/Psf] 5 . To;}n] h;sf sf/0f ;a} d'n'sx¿n] s'g} g s'g} k|sf/sf] ;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ ckgfPsf] b]lvG5 . ljsf; qmddf ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf sf/0f cfpg] r'gf}tL tyf k|efjx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g] ljifo klg r'gf}tLk"0f{ aGb} uPsf] 5 . klZrdf d'n'sx¿df pRr ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf sf/0f ;Gtfgx¿ ghGdfpg] k|j[lQ a9\g hfFbf hg;+Vofsf] ;+/rgf elTsg] vt/f ljBdfg b]lvG5 . To;}u/L ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf gljgtd\ cjwf/0ffx¿df cGt/f{li6«o k|efj k/]sf] b]lvG5 . h:tf], cd]l/sfsf] Twin Tower Wj:t x'Fbf k|mfG;sf] ladf sDkgL 8'Ag k'Uof] . oL ljljw kIfsf] cWoogaf6 ;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ cj;/sf ;fy} r'gf}tLsf] ¿kdf :jLsf/ ug'{kg]{ x'G5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff g]kfnsf nflu Pp6f o:tf] gljgtd\ cjwf/0ffsf ¿kdf lelqPsf] 5, h;n] dfgjLo dof{bfsf] /Iffsf nflu ;fd'lxstfdf cfwfl/t eO{ hf]lvdx¿af6 ;'/Iff k|bfg ug{ /fHo tyf gful/sx¿sf] ;femf k|of;df To:tf cfly{s tyf

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@= g]kfndf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if M gljgtd\ cjwf/0ff

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# n] /f]huf/L tyf ;fdlhs ;'/Iff ;DaGwL xsnfO{ df}lns xssf] ¿kdf cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] 5 . nf]ssNof0fsf/L /fHon] cfd gful/sx¿sf ;fd' u/]sf] ;fdflhs ;+/If0fsf] k|lta4tfnfO{ d"t{ ¿k lbgsf nflu g]kfn ;/sf/n] cfly{s jif{ @)^^.)^& sf] ah]6 jQmJo dfkm{t of]ubfgdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf cjwf/0ff cufl8 ;f/]sf] b]lvG5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/ nufpg] tyf o;sf] kl/rfng ug{] ;DaGwdf ul7t sfo{bnsf] ;'emfj d'tfljs ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] cjwf/0ff cufl8 cfO{ o;nfO{ Joj:yfkg ug{ k|zf;sLo sfo{ljlw lgoldt ug]{ P]g, @)!# sf] bkmf @ n] lbPsf] clwsf/ k|of]u u/L ldlt @)^&.!@.)& df ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfng_ lgodfjnL, @)^& hf/L eO{ ;f]xL lgodfjnL adf]lhd >d tyf /f]huf/ dGqfnosf] dftxtdf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifn] cfˆgf] sfo{ ;+rfng ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . g]kfndf d'Votof ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfnfO{ ;xh cf}Bf]lus >d ;DaGwsf] ckl/xfo{


;t{sf] ¿kdf k|of]u ug]{ k|of; ul/Psf] 5 . o; sf]ifsf] Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfngsf nflu >d tyf /f]huf/ dGqfnosf ;lrjsf] cWoIftfdf !! ;b:oLo lqkIfLo -;/sf/, /f]huf/bftf / 6«]8 o'lgog_ ;+rfns ;ldlt /x]sf] 5 . o; sf]ifnfO{ ;fdflhs ;xfotf, ;fdflhs ;+/If0f / ;fdflhs ;'/Iff nufot /fHosf tkm{af6 sfof{Gjog ul/g] o:tf ;a} k|s[ltsf sfo{qmdx¿ ;dfj]z u/L PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ;+hfnsf] ¿kdf ljsf; ug]{ ;f]r /x]sf] 5 .

;xh / ;/n kx'Fr, pko'Qm sfo{ jftfj/0f / cfw'lgs k|ljlwsf] pknAwtf ;lxt lhNnf ljsf; ;ldlt sf7df8f}+sf] ejgdf cf=j= @)^*.)^( b]lv ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] ;lrjfno :yfkgf ePsf] 5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if P]gsf] d:of}bf tof/ e};s]sf] 5 . cf=j= @)^*÷)^( sf] cGTodf sf]ifsf sfo{x¿nfO{ ;"rgf k|ljlw dfkm{t ;Dkfbg ug{ cfjZos tof/L ul//x]sf] 5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] cjwf/0ff, sfo{ k|ult / ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ;r]tgf ;DaGwdf ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿;Fu :yfgLo ¿kdf cGtlqm{of tyf clwj]zg ug]{ sfo{x¿ e}/x]sf 5g\ . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifdf /sd s§f ug]{ tyf ljj/0f k7fpg] tl/sf, /sd s§f gu/]df jf u/]/ klg ljj/0f k|fKt x'g gcfPdf kg]{ c;/ ;d]tsf ljifox¿df cfjZos k|rf/k|;f/ / cg'udg ug]{ ul/Psf] 5 . ILO sf] cle;lGw !)@ tyf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -;+rfng tyf Joj:yfkg_ lgodfjnL, @)^& tf]lsPsf ladf of]hgfx¿dWo] la/fdL ladf of]hgf, dft[Tj ;+/If0f ladf of]hgf, sfo{:yn b'3{6gf ladf of]hgf / cf}ifwf]krf/ ladf of]hgf sfof{Gjg txdf n}hfgsf nflu ladf of]hgf ;lxtsf] k|ltj]bg tof/ ePsf] 5 . pQm k|ltj]bgdf eljiodf sfof{Gjog ug]{ ladf of]hgfx¿sf] cWoog÷cg';Gwfg u/L pko'Qm ladf of]hgf l;kmfl/;, xfns} cj:yfdf sl/a !)÷!@ nfv of]ubfgstf{x¿sf] sDKo'6/s[t clen]vsf nflu pko'Qm Online Service ;lxtsf] Computer Software sf] l;kmfl/;, PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf ;+rfngsf nflu k"j{ tof/Lx¿ / of]ubfgstf{x¿nfO{ lbOg] kl/rokqsf] l8hfOg tyf ljt/0f k|lqmofsf ;DaGwdf ;'emfjx¿ pNn]v 5g\ .

#= ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] p2]Zo, sfo{, Pjd\ of]hgf tyf sf]if e'QmfgL k|lqmof

cf}krfl/s tyf cgf}krfl/s If]qsf >ldsx¿nfO{ cfly{s of]ubfgsf cfwf/df ljleGg ladf of]hgfx¿sf] dfWodaf6 ;fdflhs ;'/Iff k|bfg u/L ;fdflhs Gofo sfod ug]{ ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] bL3{sfnLg b[li6sf]0f /x]sf] 5 . ;f] cg';f/ o;sf p2]Zox¿ b]xfo adf]lhd /x]sf 5g\ M

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# df df}lns xssf] ¿kdf Joj:yf ul/Psf] ;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ ;+ljwfgsf] efjgf / dd{ cg'¿k sfof{Gjog ub}{ hfg],

;xeflutfdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sfo{qmd nfu" ug]{ clek|fon] cf=j= @)^^.)^& b]lv g]kfn ;/sf/n] kfl/>lds cfo cfh{g ug]{ JolQmaf6 ;+sng ub}{ cfPsf] Ps k|ltzt ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/af6 ;+slnt /sdsf] Joj:yfkg ug]{,

;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] ;'Jojl:yt k|0ffnL :yfkgf ug]{,

;fdflhs ;'/Iffdf /fHosf] e"ldsf :ki6 u/L PsLs[t k|0ffnLsf] :yfkgf ug]{,

PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff k|0ffnL cGtu{t cfa4 ug]{ hf]lvdnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug]{ of]hgfx¿sf]


ljsf; tyf k|fyldstf qmd lgwf{/0f ug]{{ .

;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if sfo{x¿ b]xfo adf]lhd /x]sf 5g\ M

;'/Iff of]hgf ;DaGwL gLlt lgwf{/0f ug]{,

;'/Iff of]hgf, ah]6 / sfo{qmd :jLs[t u/L ;+rfng / Joj:yfkg ug]{,

;'/Iff of]hgfsf ;DaGwdf g]kfn ;/sf/nfO{ cfjZos ;'emfj lbg],

nufgL ;DaGwL gLlt lgwf{/0f u/L sf]ifsf] /sd ;'/lIft If]qdf nufgL ug]{,

ljleGg ;'/Iff of]hgfsf] ;d"lrt ¿kdf ;+rfng / Joj:yfkg ug{ cfjZos /sdsf] Joj:yf ug]{,

Joj:yfkg ;ldlt / sfo{sf/L lgb]{zsaf6 ;Dkfbg x'g] sfd sf/jfxLsf] ;dGjo tyf cg'udg ug]{,

of]ubfgstf{ tyf lxtflwsf/L ;DaGwL ;"rgfx¿sf] clen]v cBfjlws u/L /fVg],

of]ubfgstf{x¿nfO{ kl/ro kq ljt/0f ug]{,

sf]ifsf] lgoldt ¿kdf n]vfk/LIf0f tyf ;ldltsf] ;du| cfly{s tyf ljQLo cj:yfsf] d"Nof+sg ug]{ jf u/fpg] /

;'/Iff of]hgf ;+rfng ug{ cGo cfjZos sfo{ ug]{ .

;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfng_ lgodfjnL, @)^& sf] lgod !$ df Joj:yf eP adf]lhd ILO sf] ;g\ !(%@ sf] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff cle;lGw g+ !)@ ;Fu ldNbf]h'Nbf] x'g] u/L ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if lgDg adf]lhdsf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ladf of]hgf ;+rfng ug{ jf u/fpg ;Sg] b]lvG5 M–

a]/f]huf/L ladf of]hgf,•

/f]huf/Ldf 3fO{t] jf b'3{6gf ladf of]hgf,•

la/fdL ladf of]hgf,•

k|;'lt ladf of]hgf,•

cfl>t ladf of]hgf,•

czQmtf ladf of]hgf,•

a[4fj:yf ladf of]hgf,•

cf}ifwf]krf/ ladf of]hgf, /•

kfl/jfl/s ladf of]hgf .•


pk/f]Qm adf]lhdsf ladf of]hgf ;+rfng ug{ jf u/fpg ;Sg] Joj:yf /x]sf] eP tfklg g]kfn ;/sf/n] cf=j= @)^*.)^( sf] ah]6 jQmJodf u/]sf] 3f]if0ff adf]lhd klxnf] r/0fdf lgDg adf]lhdsf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿ sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg] tof/L u/]sf] 5 M–

:jf:Yo ladf of]hgf,•sfo{:yn b'3{6gf ladf of]hgf /•k|;'lt ladf of]hgf .•

;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf of]ubfgstf{ / of]ubfgsf] k|s[of M

;fj{hlgs tyf lghL If]qdf /f]huf/L ug]{ sd{rf/L tyf >ldsx¿n] k|fKt ug]{ tna jf kfl/>lds cfDbfgLdWo] s/of]Uo cfosf] JolQmut 5'6sf] :Nofjdf ! k|ltztsf b/n] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/sf] ¿kdf ;+sng x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 . kfl/>lds cfo k|fKt ug]{ JolQmdWo] cljjflxt PSnf] JolQmsf] xsdf jflif{s clwstd ?= !,^)) / bDkltsf] ;'ljwf lng]sf] xsdf jflif{s clwstd ?= @,))) s§L x'G5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/ afktsf] /sd k|To]s dlxgfsf] tna e'QmfgL;Fu} /f]huf/bftf jf Joj:yfksn] lghn] k|fKt ug]{ kfl/>lds÷tnaaf6 s§L u/L csf]{ dlxgfsf] @% ut]leq ;DalGwt cfGt/Ls /fhZj sfof{no jf /fhZj ;+sng ug]{ a}+sdf /fhZj zLif{s g+ !!@!! df bflvnf ug'{kg]{ Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . o;/L 5'§} /fhZj zLif{sdf ;+sng x'g] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/ jfktsf] /sd g]kfn ;/sf/, cy{ dGqfnoaf6 o; ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf gfddf lgsf;f eO{ sf]ifsf] vftfdf bflvnf x'g] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . @)&) a}zfv;Dddf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s/sf] ¿kdf /fhZj zLif{s g+ !!@!! df sl/a ?= $ cj{ @% s/f]8 /sd hDdf ePsf] b]lvG5 .

%= ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if ;+rfng ;DaGwL sfg'gL Joj:yf

;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfng_ lgodfjnL, @)^& sf ljz]iftfx¿ b]xfo adf]lhd /x]sf 5g\ M–

sf]ifsf] Joj:yf / sf]ifdf hDdf x'g] of]ubfg /sdsf] ls6fgL,sf]ifsf] /sd kl/rfng / vr{ ug]{ k|lqmofsf] lgwf{/0f,;+rfns ;ldltsf] u7g,;+rfns ;ldltsf] sfd, st{Jo / clwsf/,;+rfns ;ldltsf] a}7s ;+rfng k|lqmof,sfo{sf/L lgb]{zssf] lgo'lQm, sfd st{Jo / clwsf/sf] Joj:yf,sf]ifsf] ;lrjfno / cfjZos sd{rf/Lsf] Joj:yf,sfof{Gjogsf nflu l;kmfl/; ul/Psf ladf of]hgfx¿,;fdflhs ;'/Iff sfg'g th'{df ul/g] ljifo /sf]ifsf] sfo{ ;+rfng k|lqmof .


k|:tfljt ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if P]g, @)^* df ePsf d'Vo k|fjwfgx¿ o; k|sf/ /x]sf 5g\ M–

;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] :yfkgf, sfg'gL x}l;ot / sfof{no ;DaGwL Joj:yf,•sf]if :jfoQ ;+:yfsf] ¿kdf /xg], sf]if ;+rfngsf nflu g]kfn ;/sf/, /f]huf/bftf / •6«]8 o'lgogx¿sf] ;d]t k|ltlglwTj /xg] u/L lqkIfLo ;+rfns ;ldlt /xg] Joj:yf ul/Psf] / pQm ;ldltsf] sfd, st{Jo / clwsf/ ls6fg ul/Psf],

sf]ifsf] b}lgs sfo{ ;+rfngsf nflu Joj:yfkg ;ldlt / sfo{sf/L k|d'vsf] Joj:yf,•sf]ifsf] /sd nufgL, n]vf / n]vf k/LIf0f ;DaGwL cfjZos Joj:yf ul/Psf], •;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifdf /f]huf/bftf / >ldssf] ;"rLs/0f tyf kl/ro kq ljt/0f •;DaGwL Joj:yf,

of]ubfgsf] b/ tf]lsP adf]lhd x'g] egL xfn gtf]lsPsf] cj:yf,•cfOPncf] cle;lGw !)@ tyf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -;+rfng tyf Joj:yfkg_ •lgodfjnL, @)^& df pNn]v eP adf]lhdsf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ladf of]hgfx¿ ;+rfng ug]{ k|lta4tf,

cgf}krfl/s If]qsf dhb'/ tyf :j/f]huf/ ;d]tnfO{ ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfdf •;xefuL u/fpg] u/L ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] k|Tofe"lt,

cbfnt, ;hfo / k'g/fj]bg ;DaGwL Joj:yf,•hu]8f sf]if / nufgL sf]ifsf] Joj:yf,•e]befjsf] l;4fGtnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ul/Psf], •5'6 / ;'ljwf ;DaGwdf :ki6 Joj:yf ul/Psf], •k|rlnt sfg'g adf]lhd ;'ljwf lnPsf of]ubfgstf{x¿sf] ;DaGwdf ljz]if Joj:yf,•;fdflhs ;+/If0f ;DaGwL ljz]if sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{ ;Sg] Joj:yf,•cfo Joosf] ljj/0f ;fj{hlgs ug]{ ;DaGwL Joj:yf,•;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿sf] sfof{Gjogsf ;DaGwdf ;fd"lxs ;f}bfjfhLsf] •k|efjxLgtfdf hf]8,

sf]ifn] cfjZostf cg';f/ lgb]{lzsf / sfo{ljlw agfpg] ;Sg] k|fjwfg,•sf]if lj36g ;DaGwL Joj:yf .•

k|:tfljt P]gn] ;Daf]wg ug{ g;s]sf ljifox¿ o; k|sf/ 5g\ M

of]ubfgstf{ afx]s cGo ;Da4 kIf ;/sf/ jf /f]huf/bftf ;d]tsf] of]ubfgsf] ljifodf •df}g /x]sf] .

sfg'g lgdf{0fsf] p2]Zo k|i6\ofpg g;lsPsf] .•;+/If0f ug'{ kg]{ JolQm / ju{sf] ls6fgL ug{ g;lsPsf],•


sfof{Gjog ;+oGq s] s:tf] x'g] eGg] ;DaGwdf :ki6 gePsf],•;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfsf] a'emfOdf ljljwtf / cfkm" cg's"n JofVof ug]{ k|j[lQ •b]lvPsf],

PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff k|0ffnLsf] :yfkgfsf nflu lg/Gt/ ax;sf] h?/L,•>d sfg'g nufot cGo ;Da4 P]g sfg'gx¿;Fusf] ;Da4tfsf] ;jfn,•km/s x}l;otsf of]ubfgstf{x¿sf] ;'ljwf s] s:tf] /xg] eGg] ljifo,•/fHotkm{sf] nufgLsf] clglZrttf,•cfd gful/s;Dd ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿sf] ;/n / ;xh kx'Fr lj:tf/ ug]{af/] :ki6 •gePsf],

of]ubfgdf cfwfl/t lgj[QLe/0fnfO{ klg ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf;Fu} n}hfg] ljifosf •;DaGwdf df}g /x]sf] .

^= ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf k|d'v ;d:of tyf r'gf}tLx¿

-s_ /f]huf/bftf tyf of]ubfgstf{x¿ aLrdf ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] cjwf/0ff, sf]ifn] ;+rfng ug]{ ladf of]hgf / To;dfkm{t of]ubfgstf{n] k|fKt ug]{ ;]jf ;'ljwfsf ljifodf cfd ;xdlt sfod ug'{sf ;fy} hgr]tgf clej[l4 ug'{ .

-v_ cf=j= @)^*.)^( sf] ah]6 jQmJodf ;f] cf=j=leq} ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf # j6f ladf of]hgfx¿ sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg] tyf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff P]g th'{df ug]{ 3f]if0ff eP tfklg tL sfo{x¿ ;DkGg x'g g;Sg' .

-u_ ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if ;lrjfnonfO{ oyfzL3| :jfoQ ;+:yfsf] ¿kdf :yflkt u/fO{ k|fljlws÷k|zf;lgs hgzlQmsf] cfk"lt{ / sfg'gL tyf ef}lts k"jf{wf/x¿sf] Joj:yf ug'{ .

-3_ sf]ifdf cfa4 of]ubfgstf{x¿ / ;+slnt /sdsf cfwf/df pko'Qm ladf of]hgf tof/ ug'{, clen]v Joj:yfkgsf nflu Software System sf] lgdf{0f ug'{ / of]ubfgstf{x¿nfO{ oyfzL3| l56f] kl/rokq ljt/0f ug'{ .

-ª_ sf]ifaf6 ;Dkfbg x'g] sfd sf/jfxL nufotsf ljifodf ;Da4 kIfx¿ h:t}M /f]huf/bftf, >lds÷sd{rf/L, 6«]8 o'lgog / /f]huf/bftfsf ljifout ;+3÷;+u7gx¿sf aLrdf ;f}xfb{k"0f{ jftfj/0f lgdf{0f u/L To:tf kIfx¿sf] ;dy{g lng' .

-r_ d:of}bfsf ¿kdf /x]sf] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if P]gnfO{ sfg'gL :j¿k lbnfpg' .

-h_ sf]ifnfO{ PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf ;+rfng ug]{ lgsfosf ¿kdf :yflkt u/fpg' .

&= ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] ;Defljt dfu{lrq

/fHok|lt cfd gful/sx¿sf] ljZjf; / e/f];f sfod /fVg] k|d'v cf}hf/sf] ¿kdf ;fdflhs


;'/Iff of]hgfnfO{ lng yflnPsf] 5 . cfly{s tyf ;fdflhs hf]lvdx¿sf] Go"gLs/0f ;lxt ;'/lIft eljiosf] rfxgf k'/f ug]{ ;zQm dfWodsf ¿kdf o;nfO{ c+lusf/ ul/Psf] 5 . ;'/lIft, ;r]t / :j:Yo gful/sx¿af6 /fHosf nflu plrt of]ubfg x'g ;Sb5 eGg] dfGotf cg';f/ /fHon] cfkm\gf gful/sx¿df nufgL u/]sf] x'G5 . oxL ljZjJofkL dfGotfnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub}{ g]kfndf klg ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿nfO{ sfof{Gjog ug]{ hdsf]{ eO/x]sf] 5 . of]ubfgstf{ xF'b} lglZrt ju{ / ;d"xaf6 k|j]z u/L eljiodf cfd gful/sx¿;Dd o;sf] kx'Fr lj:tf/ ug]{ lbzfdf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] bL3{sfnLg dfu{lrq to ul/Psf] b]lvG5, h;nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 M

r/0f g+ ! M ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ;DaGwL lj:t[t cWoog tyf k|f/lDes vfsf lgdf{0f

r/0f g+ @ M ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf nflu sfg'gL tyf ef}lts k"jf{wf/x¿sf] lgdf{0f

r/0f g+ # M ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf ;DaGwdf /fHosf] bL3{sfnLg gLlt / b[li6sf]0fsf] lgdf{0f

r/0f g+ $ M ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿sf] th'{df / sfof{Gjog

r/0f g+ % M PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] :yfkgf

r/0f g+ ^ M ILO cle;lGw !)@ sf] cg'df]bg .

pko'{Qm adf]lhd ;fdlhs ;'/Iff of]hgfx¿sf] sfof{Gjog kIfsf ;DaGwdf r/0fa4 cWoog ubf{ g]kfn k|f/lDes cj:yfdf g} /x]sf] b]lvG5 . cfh ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] nflu ;/f]sf/jfnf kIfsf ;fy} /fHosf] Wofg s]lGb|t ePsf] cj:yf 5 . ablnFbf] ljZj kl/j]zdf ;fdflhs ;'/Iff s'g} klg /fHosf] s'zntf / k|ult dfkg ug]{ ;+oGqsf] ¿kdf ljsf; e}/x]sf] 5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf nflu k|f/lDes cWoog sfo{ ;DkGg eO{ sfg'gL tyf ef}lts k"jf{wf/x¿ lgdf{0fsf qmddf /x]sf 5g\ . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifn] ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] cg'e"lt x'g] vfnsf] s'g} g s'g} ;'ljwf of]hgfsf] sfof{Gjog ug{sf nflu tof/L ul//x]sf] cj:yf 5 . ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] ;lrjfnosf] :yfkgf, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if -;+rfng tyf Joj:yfkg_ lgodfjnLsf] sfof{Gjog, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if P]gsf] d:of}bf lgdf{0f, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sfo{qmdx¿sf] of]hgf lgdf{0f;Fu} sfof{Gjogsf nflu l;kmfl/;, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf ;+rfngsf nflu s]xL /sd ;+sng ePsf] cj:yf ;d]tn] o; ;DaGwdf s]xL ;fy{s k|of;x¿ ePsf] cjZo b]Vg ;lsG5 . t/ o;sf ;DaGwdf /fHosf] bL3{sfnLg ;f]r / b[li6sf]0fsf] cefj / k"0f{ ¿kdf sfg'gL tyf k|fljlws k"jf{wf/sf] lgdf{0f x'g g;s]sf] cj:yfn] ILO cle;lGw !)@ df plNnlvt ( j6f ladf of]hgfx¿sf] k"0f{ sfof{Gjog;Ddsf] uGtJonfO{ s]xL clglZrt cjZo agfPsf] 5 .

*= lgisif{

nf]ssNof0fsf/L /fHosf] k|Tofe"ltsf nflu cfd hgtfx¿n] ;xh} cg'e"lt ug{ ;Sg] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sfo{qmdx¿sf] sfof{Gjog x'g' clgjfo{ 5 . g]kfndf ljut s]xL ;dob]lv ;fdflhs ;+/If0fsf sfo{qmdx¿nfO{ s'g} g s'g} ¿kdf c+lusf/ ul/Psf] b]lvG5 . b'O{ bzs cufl8b]lv


;'? ul/Psf] j[4, ljwjf / ckf+usf nflu ljt/0f ug{ yflnPsf] cfly{s ;x'lnotnfO{ ;fdflhs ;+/If0fsf] pbfx/0fsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . To;}u/L :jf:Yo dGqfnoaf6 ;+rfng ul/Psf ljljw sfo{qmdx¿, :yfgLo ljsf; dGqfno dfkm{t k|bfg ul/g] ljleGg lsl;dsf sfo{qmdx¿, sd{rf/L ;+ro sf]if, gful/s nufgL sf]if nufotsf cGo If]qut ¿kdf ;+rflnt sNof0fsf/L sf]ifx¿af6 ;+rfng ePsf ljljw sfo{qmdx¿n] ;d]t s'g} g s'g} ¿kdf ;fdflhs ;'/IffnfO{ ;d]6\g] k|of; u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L ljljw If]qx¿af6 ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] gfFpdf ;+rfng ePsf o:tf sfo{qmdx¿n] cem klg ;a} ju{ / If]qsf gful/sx¿nfO{ ;d]6\g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . Psftkm{ /fHoaf6 k|bfg ul/g] o:tf ;]jf ;'ljwfdf b]lvg] bf]xf]/f]kg tyf csf]{tkm{ vf; nlIft ju{df s'g} klg k|sf/sf ;fdflhs ;xfotfsf sfo{qmdx¿ k'Ug g;s]sf] l:yltdf nlIft ju{ jf ;d"xsf] klxrfg u/L ltgLx¿sf nflu cfwf/e"t ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] k|Tofe"lt ug'{ /fHosf] k|d'v bfloTjsf ;fy} r'gf}tLsf] ¿kdf ;d]t b]lvPsf] 5 . xfn of]ubfgdf cfwfl/t ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf of]hgfx¿ ;+rfng ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy :yfkgf ul/Psf] ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifnfO{ PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff ;~hfnsf] ¿kdf ljsf; / lj:tf/ ug'{sf] ljsNk b]lvFb}g . t;y{ k|:tfljt ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]if P]gdf PsLs[t ;fdflhs ;'/Iff sf]ifsf] kl/sNkgf ul/Psf] 5 / o;sf] uGtJotkm{ s]xL ;sf/fTds kfOnfx¿ cufl8 al9;s]sf] 5 . dof{lbt hLjg / ;'/lIft eljiosf nflu ;fdflhs ;'/Iff of]hgf sfof{Gjog ug'{sf] ljsNk b]lvFb}g .

;Gbe{ ;"rL

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^#, sf7df8f}+, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

k|zf;sLo sfo{ljlw lgoldt ug]{ P]g, @)!#, sf7df8f+}, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

>d P]g, @)$* sf7df8f}+, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

6]«8 o'lgog P]g, @)$(, sf7df8f}+, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

cfos/ P]g, @)%*, sf7df8f}+, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

k|:tfljt ;fdlhs ;'/Iff sf]if ljw]os, @)^*, sf7df8f}+, >d tyf /f]huf/ dGqfno .

;fdlhs ;'/Iff sf]if -;+rfng tyf Joj:yfkg_ lgodfjnL, @)^&, sf7df8f+}, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

>d tyf /f]huf/ gLlt, @)^@, sf7df8f}+, g]kfn sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

cfOPncf] cle;lGw !)@, !(%@, h]g]ef, cfOPncf] .


g]kfnsf] cfly{s ljsf;df j}b]lzs nufgLsf] dxTTjlji0f' k|;fb uf}td*

;f/f+z

ljZjAofkLs/0fsf] of] o'udf nf]ssNof0fsf/L /fHosf] cjwf/0ffeGbf /fHosf] ;xhsf/L e"ldsf ck]Iff ul/Psf] x'G5 . ;f] cg';f/ /fHosf] e"ldsf s]jn Jofkf/, nufgL tyf ahf/sf] k|jw{g tyf ;f]sf] nflu cfjZos dfkb08 agfpg], ;fdflhs Gofo k|bfg ug]{, k|zf;lso sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ tyf j}b]lzs ;DaGw dfkm{t\ cfly{s ;DaGw ;'b[9 ug]{ nufotsf sfo{;Fu ;Dalwt x'G5 . lghL If]qsf] k|ltikwf{df a9L hf]8 lbO{G5 . nufgLsf] pko'Qm jftfj/0f Pjd\ k|lt:kwL{ ahf/ Joj:yfkgsf nflu s]jn :jb]zL nufgL dfq kof{Kt x'Fb}g . cem sd ljsl;t d'n'ssf nflu of] s'/f c;Dej g} x'G5 . j}b]lzs nufgLn] /f]huf/ ;[hgf ug]{, k|ljlw tyf 1fgsf] lj:tf/ ug]{ tyf cGt//fli6«o ahf/df kx'Fr k'¥ofpg ;xof]u ug{], k|lt:kwf{ clej[l4 ug{] tyf ljsf;sf ;|f]tsf] lj:tf/Ls/0f ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 . j}b]lzs k"FhL / k|ljlwnfO{ cfslif{t ug]{, cfly{s pknlAwsf] Gofof]lrt ljt/0f ug{ j}b]lzs nufgL leq\ofpg tyf o;sf] k|efjsf/L kl/rfng ug{ g]kfn ;/sf/n] cfly{s s'6gLltnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfO{ cfkm\gf] Ifdtf clej[l4 ug{ ;fj{hlgs lghL ;fem]bf/L tyf ;xsfo{ dfkm{t\ :jb]zL tyf ljb]zL lghL If]qsf] nufgLnfO{ kl/rfng ug{ Pjd\ a}b]lzs nufgL k|aw{g cfjZos ePsf] 5 .

!= ljifo k|j]z

v'nf ahf/sf] cjwf/0ff cGtu{t ;/sf/sf] e"ldsf pTk|]/s, cleefjs / lgofds dfq /xg] x'G5 . v'nf ahf/df vf; u/L nufgLstf{x¿ aLrsf] k|lt:kwf{Tds Jojxf/, nufgLstf{ tyf tL lgsfox¿sf] ;xsfo{df ahf/sf] ;+rfng x'g] / ;/sf/n] ahf/sf] lgodg dfq ug]{ x'gfn]] /fHon] ;fa{hlgs Aofkf/ tyf nufgL ug'{k5{ eGg] dfGotfdf ca kl/j{tg ePsf] 5 . ljZjJofkLs/0fsf] of] o'udf nf]ssNof0fsf/L /fHosf] cjwf/0ffeGbf /fHosf] ;xhsf/L e"ldsfsf] dfu ul/G5 . hxfF lghL If]qsf] k|lt:kwf{df a9L hf]8 lbOG5 . clxn] /fHon] d"n ¿kdf cfˆgf] e"ldsf s]jn Aofkf/df nufgL ,ahf/sf] k|jw{g tyf ;f]sf nflu dfkb08 agfpg], ;fdflhs Gofo k|bfg ug]{, k|zf;sLo sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ tyf j}b]lzs ;DaGw dfkm{t cfly{s ;DaGw ;'b[9 ug]{ nufotsf sfo{;Dkfbg ug]{ Pjd\ k|f]T;fxg ug]{ vfnsf] x'G5 . /fHon] s]jn cfly{s ultljlwsf nflu pko'Qm ynf] Pjd\ jftfj/0f agfOlbg] dfq xf] . nufgL sxfF ug]{, nufgL s'g If]qdf ug]{, pTkfbg k|lqmofdf s] s:tf] k|ljlw cjnDag ug]{, ljt/0f k|lqmofnfO{ s;/L k|efjsf/L /fVg], d"No s;/L lgwf{/0f ug]{ Pjd\ ahf/df s;/L clfy{s ;'zf;g sfod /fVg] eGg] s'/fsf] k|ToIf rf;f] Pjd\ ;lqmo ;xeflutf s]jn nufgLstf{ Pjd\ pBdL Joj;foLsf] e/df /x]sf] x'G5 .

cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu j}b]lzs ;xfotfsf] ;d]t plQs} :yfg x'g] x'G5 . o;sf nflu kF"hLsf]

* pk–;lrj, ;jf]{Rr cbfnt Email: [email protected]


cGt//fli6«os/0fsf dfWodaf6 clt sd ljsl;t /fi6«x¿sf] ul/aL lgjf/0f Pjd\ j[xQ/ cfly{s j[l4b/ dfkm{t\ cfly{s ljsf; ;Dej x'g] x'Fbf ljsl;t /fi6«x¿n] vf;u/L k"FhL / k|ljlwsf] ;xfotfnfO{ t];|f] ljZj ;dIf lj:tf/ u/]sf] kfOG5 . cGt//fli6«o ;+u7gx¿ dfkm{t\ pknAw u/fOg] o:tf ;xfotfx¿n] pQ/bfloTjsf] ljt/0f, k"FhLsf] ;xhkg cGt//fli6«o ¿kdf cfly{s nufgL ug{] ;+:yfpk/ lg/LIf0f tyf cg'udg, afXo -;Ldfkf/_ Jofkfl/s÷Jofj;flos ;+:yfx¿sf] lgodg tyf cGt//fli6«o ahf/;Fusf] cfa4tfnfO{ ;Daf]wg u/]sf] x'G5 .

j}b]lzs nufgLnfO{ k|ToIf / ck|ToIf u/L b'O{ k|sf/df ljefhg ug{ ;lsG5 . k|ToIf j}b]lzs (Direct Foreign Investment) nufgL cGtu{t k"FhL lgof{ts b]zsf] sDkgLsf] zfvf vf]Ng', cfˆgf] lgoGq0f ePsf] Jofj;flos sDkgL vf]Ng', cGo b]zdf sfo{ ug'{, cfˆgf] b]zdf sDkgL :yfkgf ug'{, cGo b]zdf l:y/ ;DklQ vl/b ug'{, cflb kb{5g\ / o;df gfkmf / gf]S;fg b'j} nufgLstf{df hfG5 . ck|ToIf j}b]lzs nufgL (Indirect Foreign Investment) nfO{ kf]6{kmf]lnof] (Portfolio) nufgL klg elgG5 . o; cGtu{t kF"hL cfoft ug]{ b]zsf] ;/sf/n] hf/L u/]sf] ;]o/, C0fkq h:tf k|Tofe"ltx¿ (Securities) ljb]zL gful/sn] vl/b ub{5g\ / lx:;]bf/sf] ¿kdf nfef+z k|fKt ub{5g\ . nufgLstf{n] hf]lvd Joxf]g'{kg{] cj:yf Go"g /xG5 .

j}b]lzs nufgLsf ;DaGwdf cGt//fli6«o k|rngdf /x]sf Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, United Nation Confernce on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) h:tf Jofkfl/s lgsfox¿n] o; ;DaGwL cjwf/0ffnfO{ d"t{ ¿k lbg nfuL k/]sf] b]lvG5 eg] Jofkfl/s ljjfbsf] ;dfwfgsf nflu UNCITRAL Law tyf UNCITRAL Rule x¿sf cfwf/df ljjfbsf] ;dfwfg ug{ WTO dfkm{t\ Dispute settlement Board :yflkt 5 . o:t} Jofkfl/s tyf Joj;flos ljjfbsf] ;dfwfgsf dWo:ytf dfkm{t\ ;dfwfgsf nflu American Arbitration Association, International Chambers of Commerce, London Court of International commercial Arbitration h:tf If]qLo ;+:yfx¿ lqmofzLn /x]sf 5g\ . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df Jofkfl/s ljjfb ;dfwfgsf nflu /fHon] cf}krfl/s ¿kdf s'g} lgsfo :yfkgf ul/;s]sf] 5}g . To;f] eP tfklg g]kfn dWo:ytf kl/ifb\ gfds ;+:yfn] o:tf k|sf/sf ljjfbx¿sf] ;dfwfg ub}{ cfO/x]sf] b]lvG5 .

@= j}b]lzs nufgLsf] dxTTj

k"FhL / k|ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 vf; u/L sd ljsl;t d'n'sx¿sf nflu cfly{s j[l4b/ dfkm{t\ cfly{s ;d'Gglt xfl;n ug{sf nflu kF"FhLsf] cGt/f{li6«os/0f ( Internationalization of Capital market) cfjZos 7flgG5 . k"FhLsf] cGt//fli6«os/0f eg]sf] ljsl;t d'n'saf6 kF"hL k|ljlwnfO{ ljsf;f]Gd'v d'n'sx¿df k|jfx u/L ;xfotf tyf nufgLsf] If]q lj:tf/ ug'{ xf] . ;fy} ;DalGwt d'n'sx¿ aLrsf] kf/:kl/s ;DaGw a9fpg] Pp6f dfWod ;d]t xf] . Sir D. Walker sf zAbdf “The process of Internationalization in which national barriers are transended by technology,competition and unrestricted flow is basically healthy. This is because it promotes the allocation of capital by competitive merit, through the international of


markets and forms that are the most efficient and provides effective meanings for managing risk”(Walker, 1992: 21).

nufgLsf] pko'Qm jftfj/0f Pjd\ k|lt:kwL{ ahf/ Joj:yfsf nflu s]jn :jb]zL nufgL] dfq kof{Kt x'Fb}g . cem clt sd ljsl;t d'n'ssf nflu of] s'/f c;Dej k|foM g} x'G5 . pTkflbt ;fdfgsf] ljZj ahf/df kx'Frsf nflu j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] k|lt:kwf{Tds Ifdtf, u'0f:t/Lotf, Jofkfl/s k|rngtf h:tf tTTjx¿ cfjZos x'G5g\ . ;f]sf] kl/k"lt{sf nflu k"FhL, k|ljlw tyf ;|f]tsf] ;xh kxF'r cfjZos x'G5 . t;y{ j}b]lzs nufgL ljsf;f]Gd'v d'n'ssf nflu cem a9L ckl/xfo{ ePsf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df j}b]lzs nufgLn] lgDg s'/fdf ;xof]u k'¥ofpFb5 M

gofF ahf/ tyf ahf/ ;Da4 ;+hfnsf] lj:tf/ ug{,•;:tf] pTkfbsLo ;'ljwf dfkm{t\ pTkfbsTj a9fpg,•gofF k|ljlwdf kx'Fr k'¥ofpg tyf k|lt:kwL{ ahf/ lgdf{0f ug{,•gofF k|ljlwdf cfwfl/t bIf dfgj ;+zfwg k|flKt ug{,•cfly{s ;|f]t pknAw u/fpg,•k|ljlwo'Qm Joj:yfksLo Ifdtf clej[l4 ug{,•:yfgLo pTkfbgdf x'g] ljb]zL bafanfO{ x6fpg,•Jofkfl/s k|ltaGwx¿nfO{ x6fpg,•:yfgLo :t/sf pTkfbgnfO{ /fli6«o :t/sf ahf/;Dd k'¥ofpg,•pTkfbsLo Ifdtf clej[l4 ug{, •;x–pTkfbg, ;+o'Qm nufgL tyf :yfgLo :t/sf nufgLstf{aLr ;xsfo{, ;+o'Qm ahf/ k|aGw •tyf Ohfht k|lqmofnfO{ cj;/ k|bfg ug{ .

;dli6ut ¿kdf j}b]lzs nufgLn] /f]huf/L l;h{gf, k|ljlw tyf 1fgsf] lj:tf/, k|lt:kwf{ clej[l4, ljZj ahf/df kx'Fr clej[l4 / ljsf;sf ;|f]tsf] lj:tf/Ls/0fdf ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 . o;sf] dxTTjsf ;DaGwdf Accra Acord tyf Accra Declaration -@))*_ sf cg';f/ æForeign direct investment can generate employment, transfer of technology and knowledge, access to international markets and competitions, and can be complementary to national, regional and international efforts to mobilize resources for developments” (United Nations, 2008).

#= g]kfndf j}b]lzs nufgLsf] cj:yf

g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df x]bf{ lj=;+= !((@ df Jofkfl/s tyf cf}Bf]lus If]qdf s]xL 3/fgfx¿ k|j]z ePsf] k|f/lDes cWoogaf6 yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . o;kl5 ;g\ !(%!÷%@ df ^& k|ltzt ef/tLo / @# k|ltzt g]kfnL kIfsf] nufgL ePsf] g]kfn jfl0fHo skf]{/];gsf] :yfkgf ePsf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(^) ;Dd g]kfndf o:tf k|sf/sf !) j6f sDkgL dfq :yfkgf ePsf lyP . ;g\ !(^! b]lv nufgLsf]


;Ldf %) xhf/af6 a9fO{ % nfv;Dd agfOPsf] tyf equity share sf] ;Ldf %) k|ltztaf6 a9fP/ !)) k|ltzt agfPsf] b]lvG5 -d}gfnL, @)^^M %^)–%&*_ .

o;}u/L b]zn]] qmlds ¿kdf c+lusf/ u/]sf] pbf/ cy{gLlt tyf v'nf ahf/sf] dfGotfsf sf/0f @)#* ;fndf j}b]lzs nufgLn] dxTTjk"0f{ :yfg kfPsf] b]lvG5 . kmn:j¿k @)#* ;fndf j}b]lzs nufgLsf] k|jw{gsf nflu ljb]zL nufgL tyf k|ljlw ;DaGwL P]g, @)#* lgdf{0f eof] . of] P]g cGtu{t :yfkgf x'g] sDkgLnfO{ /fli6«os/0f gul/g], ljz]if ;'ljwf k|bfg ul/g], pTkfbgaf6 @% k|ltzt d"No clej[l4 ePdf % jif{;Ddsf nflu cfos/ ldgfxf lbg], ljz]if Jojxf/ kfPsf pBf]unfO{ yk ;xof]u ;'ljwf pknAw u/fpg] h:tf cfwf/e"t cGtj{:t' ;dfj]z u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;sf cltl/Qm v'Nnf cfly{s gLltsf sf/0f dWo:ytf P]g, @)#* tyf cf}Bf]lus Joj;fo P]g, @)#* nufotsf sfg'gx¿ lgdf{0f ePsf lyP .

o;}u/L cf7f}+ of]hgf -@)%$÷@)%(_ n] lgDg Joj:yf u/]sf] kfOG5 M

;/sf/sf] e"ldsf lghL If]q k|jw{s Pjd\ pTk|]/sdf ;Lldt ug]{,•gLlt, sfg'g / sfo{ljlwdf ;'wf/ ug]{,•nufgL ;DaGwL lg0f{o lghL If]qaf6} x'g] / ;/sf/L x:tIf]k gx'g] jftfj/0fsf] lgdf{0f ug]{,•ahf/ k|0ffnLdf k|jw{g÷d"No lgwf{/0fdf ;/sf/L x:tIf]k lg?T;flxt ug]{,•j}b]lzs nufgL cfsif{0fsf nflu gLltut ;x'lnot lbg],•j}b]lzs nufgLdf s/ tyf eG;f/df ;x'lnotsf] Joj:yf,•nufgLsf ;Defjgf ePsf If]qdf s'6g}lts tyf cgf}krfl/s dfWod kl/rfng ug]{ Joj:yf . •

tLg jifL{o cGtl/d of]hgfsf] cfwf/ jif{ @)^#÷^$ df s'n k|ToIf ljb]zL nufgL cfk|jfx ?=#^=@ s/f]8 dfq ePsf] t'ngfdf of]hgfsf] clGtd jif{ @)^^÷^& df ?= @ ca{ *% s/f]8 lelqPsf] lyof] . of]hgf cjlwdf o:tf] s'n k|ToIf nufgL cfk|jfx ?=$ cj{ (* s/f]8 kl/rfng ePsf] oyfy{ cfly{s jif{ @)^(÷&) sf] vr{ Joj:yfsf] dWofjlw ;dLIff k|ltj]bgaf6 b]Vg ;lsG5 . ljZj a}+ssf] k|ltj]bgn] ;g\ @)!! df cd]l/sL 8n/ ( s/f]8 $) nfv nufgL ePsf] b]lvPsf] 5 .

$= j}b]lzs nufgL ;DaGwL ;+j}wflgs, gLltut tyf ;+:yfut Joj:yf

;+j}wflgs Joj:yf

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg @)^# sf] /fHosf bfloTj, lgb]{zs l;4fGt tyf gLltx¿ cGtu{t b]zsf] cfly{s ;fdflhs ¿kfGt/0f Pjd\ Gofosf ;fy} b]znfO{ l56f] ;d'Ggt / cfly{s ¿kn] ;d[4zfnL agfpg Ps ;femf ljsf;sf] cjwf/0ff lgdf{0f ug]{ /fHosf] bfloTj pNn]v ePsf] 5 . o:t} /fHosf gLltx¿ cGt{ut lghL Pjd\ ;fj{hlgs pBdnfO{ k|fyldstf lbg], j}b]lzs k"FhL / k|ljlwnfO{ cfslif{t ug]{, cfly{s pknlAwsf] Gofof]lrt ljt/0f x'g] Joj:yf ldnfpg] ;d]tsf] ;+j}wflgs k|lta4tf ePsf] 5 .


gLltut Joj:yf

o;}u/L pbf/, v'nf / ahf/d'vL cy{tGqsf nflu cfly{s ;Dj[l4sf] k|lqmofnfO{ cl3 a9fpg] p2]Zon] lgdf{0f, :jfldTj, ;+rfng, x:tfGt/0f (Build, own, operate, Transfer) (BOOT), gLlt @)%&, j}b]lzs ;xfotf gLlt @)%(, j}b]lzs nufgL tyf Psåf/ gLlt @)$(, hnljB't ljsf; gLlt, cf}Bf]lus gLlt, @)^& jfl0fHo gLlt, @)^%, ko{6g gLlt, @)^%, nufotsf gLlt dfkm{t j}b]lzs nufgLnfO{ cfslif{t ug]{ Pjd\ k|jw{g ug]{ k|of; u/]sf] 5 . cf}Bf]lus gLlt, @)^& n] j}b]lzs nufgL ;+/If0f, ljljlws/0f / k|jw{g ug{ u}/ cfjf;Lo g]kfnLx¿nfO{ g]kfndf nufgL ug{ k|f]T;flxt ug]{ tyf k|ToIf j}b]lzs nufgL a9L lelqg] d'n'sdf cjl:yt g]kfnL /fhb"tfjf; tyf s'6g}lts lgof]udf cf}Bf]lus nufgL k|jw{gsf nflu cfly{s s'6gLlts OsfO{nfO{ ;an agfpg] Joj:yf lnPsf] 5 .

;+:yfut tyf sfo{ut Joj:yf

ljZjJofkLs/0fsf] r'gf}tLnfO{ ;fdgf ug{ Pjd\ o;af6 l;h{gf x'g] cj;/x¿nfO{ k|efjsf/L pkof]u ug{ g]kfnn] ljZj Jofkf/ ;+u7g, ;fˆ6f tyf ljd:6]ssf] ;b:otf k|fKt u/]sf] 5 . To;}u/L ljZj a}+s, Pl;ofnL ljsf; a}+ssf cfjf;Lo sfof{no tyf ;fs{sf] ;lrjfno ;d]t g]kfndf :yflkt eO{ lqmofzLn /x]sf 5g\ .

j}b]lzs nufgLsf ;DaGwdf ePsf sfo{ut Joj:yfnfO{ lgDg ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 M

jfl0fHo a}+s tyf ljQ sDkgLx¿ k|z:t dfqfdf v'n]sf 5g, Jofhb/ lgwf{/0f ug]{ lhDdf •ahf/df lgxLt 5 rfn' vftfnfO{ kl/jTo{ u/fOPsf] 5 .

s]xL ;+:yfgx¿sf] lghLs/0f ul/Psf] 5 . cfly{s jif{ @)^(.&) df ;/sf/sf] k"0f{ tyf •clwsf+z :jfldTjdf ;~rflnt #& j6f ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿sf] cl:tTj /x]sf] b]lvG5 .

s/sf b/x¿ 36fOPsf] 5, eg] s/sf bfo/fx¿ a9fOPsf] 5 ;]jfsf lgsfox¿n] ;d]t •s/sf] k|of]hgdf s/ k|0ffnLdf cfa4 x'g'kg]{ ePsf] 5 .

eG;f/ k|of]hgsf nflu sf/f]af/ d"NonfO{ dfGotf lbOPsf] 5, ljb]zL d'b|fdf a}+s vftf •vf]Ng ;Sg] k|fjwfg 5 .

hnljB't pTkfbg, k|zf/0f / ljt/0f ;DaGwL ljBdfg P]gsf k|fjwfgx¿nfO{ nufgLd}qL •agfpg] u/L P]gsf] PsLs[t ;+zf]lwt d:of}bf tof/ ul/Psf] 5 .

nufgL jif{, @)!# sf] ;Gbe{df g]kfn pBf]u jfl0fHo dxf;+3;Fu ;dGjo ub}{ %) j6f •kl/of]hgfx¿sf] cfof]hgf k|:tfj cfJxfg ul/Psf] 5 .

ljB't pTkfbg / ljsf; ;DaGwL cfof]hgf ljsf; ;Demf}tf b:tfj]hsf] k|f¿k tof/ ePsf] •5 .


lqjifL{o of]hgf -@)^&÷^*–@)^(÷&)_ df j}b]lzs nufgL ;DaGwL Joj:yf*

nufgLd}qL jftfj/0fsf] l;h{gf u/L /fHosf] k|fyldstfdf /x]sf If]qx¿df o:tf] nufgL cfslif{t ug{ cfjZos /x]sf x'Fbf o; of]hgfn] bLuf] / km/flsnf] cfly{s j[l4 tyf /f]huf/L] l;h{gfsf nflu j}b]lzs nufgL kl/rfng ug]{ p2]Zo /fv]sf] 5 . o;sf] nflu k|fyldstf k|fKt If]qsf] ljsf;sf lglDt j}b]lzs nufgLd}qL jftfj/0f k|jw{g u/L j}b]lzs nufgL a9fpg] / j}b]lzs Jofkf/ tyf ;]jf If]qsf cj;/sf] dfWodaf6 ljb]zL nufgL clej[l4 ug]{ /0fgLlt lnPsf] 5 . j}b]lzs nufgLsf] ;DaGwdf b]xfo adf]lhdsf sfo{gLltx¿ klg o; of]hgfn] to u/]sf] 5 M

ljb]zL nufgLnfO{ ;xhLs/0f ug{ cfjZos sfg'gL, gLltut / ;+:yfut Joj:yf ;'b[9 •ug]{,

j}b]lzs nufgL leq\ofpFbf k"FhL, k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f / Joj:yfkg s'zntfsf] kIfnfO{ hf]8 •lbg],

hnljB't\, ko{6g / oftfoft h:tf k"jf{wf/sf If]qdf ljb]zL nufgL cfslif{t u/L k"jf{wf/ •ljsf; ug]{,

cfly{s If]qsf] :yfkgf, nlrnf] >d gLlt / Psåf/ k|0ffnLsf] cjnDag Pjd\ cGo k|lqmofut •;'wf/ u/L nufgLd}qL jftfj/0f agfpg],

cfly{s s"6gLltnfO{ k|ltkmnd'vL ¿kdf ljsl;t u/L k|efjsf/L agfpg],•t'ngfTds nfesf If]qx¿ / /fli6«o dxTTjsf] ¿kdf kl/eflift If]qx¿sf] af/]df k|rf/k|;f/ •u/L nufgL clej[l4 ug{ clek]|l/t ug]{,

tf]lsPsf If]qdf ljb]zL nufgLstf{nfO{ bf];|f] ahf/ dfkm{t\ klg g]kfndf nufgL ug{ ;lsg] •Joj:yf ldnfpg],

j}b]lzs Jofkf/ tyf ;]jfIf]qsf] cj;/sf] ;Defjgfsf cfwf/df nufgL cfslif{t ug{ •ljz]if pTk|]/0ff k|bfg ug]{ .

%= j}b]lzs nufgL ;DaGwL ljBdfg sfg'gL Joj:yf

ljb]zL nufgL tyf k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f P]g @)$(

o; P]g cg';f/ j}b]lzs nufgL eGgfn] ;]o/df u/]sf] nufgL, ;]o/df u/]sf] nufgLaf6 k|fKt ePsf] nufgL, C0f jf C0f ;'ljwfsf] ¿kdf u/]sf] nufgLnfO{ a'emfpFb5 . To:t} k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f eGgfn] pBf]u / ljb]zL nufgLstf{ aLrsf] b]xfosf] s'/fsf] ;DaGwdf ;Demf}tf u/L ul/g] x:tfGt/0f ;Demg' kb{5 M

ljb]zL pTkltsf] s'g} k|ljlw ;DaGwL clwsf/, ljlzi6tf, km/d'nf, k|lqmof, k]6]G6 jf k|fljlws •1fgsf] pkof]u ug]{,

* lqjifL{o of]hgf -@)^&÷^*–@)^(÷&)_ k[i7 #%


ljb]zL :jfldTjsf] 6«]8dfs{ pkof]u ug]{, •j}b]lzs k|fljlws, ;Nnfxsf/, Joj:yfkg Pjd\ ahf/ ;]jf pknJw ug]{ . •

ljb]zL d'b|fdf nufgL ug]{ ljb]zL nufgLstf{n] b]xfo adf]lhdsf] /sd ljb]zL d'b|fdf g]kfn clw/fHo aflx/ n}hfg kfpF5* M

ljb]zL nufgLsf] s]xL jf ;a} c+zsf] ;]o/ laqmLaf6 k|fKt /sd, •ljb]zL nufgL jfktsf] nfe jf nfef+zsf] ¿kdf k|fKt /sd,•ljb]zL C0fsf] ;fFjf / Jofhsf] e'QmfgLsf] ¿kdf k|fKt /sd . •

To:t} k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f ;Demf}tf cGtu{t k|fKt /sd ;DalGwt ;Demf}tfdf plNnlvt d'b|fdf g]kfn aflx/ n}hfg kfpg] 5 . P]gsf] bkmf ^ df le;f ;DaGwL Joj:yf, P]gsf] bkmf & df ljjfbsf] ;dfwfgsf] Joj:yf / ;f] cg';f/ ljjfb ;dfwfg x'g g;s] k|rlnt ;o'Qm /fi6«;+3Lo cGt//fli6«o Jofkf/ sfg'g (UNCITRAL) sf] k|rlnt dWo:ytf ;DaGwL lgod adf]lhd x'g] u/L Joj:yf 5 .

nufgL af]8{ P]g, @)^*

cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu ;fj{hlgs–lghL ;fem]bf/L, ;xsf/L / :jb]zL tyf ljb]zL lghL If]qsf] nufgLnfO{ kl/rfng u/L Jojl:yt ¿kdf cf}Bf]lusLs/0fsf] k|lqmofnfO{ tLj| agfpg, cTofjZos k"jf{wf/ ;+/rgfsf] lgdf{0f tyf ljsf; u/L ;an, ultzLn tyf k|lt:kwL{ cy{tGq ljsf; ug{ / /f]huf/Lsf cj;/ ;[hgf u/L ul/aL lgjf/0fdf cy{k"0f{ of]ubfg k'¥ofpg Ps clwsf/ ;DkGg nufgL af]8{ u7g ug{ jf~5gLo ePsf]n],** eGg] d"n p4]Zo lnO{ nufgL af]8{ P]g, @)^* hf/L eO{ sfof{Gjogdf cfPsf] b]lvG5 .

o; P]gdf nufgLsf] jftfj/0f ;[hgf u/L k"jf{wf/ tyf cGo If]qdf ;fj{hlgs–lghL ;fem]bf/L, ;xsf/L / :jb]zL tyf ljb]zL–lghL nufgL kl/rfng u/L Joj:yfkg ug{*** k|wfgdGqLsf] cWoIftfdf nufgL af]8{ u7g x'g] Joj:yf 5 . o; af]8{sf sfo{x¿ lgDgfg';f/ 5g\ M****

nufgL ;DaGwL gLlt th'{df ug]{ jf u/fpg],•b]xfosf nufgLsf If]qx¿df k|lt:kwf{Tds jf k|fyldstf If]qsf] 5gf]6 ug]{ jf u/fpg] M•g]kfn ;/sf/n] tf]s]sf] b|'t ;8s -kmf:6 6«Øfs /f]8_, ;'?Ëdfu{, /]ndfu{, /f]kj], 6«nLa;, •cGt//fli6«o tyf If]qLo :t/sf ljdfg:yn lgdf{0fdf x'g] nufgL tyf ;~rfngdf /x]sf ljdfg:ynsf] cfw'lgsLs/0f Pjd\ Joj:yfkgdf x'g] nufgL,

;x/L If]qdf kmf]xf]/d}nfsf] Joj:yfkg tyf k|zf]wg KnfG6df x'g] nufgL, •

* ljb]zL nufgL tyf k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf % ** k|:tfjgf, nufgL af]8{ P]g, @)^* .*** P] P] bkmf # .**** P] P] bkmf % .


/f;folgs dn pTkfbg sf/vfgfdf x'g] nufgL, •k]6«f]lnod l/kmfOg/L Knf06sf] nufgL, •g]kfn ;/sf/n] tf]s]sf 7"nf k'nsf] lgdf{0fdf x'g] nufgL, •%! k|ltzteGbf a9L ljb]zL nufgLdf :Yffkgf ul/g] a}Í tyf ljQLo ;+:yfdf x'g] nufgL •jf ladf jf k'gla{df sDkgLsf] :yfkgf / ;~rfngdf x'g] nufgL,

d]l8sn sn]h tyf tLg ;o z}ofeGbf dflysf cTofw'lgs ;'ljwfo'Qm c:ktfn jf gl;{Ë •xf]ddf x'g] nufgL,

kfFr ;o d]ufjf6 jf ;f]eGbf a9L Ifdtfsf] hnljB't pTkfbg kl/of]hgfdf x'g] nufgL, •ljz]if cfly{s If]q, lgof{t k|jw{g jf lgof{t k|zf]wg If]q, ljz]if cf}Bf]lus If]q jf ;"Rfgf •k|ljlw kfs{sf] lgdf{0fdf x'g] nufgL,

l:y/ k"FhL bz ca{ ¿k}Fof jf ;f]eGbf a9L kl/of]hgf nfut ePsf] s'g} klg k"jf{wf/ •;+/rgf jf ;]jf pBf]udf x'g] nufgL,* nufgL of]Uo kl/of]hgfsf] 5gf]6 u/L k|:tfj cfXjfg, k|fKt k|:tfjsf] d"NofÍg, nufgLstf{;Fu •jftf{, nufgLsf] :jLs[lt k|bfg, k|:tfjs;Fu tf]lsP adf]lhd ;Demf}tf,

nufgLsf ;DaGwdf ePsf] ;Demf}tf adf]lhd kl/of]hgf lgdf{0f, sfof{Gjog jf ;~rfng •eP jf gePsf] cg'udg,

nufgL k|jw{gsf nflu ljleGg dGqfno, ;/sf/L tyf :yfgLo lgsfoaLr ;dGjo,•kl/of]hgfx¿sf] zL3| lg0f{o / ;d:ofsf] l56f] 5l/tf] pkrf/ k|bfg,•nufgL k|jw{g ug{sf nflu ljb]zl:yt g]kfnL lgof]ux¿sf] kl/rfng,•kl/of]hgf ljZn]if0f ;DaGwL dfkb08 tof/, nufgLsf ;t{ lgwf{/0f tyf nufgLstf{;Fu •;Demf}tf u/fpg],

:jLs[t nufgLsf nflu k|rlnt sfg'g adf]lhd cfjZos ;/sf/L hUuf pknAw u/fpg] •jf hUuf k|fKt ul/lbg] .

cGo ;Da4 sfg'gx¿

>d P]g, @)$*, n]vf k/LIf0f P]g, @)$*, cf}Bf]lus Joj;fo P]g, @)$(, hn;|f]t P]g, @)$(, lghLs/0f P]g, @)%) d"No clej[l4 s/ P]g, @)%#, dWo:ytf P]g, @)%%, s/f/ P]g, @)%^, cfos/ P]g, @)%*, k|ltlnlk clwsf/ P]g, @)%(, ;fj{hlgs vl/b P]g, @)^#, a}+s tyf ljQLo ;+:yf ;DaGwL P]g, @)^#, sDkgL P]g, @)^#, k|lt:kwf{ k|jw{g tyf ahf/ ;+/If0f P]g, @)^#, bfdf;fxL ;DaGwL P]g, @)^#, eG;f/ P]g, @)^$, u}/ cfjf;Lo g]kfnL ;DaGwL P]g, @)^$ ;d]t j}b]lzs nufgLnfO{ cfslif{t ug]{ / ;f]sf] k|efjsf/L kl/rfng;Fu ;DalGwt 5g\ .

* P] P] bkmf (


^= ax"rlr{t nufgL k|jw{g tyf ;+/If0f ;Demf}tf (Bilateral Investment Protection and Promotion Agreement, BIPPA)

g]kfn ;/sf/ tyf ef/t ;/sf/sf aLr ldlt @)^* ;fn sflt{s $ ut]sf lbg ePsf] nufgL k|jw{g tyf ;+/If0f ;Demf}tfsf] k|:tfjgf x]bf{ Ps /fi6«sf nufgL stf{x¿sf] j[xQ/ nufgL csf]{ /fi6«sf] Onfsfleq km:6fpg] cg's"n cj:yf ;[hgf ug{ OR5's x'Fb} lghL If]qsf] pkqmdnfO{ clek|]l/t ug{, To:tf nufgLsf] k|f]T;fxg / kf/:kfl/s k|jw{g Pjd\ ;+/If0f cTofjZos ePsf] / To;n] b'a} /fi6«x¿df ;Dj[l4 clej[l4 ug]{ s'/fnfO{ dfGotf lbFb} pQm ;Demf}tf g]kfn ;/sf/ / ef/t ;/sf/aLr ;DkGg ePs]f b]lvG5 . o; ;Demf}tfn] lgDg s'/fnfO{ nufgLsf ¿kdf lnPsf] 5 .*

rn / crn ;DklQ Pjd\ To;;Fu ;DalGwt cGo clwsf/x¿, h:t} aGwsL, lnog jf •lwtf],

sDkgLsf ;]o/x¿ / :6s Pjd\ C0f -l8j]Gr/_x¿ tyf s'g} sDkgLdf To:t} :j¿ksf cGo •s'g} ;+nUgtf,

df}lb|s jf ljQLo d"No ePsf] s'g} s/f/sf] kl/kfngfsf] bfaL, •;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf] cf–cfˆgf] sfg'g adf]lhdsf af}l4s ;DklQ ;DaGwL clwsf/, •t]n Pjd\ cGo vlghx¿sf] cGj]if0f Pjd\ lg:;f/0f ug{ lbOg] ;x'lnotx¿ nufotsf •sfg'gåf/f jf s/f/ cGtu{t k|bQ Jofj;flos ;x'lnotx¿ .

;Demf}tf adf]lhd dfly pNn]lvt nufgL k|a4{g Pjd\ ;+/If0fsf] nflu lgDg Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 M**

;+ljbfsf/L Ps kIfn] cfˆgf] Onfsfdf csf]{ kIfsf] nufgLstf{sf nufgLx¿nfO{ k|f]T;fxg lbg], •;f]sf] nflu cg's"n cj:yf l;h{gf ug]{ / cfˆgf gLlt, sfg'g / lgodx¿ adf]lhd To:tf nufgLx¿ :jLsf/ ug]{,

k|To]s ;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf nufgLstf{sf] nufgL Pjd\ k|ltkmnx¿nfO{ csf]{ ;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf] •Onfsfdf ;w}F plrt / ;dGoflos Jojxf/ ug]{ .

o:t} gf]S;fgL jfktsf] Ifltk"lt{sf xsdf pQm ;Demf}tfsf] wf/f ^ df s'g} ;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf] Onfsfdf o'4 jf cGo ;z:q åGb, /fli6«o ;+s6sfnLg cj:yf jf /fi6« ljKnj jf b+ufsf sf/0fn] To:tf] ;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf] Onfsfdf nufgL ePsf] s'g} ;+ljbfsf/L kIfsf] nufgLstf{n] gf]S;fgL a]xf]g'{ k/]df To:tf nufgLstf{nfO{ lghsf] k'gMk|lt:yfkg, xhf{gf, Ifltk"lt{ jf cGo ;dfwfgsf ;DaGwdf ;f] ;+ljbfsf/L kIfn] cfˆgf nufgLstf{ jf cGo s'g} t];|f] /fi6«sf] nufgLstf{nfO{ k|bfg ul/Psf] eGbf sd ;f}ljWotfk"0f{ gx'g] u/L Jojxf/ ug]{5 . o;af6 k|fKt x'g] e'QmfgL :jtGqtfk"j{s x:tfGt/0f of]Uo x'g]5 .

wf/f & df ;f] ;Demf}tfsf] nufgL / k|ltkmnsf] :jb]z lkmtf{, wf/f * df k|Tofzg, wf/f ( df

* pQm ;Demf}tfsf] wf/f ! -v_ ** P] sf] wf/f #-!_ -@_


nufgLstf{ / ;+ljbfsf/L kIfaLrsf] ljjfb ;dfwfg, wf/f !) df ;+ljbfsf/L kIfx¿ aLrsf ljjfbx¿, wf/f !! df sd{rf/Lx¿sf] k|j]z / a;fO{, wf/f !@ df nfu" x'g] sfg'gsf] Joj:yf, wf/f !# df cGo lgodx¿sf] k|of]u tyf wf/f !$ df nfex¿sf] OGsf/ ;DaGwL Joj:yf u/L sfg'gL k|Zgx¿ p7fO{ ;f] ;Demf}tf /x]sf] 5 .

&= j}b]lzs nufgLsf ljBdfg ;d:of tyf ;dfwfgsf pkfox¿

dfly plNnlvt k|fjwfg tyf laleGg lgsfo / ;+/rgf nufotsf k|of;x¿ /xFbf /xFb} klg g]kfnsf] cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu cToGt cfjZos /x]sf] j}b]lzs nufgL ck]lIft ¿kdf kmnbfoL x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . b]zsf] ;d"lrt cfly{s ljsf;sf] k"jf{wf/sf nflu ;j{k|yd j}b]lzs nufgLsf] nflu d'n'ssf] /fhg}lts l:y/tf sfod /fVg' tyf nufgLd}qL jftfj/0f lgdf{0f ug{‘ r'gf}tLk"[0f{ 5 . d'n'sdf ljleGg ;dodf ePsf /fhg}lts kl/jt{g tyf ljZjJofkLs/0fsf sf/0f cfly{s gLltdf kl/jt{g u/L ljZj hutdf Psfsf/ x'g] k|oTg u/]sf] t b]lvG5 t/ cfly{s ;'wf/ dfkm{t\ bLuf] / pRr cfly{s j[l4b/ xfl;n ug{ ;kmn ePsf] dfGg ;lsFb}g .

;d:ofx¿

/fhg}lts tyf ;fdflhs cl:y/tf sfod /xg',•j}b]lzs ;xfotf tyf nufgL clej[l4 ug{]tkm{ /fhg}lts bnx¿aLr :ki6 Pjd\ PsLs[t •cjwf/0ffsf] cefj /xg',

gLltut cGof}n Pjd\ c:ki6tfn] ubf{ ck]lIft ¿kdf j}b]lzs ;xfotfsf] kl/rfng tyf nufgL •gx'g',

Psåf/ gLltsf] cjnDag eP tfklg emGeml6nf] / ckf/bzL{ sfo{ljlwn] ubf{ nufgLsf] nflu •plrt jftfj/0fsf] ljsf; ug'{ r'gf}tLk"0f{ /x]sf],

pmhf{ / cGo ef}lts k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ckof{Kt x'g',•g]kfn ;/sf/ / ljleGg ljb]zL sDkgLaLr ePsf ;Demf}tfx¿dfly ;+j}wflgs tyf sfg'gL k|Zg •p7fO{ cbfntdf ljjfb n}hfg] k|j[lQn] lg/Gt/tf kfpg',

k|lt:kwL{ Jojxf/ tyf pBdL Joj;foLx¿sf aLrdf ck]lIft Jofj;flos OdfGbfl/tf gb]lvg'', •kF"hL ahf/sf] ljsf; ck]lIft ¿kdf gx'g' tyf cfly{s If]q / ahf/df k|lt:kwf{Tds jftfj/0f •gaGg',

cfGtl/s ahf/ ;fgf] ePsfn] dxQd k|ltkmn lng g;Sg',•;fj{hlgs lghL ;fem]bf/Lsf] cjwf/0ffn] d"t{ ¿k lng g;Sbf ck]lIft ¿kdf If]qLo / •cGt//fli6«o ahf/;Fu cfa4 x'g g;Sg',

ljZjJofkLs/0faf6 ;[hgf x'g] r'gf}tLnfO{ ;fdgf ug]{ ;fdYo{ / Jojl:yt of]hgfsf] cefj, •ck]lIft ¿kdf cfoft k|lt:yfkg tyf lgof{t k|jw{g ug{ g;lsPsfn] ;f]wfgfGt/ l:ylt •(Balance of Payment) v:sFb} hfg', ef/t tyf rLgaLrsf] Jofkf/nfO{ ljljwLs/0f ug{


g;lsPsf],

ljb]zL k"FhL, k|ljlw 1fg / pBdlzntfnfO{ :yfgLo :t/df ;fem]bf/Lsf dfWodaf6 kl/rfng •x'g g;Sg',

cf}Bf]lus ;'zf;gsf] cefj, >d sfg'g nufgLd}qL gx'g', nlrnf] >d gLltsf] cefjn] •cf}Bf]lus ;DaGw sdhf]/ x'g',

åGå kZrft\ klg /fhg}lts cl:y/tf / c;'/Iff sfod} /xg' tyf nufgLstf{ cfGtl/s cftÍsf] •lgzfgf s]lGb|t /xg' .

;dfwfgsf pkfox¿

/fhg}lts tyf ;fdflhs ;xsfo{ dfkm{t\ zflGt ;'/Iff tyf sfg'gL zf;gsf] cg'e"lt u/fpg ;/sf/ k|lta4 x'g'kb{5 tyf /fhg}lts bnx¿n] g]kfndf nufgL ug]{ nufgLstf{x¿nfO{ nufgLsf ;DaGwdf :ki6 ¿kdf 3f]if0ffkqdf Joj:yf u/L k|lta4tf b]vfpg'k5{ . ;/sf/n] klg j}b]lzs nufgL ;DaGwL :j]t kq hf/L ug'{k5{ .

Jofj;flos OdfGbfl/tf sfod ug{ lghLIf]qdf ;+:yfut ;'zf;g cfjZos 5 . lghL If]qsf] lasf;sf nflu nufgLd}qL sfg'gx¿sf] ;'lglZrtf tyf gLltsf] k'g/fjnf]sg ug{ h?/L 5 .

g]kfn ljZj Jofkf/ ;+u7gsf] ;b:o ;d]t eO;s]sfn] ljZjJofkL :t/df k|lt:kwf{ ug]{ Ifdtf ;lxtsf] gofFkg dx;'; x'g] vfnsf] cf}Bf]lus jfl0fHo tyf Jofj;flos cEof; h?/L 5 .

;/sf/sf ;fj{hlgs lgsfoaf6 ;]jfu|fxL tyf pkef]QmfnfO{ :t/Lo ;]jf k|jfx ug{ sfo{;Dkfbgdf cfwfl/t k'/:sf/ / b08 Joj:yf ug'{ h?/L 5 .

;fj{hlgs lghL ;fe]mbf/L ;+oGqsf] ljsf; tyf ;'b[9Ls/0f ug'{kb{5 .

ljb]zL k"FhL k|ljlw / pBdzLntfnfO{ :yfgLo :t/df ;fem]bf/L ug]{ ;+oGq, k4lt / sfo{qmd nfu" ug'{{ h?/L 5 .

>d sfg'gdf ;fdlos ;+zf]wg u/L ljb]zL nufgLsf] k|jw{gsf nflu P]gdf g} nufgLd}qL jftfj/0fsf] k|Tofe"lt lbg ;Sg] k|fjwfg /flvg'kb{5 .

>ldssf cfjZostf k"/f ug]{ / pTkfbsTj a9fpg] j]tg k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; u/L ;fdflhs ;'/Iffsf] jftfj/0f dfkm{t\ >ldssf] dgf]annfO{ pRr /fVg'kb{5 .

u}/ cfjf;Lo g]kfnL ;DaGwL P]g, @)^$ sf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjogsf] ;'lglZrttf u/L nufgL leq\ofpg'kb{5 .

d'n'ssf] ;du| cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu cfly{s ;Nnfxsf/ kl/ifb\ h:tf] ;zQm lgsfo u7g ul/g'k5{ . cy{, pBf]u Pjd\ jfl0fHo tyf cfk"lt{ dGqfnox¿sf e"ldsfdf ;fdlos ;+zf]wg ug'{kb{5 .


*= cGTodf

d'n'ssf] ;d'lrt cfly{s ljsf;sf nflu j}b]lzs nufgL tyf j}b]lzs ;xfotfsf] pknAwtf tyf ;f]sf] u|x0f ug]{ ;Ifdtf x'g cfjZos x'G5 . j}b]lzs nufgLsf] k|efjsf/L pknAwtf tyf o;sf] kl/rfngsf nflu g]kfn ;/sf/sf] Ifdtf j[l4 ug'{ cfjZos 5 . nufgLstf{sf] bafadf nufgL ug]{ cg'dlt lbgsf nflu tof/ x'g] u/]sf] h:tf cf/f]k ;/sf/n] v]Kg' k/]sf] 5 . ;fj{hlgs–lghL ;fem]bf/L tyf ;xsfo{ dfkm{t\ :jb]zL tyf ljb]zL lghL If]qsf] nufgLnfO{ kl/rfng ug'{ cfjZos t 5 g} . To:tf If]qsf] nufgLnfO{ kl/rflnt u/L Jojl:yt ¿kdf cf}Bf]lusLs/0fsf] k|lqmofnfO{ tLa| agfpg cfwf/e"t k"jf{wf/sf] lgdf{0f tyf ljsf; u/L ;an, ultzLn tyf k|lt:kwL{ cy{tGq ljsf; ug{ / /f]huf/Lsf cj;/ ;[hgf u/L ul/aL lgjf/0fdf cy{k"0f{ of]ubfg k'¥ofpg] p2]Zon] cfPsf] nufgL af]8{ P]gsf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog Pjd\ ljBdfg P]g / j}b]lzs nufgL ;DaGwL gLltsf] sfof{GjogaLrsf] tfbTDotfn] dfq pQm P]gn] ;fy{stf kfpg ;S5 . o;sf cltl/Qm ;/sf/n] j}b]lzs nufgL k|jw{gsf nflu cfly{s s"6gLlts OsfOnfO{ ;an agfpg] Joj:yf ug'{ klg plQs} cfjZos 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdfu|Lx¿

Walker, D. (1992), The Internationalization of Capital Markets and the Regulatory Response, Graham and Trotman Ltd.

Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness and the Accra Agenda for Action.

United Nation, (2008). UNCTAD, XII Accra Accord and the Accra Declaration, United Nation: New work and Geneva.

uf]kLgfy d}gfnL, -@)^^_ /fHo ;+rfngsf cfwf/x¿, ;f]kfg dfl;sM sf7df8f}+ .

cfly{s jif{ @)^(÷&) sf] vr{ Joj:yfsf] dWofjlw ;dLIff k|ltj]bg, cy{ dGqfno M sf7df8f}+ .

;fj{hlgs Joj:yfkg ;|f]t ;fdu|L, cu|;f/yL k|sfzg, @)^*, sf7df8f}+ .

g]kfn ;/sf/ tyf ef/t ;/sf/sf aLr ;DkGg nufgL k|jw{g tyf ;+/If0f ;Demf}tf .

/f=of]=cf=-@)^&_, lqjifL{o of]hgf -@)^&÷^*–@)^(÷&)_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, sf7df08f}+ .

g]kfn sfg'g cfo]fuåf/f j]j;fO6df /flvPsf nufgL af]8{ P]g @)^* nufotsf ljleGg cfly{s P]gx¿ tyf gLltx¿ .

g]kfn ;/sf/ cy{ dGqfno tyf cGo dGqfnosf j]e;fO6af6 k|fKt hfgsf/L .


g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf dlxnf ;xeflutfsf] cj:yf

gf/fo0f Gof}kfg]*

;f/f+z

g]kfndf ;lbof}+b]lv rln cfPsf] s]G›Ls[t zf;g Joj:yfsf] sf/0f ;[lht cj:yf tyf ef}uf]lns ljs6tf, ;fdflhs ;+/rgf, ;+:sf/, k];f, cfly{s cj:yf, /fhg}lts Joj:yf cflbsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ dlxnf ;dfg / ;fy{s ;xeflutfaf6 jl~rt /xg' k/]sf] 5 . ;dfh k'?ifk|wfg ePs} sf/0f klg cfly{s ¿kdf dlxnfx¿ ;an / ;d'Ggt aGg ;s]sf 5}gg\ . ;dfhdf ljBdfg ul/aL / n}lËs lje]bsf sf/0f dlxnfsf] cj:yf lgs} sdhf]/ 5 . cfly{s, /fhgLlts, ;fdflhs nufot clwsf+z If]qsf] gLlt lgdf{0fb]lv x/]s txdf dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf Go"g 5 . bf];|f] hgcfGbf]ng @)^@÷)^# kZrft\ ag]sf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# df /fHosf lgb]{zs l;4fGt tyf gLltx¿ dfkm{t\ ;a} c+ux¿df dlxnf, cflbjf;L÷hghflt, dw];L, blnt, ckfË, lk5l8Psf] ju{ / If]q ;a}nfO{ ;dfg'kflts ;dfj]zLsf] cfwf/df ;xefuL u/fpg] gLlt lnOPsf] 5 . ;f]xL gLlt sfof{Gjogsf nflu lj=;+= @)^$ df lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( df bf];|f] ;+zf]wg u/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] kbk"lt{ / a9'jf ;DaGwL k|fjwfgdf cfwf/e"t kl/jt{g u/L lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;dfj]zL agfpg v'Nnf k|ltof]lutfåf/f k"lt{ x'g] kbdWo] $% k|ltzt kb cf/lIft ;d"x -dlxnf, cflbjf;L÷hghflt, dw]zL, blnt, ckf+u / lk5l8Psf] If]q_ sf] nflu 5'§ofO{ ;f] $% k|ltztnfO{ ztk|ltzt dfgL To;sf] ## k|ltzt dlxnfsf] nflu cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jfdf of] cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf kZrft\ dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf pT;fxhgs ¿kdf j[l4 eO/x]sf] 5 . kl/0ffd :j¿k nf]s ;]jf cfof]un] kf7\oqmddf ;'wf/ u/L lj1fkg ubf{ b/vf:t lbg]x¿sf] ;+Vof XjfQ} a9]sf] 5 . tfklg s'n hg;+Vofsf] %! k|ltzt dlxnf /x]sf]df lghfdtL ;]jfdf eg] sl/a !% k|ltzt dfq ;xeflutfsf] l:ylt 5 . Jojxfl/s ¿kdf e/v/ sfof{Gjogsf] qmddf kfOnf cufl8 a9]sf]] ;dfj]zL ;xeflutfsf] gLltn] jf:tljs ju{, ;d'bfo, lnË / If]qsf pk]lIft ju{n] cf/If0fsf] l;6df k|j]z gkfO{ To:tf If]qsf ;+e|fGt ju{n] dfq k|j]z kfPsf] cfnf]rgf klg e}/x]sf] 5 . To;}n] ;Lldt ;+e|fGt ju{n] dfq kmfObf glnO{ jf:tljs nlIft ju{n] ;dfg cj;/ kfpg]tkm{ ljz]if Wofg lbg' cfjZos 5 .

!= k[i7e"ld

;g\ !(&) sf] bzsb]lv ;+;f/el/ g} ;dfj]zL / k|ltlglwd"ns lghfdtL ;]jfsf] cjwf/0ffn] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gdf rrf{ / :yfg kfPsf] 5 . dlxnf cfGbf]ng, dfgj clwsf/sf] 3f]if0ff, ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts clwsf/sf] dfu / To;sf nflu ePsf k|of;x¿ ;d]t ;dfj]zLsf nflu ePsf k|oTgx¿ x'g\ . clxn] ;/sf/sf gLlt, of]hgf / sfo{qmdnfO{ a9LeGbf a9L ;dfj]zL / ;dfg'kflts u/fpg lghfdtL ;]jfleq ;dfj]zL wf/0ff, b[li6sf]0f, ljrf/, ts{ h:tf ljifon] a9L k|fyldstf

* zfvf clws[t, ef}lts k"jf{wf/ tyf oftfoft dGqfno Email: [email protected]


kfPsf 5g\ . /fHosf ;a} ;+/rgf, ljsf; k|lqmof / cfly{s tyf ;fdflhs ultljlwx¿df /fHosf ;a} gful/sx¿nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;Sg] /fHosf gLltx¿ lgb]{lzt x'g' kg]{ cjwf/0ffsf] k[i7e"lddf ;dfj]zLs/0f, ;xeflutf, ;zQmLs/0f / d"nk|jfxLs/0f h:tf ;d;fdlos ljifox¿ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf cjojsf ¿kdf :yflkt x'Fb} uO/x]sf] l:ylt 5 . g]kfndf s'n hg;+Vofsf] cfwfeGbf a9L hg;+Vof dlxnfsf] /x]sf] 5 . t/ lg0f{o k|lqmof / zf;g ;+rfngdf ;dfg'kflts 9+un] ;xeflutf x'g ;ls/x]sf] 5}g . ;dfg'kflts ;xeflutf gagfO{ b]zn] pGgltsf] km8\sf] dfg{ ;Sb}g . /fi6«sf] ldof]sf] ¿kdf lghfdtL ;]jfdf /fi6«sf h] hlt ju{, ;d'bfo, hfthflt 5g\, tL ;a}sf] k|ltlglwTj b]lvg' kb{5 . lj=;+= @)^$ df lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( df bf];|f] ;+zf]wg u/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] kbk"lt{ / a9'jf ;DaGwL k|fjwfgdf cfwf/e"t kl/jt{g u/L lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;dfj]zL agfpg v'nf k|ltof]lutfåf/f k"lt{ x'g] kbx¿ dWo] $% k|ltzt cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf u/L ;f]xL k|fjwfg cg'¿k kbk"lt{ ul/Fb} cfOPsf] 5 . ;f] k|ltztnfO{ ztk|ltzt dfgL dlxnfsf nflu ## k|ltzt, cflbjf;L hghfltsf nflu @& k|ltzt, dw];Lsf nflu @@ k|ltzt, blntsf nflu ( k|ltzt, ckfËsf nflu % k|ltzt / lk5l8Psf] If]qsf nflu $ k|ltzt cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf u/L ;f]xL k|fjwfg cg'¿k 5'§f5'§}

k|ltof]lutfsf] dfWodaf6 kbk"lt{ x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 .

@= lghfdtL ;]jfdf dlxnf ;xeflutfsf] ljBdfg cj:yf

@=! n}lËs cfwf/df b/vf:tsf] ljj/0f

lghfdtL ;]jfdf dlxnfsf] nflu ## k|ltzt cf/If0fsf Aoj:yf kZrft\ dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf

pT;fxhgs ¿kdf j[l4 eO/x]sf] 5 . tnsf] tflnsfn] yk k'li6 ub{5 .

tflnsf ! M n}lËs cfwf/df nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] lj1fkgdf k/]sf] b/vf:tsf] ljj/0f

-cf=j=@)^$.^% b]lv )^*.^(_

cf=j=dlxnf b/vf:tsf] ljj/0f k'?if b/vf:tsf] ljj/0f

hDdf ;+Vof;+Vof k|ltzt ;+Vof k|ltzt

)^$.^% ^&,$#% #( !,)&^,*& ^! !,&%,!@@)^%.^^ #@,$%& #* %#,&!! ^@ *^,!^*)^^.^& !,#(,(^# $& !,^),%)) %# #,)),$^#)^&.^* !,!),#)& $$ !,$!,#$$ %^ @,%!,^%!)^*.^( !,!#,&*% $@ !,%&,&(@ %* @,&!,%&&

;|f]tM nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf jflif{s k|ltj]bgx¿ .

@=@ n}lËs cfwf/df l;kmfl/;sf] ljj/0f

nf]s ;]jf cfof]un] cf=j= @)%*÷)%( b]lv @)^*÷)^( ;Dd !@ jif{sf] cjlwdf ljleGg ;]jf ;d"x pk;d"xdf ljleGg kbdf l;kmfl/; u/]sf pDd]bjf/x¿sf] ljj/0f oxfF


pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . h;dWo] cf=j= @)%&÷)%* df hDdf &@& pDd]bjf/ l;kmfl/; ePsf dWo] k'?if ^(! hgf -(%=)$Ü_ / dlxnf #^ hgf -$=(%Ü_ l;kmfl/; ePsf] b]lvG5 . cf=j= 2058/059 df s'n #)( hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if @&* hgf -89Ü_ / dlxnf #! hgf -cyf{t\ !)=)# k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP . cf=j= @)%(÷)^) df dlxnf ;xeflutf pT;fxhgs b]lvG5 . ;f] cf=j=df s'n #,&@% hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if !,(*& hgf -cyf{t\ %#=#$ k|ltzt_ / dlxnf !&#* hgf -cyf{t\ $^=^^ k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP . To;kl5sf] s]xL jif{x¿df dlxnf ;xeflutf Tolt pT;fxhgs lyPg . cf=j= @)^)÷)^! df s'n !,%&% hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if !,$@! hgf -cyf{t\ ()=@@ k|ltzt_ / dlxnf !%$ hgf -cyf{t\ (=&* k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP . cf=j= @)^!÷)^@ df s'n !$*# hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if !@!) hgf -cyf{t\ *!=%( k|ltzt_ / dlxnf @&# hgf -cyf{t\ !*=$! k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP . cf=j= @)^@÷)^# df s'n !*)% hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if !,$^& hgf -cyf{t\ *!=@& k|ltzt_ / dlxnf ##* hgf -cyf{t\ !*=&# k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP . cf=j= @)^#÷)^$ df s'n &%^ hgf l;kmfl/; ePsfdf k'?if ^^@ hgf -cyf{t\ *&=%^ k|ltzt_ / dlxnf ($ hgf -cyf{t\ !@=$# k|ltzt_ l;kmfl/; ePsf lyP .

cf=j= @)^$÷)^% df ;+ljwfg ;efsf] r'gfjsf sf/0f / nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf kbflwsf/Lx¿df cWoIf afx]s cGo ;b:ox¿ lgo'Qm x'g g;Sbf gLltut lg0f{o tyf cGtjf{tf{ tyf l;kmfl/;sf sfd k|efljt eO{ #@ hgf dfq l;kmfl/; x'g k'u] . To; kl5sf jif{x¿df lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( df bf];|f] ;+zf]wg u/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] kbk"lt{ / a9'jf ;DaGwL k|fjwfgdf cfwf/e"t kl/jt{g u/L lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;dfj]zL agfpg cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf u/L ;f]xL k|fjwfg cg'¿k 5'§f5'§} k|ltof]lutfsf] dfWodaf6 kbk"lt{ x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 . lj:t[t ljj/0f tnsf] tflnsfdf

pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .

tflnsf ! M n}lËs cfwf/df nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] l;kmfl/;sf] ljj/0f

-cf=j=@)%*÷)%( b]lv )^*.^(_

cf=j= k'?if l;kmfl/;sf] cj:yf dlxnf l;kmfl/;sf] cj:yf hDdf ;+Vof;+Vof k|ltzt ;+Vof k|ltzt

2057/058 691 95.04 36 4.95 727

2058/059 278 89.96 31 10.03 309

2059/060 1,987 53.34 1,738 46.65 3,725

2060/061 1,421 90.22 154 9.7* 1,575

2061/062 1,210 81.59 273 18.40 1,483

2062/063 1,467 81.27 338 18.7# 1,805

2063/064 662 87.56 94 12.43 756


cf=j= k'?if l;kmfl/;sf] cj:yf dlxnf l;kmfl/;sf] cj:yf hDdf ;+Vof;+Vof k|ltzt ;+Vof k|ltzt

2064/065 - - - 32

2065/066 2269 86.11 366 13.88 2,635

2066/067 1868 79.05 495 20.94 2,363

2067/068 3365 87.72 471 12.47 3,863

2068/069 2112 74.46 706 25.54 2,818

;|f]tM nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf jflif{s k|ltj]bgx¿ .

@=# >]0fL cg';f/ n}lËs ljj/0f

@)^* ;fnsf] hgu0fgfsf] tYofÍ cg';f/ g]kfnsf] s'n hg;+Vof @ s/f]8 ̂ $ nfv ($ xhf/ % ;o rf/

5 . tnsf] h;df k'?ifsf] ;+Vof ! s/f]8 @* nfv $( xhf/ $! -$*=%) k|ltzt_ / dlxnfsf] ;+Vof ! s/f]8

#^ nfv $% xhf/ $ ;o ̂ # -%!=%) k|ltzt_ 5 . lghfdtL lstfavfgfsf] lj=;+= @)&) ;fn cfiff9 !@

ut]sf] tYofÍ cg';f/ g]kfnsf] s'n lghfdtL sd{rf/Lx¿sf] ;+Vof &( xhf/ ( ;o !@ hgf

5 . tnsf] tflnsfaf6 g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf dlxnf ;xeflutf k|i6 x'G5 . h;dWo] k'?if ̂ & xhf/

& ;o &$ -*$=*! k|ltzt_ / dlxnf !@ xhf/ ! ;o #* -!%=!( k|ltzt_ 5g\ . k|zf;g tkm{ hDdf

sd{rf/Lsf] ;+Vof ^$ xhf/ &$ 5 . of] s'n b/aGbLsf] -*)=!* k|ltzt_ xf] . To;df k'?if %&

xhf/ * ;o ($ -()=#% k|ltzt_ / dlxnf ^ xhf/ ! ;o *) -(=^% k|ltzt_ 5g\ .

tflnsf #

>]0fL cg';f/ n}lËs ljj/0f

l;=g+= >]0fL / tx k'?if dlxnf hDdfk'?if

k|ltztdlxnf k|ltzt

hDdf k|ltzt

! >]0fL ५७,८९४ ६,१८० ६४,०७४ ९०=३५ ९=६५ ८०=१८

@ /fhkqf+lst १२,८०१ १,०४३ १३,८४४ ९२=४७ ७=५३ १७=३२# ljlzi6 >]0fL ५१ १ ५२ ९८=०८ १=९२ ०=०७$ /f=k= k|yd >]0fL ५०२ १६ ५१८ ९६=९१ ३=०९ ०=६५% /f=k= l4tLo >]0fL ३,००९ १२१ ३,१३० ९६=१३ ३=८७ ३=९२^ /f=k= t[tLo >]0fL ९,२३८ ९०५ १०,१४३ ९१=०८ ८=९२ १२=६९


l;=g+= >]0fL / tx k'?if dlxnf hDdfk'?if

k|ltztdlxnf k|ltzt

hDdf k|ltzt

&ljlzi6 >]0fL-d'Vo ;lrj_

१ ० १ १०० ० ०

* /fhkq cg+lst २५,८१७ ३,६१८ २९,४३५ ८७=७१ १२=२९ ३६=८३( /f=k=cg+=k|yd >]0fL १२,९५३ १,६३२ १४,५८५ ८८=८१ ११=१९ १८=२५!) /f=k=cg+=l4tLo >]0fL १०,८८८ १,८२३ १२,७११ ८५=६६ १४=३४ १५=९१!! /f=k=cg+=t[lto >]0fL १,६३८ १५० १,७८८ ९१=६१ ८=३९ २=२४!@ /f=k=cg+=rt'y{ >]0fL ३२६ १३ ३३९ ९६=१७ ३=८३ ०=४२!$ /f=k=cg+=kfFrf}F >]0fL १२ ० १२ १०० ० ०=०२!% >]0fL ljxLg १९,२७६ १,५१९ २०,७९५ ९२=७ ७=३ २६=०२!^ >]0fL gv'n]sf] ०!& :jf:Yo ९,७४० ५,९५३ १५,६९३ ६२=०७ ३७=९३ १९=६४!* s'n ;+Vof ^&,^#$ !@,!## &(,&^& *$=&* !%=@! !))

;|f]tM lghfdtL lstfavfgf, @)&) ;fn cfiff9 !@ ut] .

/fhkqf+lsttkm{ !@ xhf/ * ;o !) -(@=$& k|ltzt_ k'?if / ! xhf/ $# -&=%# k|ltzt_ dlxnf

u/L s'n !# xhf/ * ;o $$ hgf sfo{/t 5g\ . of] s'n b/aGbLsf] !&=#@ k|ltzt xf] . To;df

ljlzi6 >]0fLdf k'?if %! hgf -(*=)* k|ltzt_ / dlxnf ! hgf -!=(@ k|ltzt_ /x]sf 5g\ .

/fhkqf+lst k|yd >]0fLdf k'?if %)@ hgf -(^=(! k|ltzt_ / dlxnf !^ hgf -#=)( k|ltzt_

u/L s'n %!* hgf sfo{/t 5g\ . /fhkqf+lst låtLo >]0fLdf s'n # xhf/ ! ;o #) hgf sfo{/t

/x]sfdf k'?if # xhf/ ( hgf -(^=!# k|ltzt_ / dlxnf ! ;o @! hgf -#=*& k|ltzt_ 5g\ .

/fhkqf+lst t[tLo >]0fLdf ( xhf/ @ ;o #* hgf -(!=)* k|ltzt_ k'?if / ( ;o % hgf -*=(@

k|ltzt_ dlxnf u/L s'n !) xhf/ ! ;o $# sd{rf/L sfo{/t 5g\ . of] s'n b/aGbLsf] !@=^(

k|ltzt xf] .

/fhkq cg++lst sd{rf/L tkm{ @% xhf/ * ;o !& -*&=&! k|ltzt_ k'?if / # xhf/ ̂ ;o !* -!@=@

( k|ltzt_ dlxnf u/L hDdf @( xhf/ $ ;o #% hgf sfo{/t 5g\ . of] s'n b/aGbLsf] #*=*#

k|ltzt xf] . :jf:Yo tkm{ !% xhf/ * ;o #* sd{rf/Lx¿ sfo{/t /x]sfdf k'?if ( xhf/ * ;o

*) -^@=#* k|ltzt_ / dlxnf % xhf/ ( ;o %* -#&=^@ k|ltzt_ 5g\ . of]] s'n b/aGbL ;+Vofsf]

!(=*@ k|ltzt xf] . s'n sd{rf/Lx¿ dWo] >]0fLlaxLg sd{rf/Lsf] ;+Vof @) xhf/ & ;o (% 5 .


of] s'n b/aGbL ;+Vofsf] @^=)@ k|ltzt xf] . To;df klg k'?ifsf] ;+Vof !( xhf/ @ ;o &^ -(@=&

k|ltzt_ 5 eg] dlxnfsf] ;+Vof ! xhf/ % ;o !( -&=# k|ltzt_ 5 .

#= g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf ;xeflutf k|jw{gdf b]lvPsf ;d:ofx¿

ljutsf] zf;sLo k4ltdf /x]sf] c;dfj]zL rl/qsf] sf/0f gLlt lgdf{0f / ;fj{hlgs ;]jfx¿df

dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf ck]lIft ¿kdf j[l4 x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . dlxnfx¿sf] ;fIf/tf b/ k'?ifsf] t'ngfdf

lgs} sd 5 . dlxnfx¿sf] ;dfg'kflts, ;Gt'lnt / ;dGoflos k|ult x'gsf nflu /fHosf ;a}

c+ux¿df ljz]if dxTTj lbO{ ;dfj]zL ljsf; gLlt cg'¿k sfo{qmdx¿ th'{df / sfof{Gjog x'g

cfjZos 5 t/ lghfdtL ;]jf P]gsf] dd{ cg';f/ :ki6 Joj:yf gx'''Fbf ;dfj]zL sf]6fdf ;+e|fGt

ju{sf dlxnfn] dfq cj;/ kfPsf 5g\ eg] ;LdfGtLs[t ljkGg ju{sf JolQmx¿ cj;/af6 jl~rt

ePsf 5g\ . o;n] ;dfj]zL cjwf/0ffsf] d"n dd{ cf]em]ndf k/]sf] 5, nfe c¿n] lnO/x]sf 5g\ .

;/sf/L ;]jfnfO{ ;dfj]zL agfpg] cEof; ;'? ePkl5 s]xL hflt / ;d"xsf nflu

sf]6f lgwf{/0f ug]{ afx]s /fHosf tkm{af6 ;dfj]zLs/0fnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug]{ k|of; ePsf]

5}g . cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf t ul/Psf] 5 t/ To;nfO{ slt ;do lg/Gt/tf lbg] / slt ;dokl5

x/]snfO{ k|lt:kwf{sf nflu ;Ifd agfpg] eGg] gLltut Joj:yfdf Wofg lbOPsf] 5}g . s'g ju{nfO{

;d]6\g s:tf] /0fgLlt agfpg] / To;sf] cfwf/ s] x'g] eGg] ljifodf s'g} cWoog ePsf] 5}g .

;dfj]zLs/0fsf] dfu ug]{x¿n] ;d]t o:tf] ax; rnfPsf 5}gg\ . Ps y/Ldf cf/If0fnfO{ /f]Sg' k5{

eGg] ;f]r xfaL xF'b}5 eg] csf{y/L o;nfO{ cem} a9fpg' k5{ eg]/ nfu]sf 5g\ .

lghfdtL ;]jfdf dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf Go"g /xg'sf sf/0fx¿ lgDg 5g\ –

;dfhdf :yflkt cGwljZjf;, ?9LjfbL / k/Dk/fut dfGotfx¿,•

;]jf k|j]zdf lgikIftf ePtf klg To; kZrft kb:yfkg, ;?jf, a9'jf, tflnd, j}b]lzs •

cWoogsf cj;/df ;dfgtf gx'g',

ef}uf]lns ljs6tf, s]Gb|Ls/0f, ;"rgfsf] cefj / k|f]T;fxgsf] sdL x'g',•

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf lj1fkgx¿ s]Gb|, If]q / c~rn :t/df dfq ;Lldt ePsfn] ;a}sf] •

kx'Fr k'Ug g;Sg',

pRr lzIff cWoogsf nflu egf{ x'g] dlxnfx¿sf] ;+Vof g} Go"g /xg',•

/fHosf] ;+/rgf / /fHo Joj:yf g} s]lGb|s[t ePsf] x'gfn] dlxnfx¿sf] zlQm / ;|f]tdf •


kx'Fr gx'g',

nlIft ;d"xdf ;+rflnt sfo{qmdaf/] ljifout dGqfnosf] lhDd]jf/L gtf]lsg',•

gLlt lgdf{0f txdf pRr hfltsf k'?ifsf] ks8 /x]sf] x'Fbf dlxnfsf ;jfnnfO{ pko'Qm •

tj/n] ;Daf]wg gx'g' .

$= ;d:of ;dfwfgsf pkfox¿

sd{rf/LtGqdf s]xL pRr hft Pjd\ ;'ljwf ;DkGg k'?if hfltsf] afx'Notf /x]sf] 5 . lzIffdf

k/fk"j{ sfnb]lv jl~rt /x]sfn] dlxnfx¿nfO{ pTkfbgzLn hgzlQmsf] ¿kdf ljsf; x'g uf¥xf]

eO/x]sf] 5 . kmn:j¿k dlxnfx¿ /fHoaf6 ;+/lIft pRr hfltsf k'?ifx¿;Fu k|lt:kwf{ ug{ g;Sg]

cj:yfdf k'u]sf 5g\ . ;fy} b]zdf ;'zf;gsf] cefj / e|i6frf/ JofKt ePsfn] dlxnfx¿n] kfpg'

kg]{ clwsf/ / ;]jfx¿sf] oyf]lrt pkef]u ug{ kfPsf 5}gg\ .

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# n] k|Tofe"t u/]sf ljifox¿nfO{ Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf sfof{Gjogdf

Nofpg], n}lËs ljsf; ;"rsf+sdf /x]sf] cGt/ 36fpg sfo{qmdx¿ ;+rfng ug{] / ;LdfGts[t

tyf cfly{s, ;fdflhs / ;f+:s[lts lx;fan] kl5 k/]sf dlxnfx¿sf] klxrfg u/L nlIft sfo{qmd

;+rfng ug]{ sfo{ r'gf}tLk"0f{ /xFb} cfPsf] 5 .

o:tf r'gf}tL Pjd\ ;d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu lgDg pkfo cjnDag ug{‘ cfjZos 5 M

;+ljwfgn] dlxnfx¿sf nflu pNn]v u/]sf] ;+j}wflgs Joj:yfsf] cIf/zM kfngf •

ub}{ hfg],

Pp6} JolQmn] bf]xf]/f] tyf k6s k6s cf/If0fsf] ;'ljwf lng kfpg] ljBdfg k|lqmofdf •

tTsfn ;'wf/ u/L Ps k6s cf/If0fsf] ;'ljwfaf6 ;]jf k|j]z u/]kl5 k'gM cf/If0fsf]

sf]6fdf ;dfj]z x'g gkfpg] Joj:yf nfu" ug]{,

;sf/fTds lje]b / cf/If0f gLltåf/f pk]lIft / alx:s/0fdf k/]sf lnË, If]q / hftLo •

k|ltlglwTjnfO{ ;'lglZrt ug]{,

dlxnfsf] ;Gbe{df g]kfn kIfsf ¿kdf x:tfIf/ u/]sf cGt//fli6«o cle;lGwx¿sf] ;Ddfg •

ug]{ kl/kf6L a;fpg],

/fHosf] plrt k'gM;+/rgfåf/f /fHosf ;a} txdf ;dfg'kflts l;4fGtsf cfwf/df •

k|ltlglwTjsf] kl/kf6L ljsf; ug]{,


lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ ;dfj]zL agfpgsf nflu dlxnfnfO{ nlIft u/L cNksfnLg / bL3{sfnLg •

gLlt tyf /0fgLltx¿ th'{df ug]{,

dlxnf ju{nfO{ cGo ;/x ;Ifd agfpg / lghfdtL ;]jfdf ;xeflutf j[l4 u/fpg ;fdfGo •

k|zf;g dGqfno, nf]s ;]jf cfof]u / u}/ ;/sf/L ;+:yfx¿nfO{ ;dfof]hg ub}{ of]hgfj4

¿kdf sfo{qmd rnfpg],

dlxnfnfO{ gLlt lgdf{0f txdf k'¥ofpgsf nflu lglZrt cjlw;Dd a9'jfdf ;d]t •

cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf ug]{ / j}b]lzs 5fqj[lQ, cWoog tflnd h:tf cj;/x¿df k|fyldstf

lbg],

lghfdtL ;]jfsf nflu sd{rf/L 5gf]6sf] k|lqmof c~rn :t/;Dd ;Lldt ePsf]n] o;nfO{ •

lhNnf :t/;Dd k'¥ofpg],

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf ;"rgfsf] kx'Fr u|fdL0f If]q;Dd k'¥ofpg],•

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] kf7\oqmd tyf k/LIff k|0ffnLdf ;'wf/ u/L •

n}+lusd}qL agfpg],

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] k/LIffsf] tof/Lsf] r/0fdf cfjZos kf7\ok':ts, ;Gbe{ ;fdu|L, ;"rgf •

;'ud :yfgdf dfq kfOg] x'Fbf tof/L vlr{nf] ePsf]n] lhNnf :t/df dlxnfnfO{ lgMz'Ns

tof/L sIffsf ;fy} Go"gtd :6]gz/L ;'ljwf Pjd\ ;"rgfsf] kx'Fr k'¥ofpg],

;a} dGqfnox¿n] :ki6 ;dfj]zLs/0f gLlt tyf ;f] cg'¿ksf] of]hgf, ah]6 / sfo{qmd •

th'{df u/L sfof{Gjog ug]{,

hg;+Vofsf] cg'kftdf dlxnfsf] k|ltlglwTj k'Ug] u/L cf/If0fsf] sf]6f lgwf{/0f ug]{,•

cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf ubf{ xfndf ;a}eGbf sd k|ltlglwTj ePsf nlIft dlxnfnfO{ ;a}eGbf •

a9L / ;a}eGbf a9L ePsfnfO{ sd k|fyldstf lbg] u/L ;+oGq lgdf{0f ug]{,

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] lj1fkg, kf7\oqmd, k/LIff k|0ffnL / ;/sf/L ;]jfdf cf/If0f h:tf •

dxTTjk"0f{ ljifoj:t'sf] ;"rgf ;+rf/ dfWodaf6 ufpFufpFdf k'¥ofpg] / k|To]s lhNnfsf]

;b/d'sfddf k/LIff s]Gb| /fvL dlxnfnfO{ cfsif{0f ug]{,

nlIft ;d'bfosf lghfdtL sd{rf/LnfO{ ;xh / l56f] 9+un] lg0f{o txdf k|ltlglwTj •

u/fpg ljleGg ;]jf ;d"x÷pk;d"x, >]0fL cGtu{tsf a9'jf k|lqmofåf/f k"lt{ ug'{

kg]{ kb÷txsf nflu of]Uotf / cg'ej k'u]sf nlIft dlxnf sd{rf/Lx¿ dWo]af6 kbk"lt{


ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{,

lghfdtL ;]jfsf] dxTTjsf] k|rf/ k|;f/, ;"rgfsf] ;/n kx'Fr, tof/L sIff ;+rfng, •

of]Uotfsf] clej[l4 Pjd\ s]xL ;dosf nflu sf]6f k4lt h:tf pkfox¿ cjnDag u/L

dlxnf cfsif{0f a9fpg],

;dfg ;xeflutfsf nflu PsLs[t / ;zSt bafa ;[hgf ug]{ .•

%= lgisif{

g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf ;Lldt hftsf] afx'Notf /x]sf] eGg] cfjfh pl7/x]sf] ;Gbe{df ;dfj]zL

k|lqmofsf] k|fjwfg sfof{Gjogdf cfof] t/ o;sf] ultzLntf eg] ;':t /x]sf] 5 . Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf

e/v/ sfof{Gjogsf] qmddf kfOnf cufl8 a9fO/x]sf] ;dfj]zL ;xeflutfsf] gLltn] jf:tljs ju{,

;d'bfo, lnË / If]qsf pk]lIft ju{n] cf/If0fsf] l;6df k|j]z gkfO{ To:tf If]qsf ;De|fGt ju{n] dfq

k|j]z kfPdf cf/If0fsf] ;fGble{stfdfly g} k|Zg lrGx v8f ub{5 . o;sf] nflu ;Lldt ;De|fGt

ju{n] dfq kmfObf glnO{ jf:tljs nlIft ju{n] ;dfg cj;/ kfpg' kb{5 . nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf]

kf7\oqmd, k/LIff k|0ffnL / l;kmfl/; k|lqmofdf yk ;'wf/ ug'{ cfjZos 5 .

cf/If0fsf] Joj:yf sfof{Gjog kZrft\ pgLx¿sf] ;xeflutf klxnfsf] eGbf pT;fxhgs 9+un]

a9\bf] qmddf /x]sf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jfk|lt pT;'stf a9]sf] 5 . kl/0ffd :j¿k nf]s ;]jfsf]

kf7\oqmddf ;'wf/ u/L lj1fkg ubf{ b/vf:t lbg]x¿sf] ;+Vof Xjft} a9]sf] 5 . zf;g k|0ffnLdf

;a}sf] kx'Fr, k|ltlglwTj / klxrfg k'¥ofpg xfnsf] c;dfgaLrsf] ;dfg k|lt:kwf{sf] cGTo u/L

;dfgaLr ;dfg k|lt:kwf{df Nofpg] pkfosf ¿kdf cf/If0f Joj:yfnfO{ lnOPsf] 5 . lghfdtL

;]jfdf dlxnfsf] ;xeflutf j[l4 ug{ To; ;d"xleqsf] nlIft ju{ klxrfg u/L pgLx¿df Ifdtf

ljsf; sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug]{, k|f]T;fxgd"ns jftfj/0f tof/ u/L cfsif{0f ug{] Pjd\ ;]jf k|j]z

ug]{ dfgl;stfsf] ljsf; u/fpg] gLlt cjnDag ug'{kb{5 . ;dfj]zLs/0fsf] nflu cf/If0fdfq

pko'Qm ljsNk gePsf]n] cf/If0fsf ;fy;fy} ;zQmLs/0fnfO{ plQs} dxTTj lbO{ cufl8 a9fpg

;s]df dlxnf ;xeflutfdf j[l4 x'g;S5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

cflht, cg'ej -@)^%_, ;dfj]zLs/0f /fhgLlts bn /fHo / ldl8of, sf7df8f+}, dfl6{g rf}tf/L .

bfxfn, l8NnL/fd / e§rg, s[i0f axfb'/ -@)^#_, g]kfndf cf/If0f ;DaGwL ;dfhzf:qLo


b[li6sf]0f ljz]if clwsf/ / cf/If0fsf] /fhgLlt, sf7df8f+}} .

g]kfndf dlxnfsf] /fhg}lts ;zQmLs/0f Pjd\ ;dfj]zLs/0f, ;j]{If0f k|ltj]bg / /fhgLlts

sfo{of]hgf @)^%, eQmk'/, k'ghf{u/0f ;dfh g]kfn .

e§, eLdb]j -@)%(_, sd{rf/L k|zf;g, sf7df8f+}}, >LdtL zzL e§ .

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg -@)^%_, sf7df8f+}}, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

lghfdtL ;]jf P]g @)$( -bf];|f] ;+zf]wg_, @)^$ kf}if, sf7df8f+}, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf

;ldlt .

lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL @)%) -;ftf}+ ;+zf]wg_, @)^$ kf}if, sf7df8f+}, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf

;ldlt .

g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg, @)$&, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

zdf{,clgn /fh, ;dfj]zL lghfdtL ;]jf, g]kfn jif{ $!, c+s ^, k"0ff{Í !*^, h]i7–cfiff9 @)^*,

;"rgf ljefu, sf7df8f+} .

Gof}kfg], gf/fo0f, -@)^(_ g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf cf/If0f Joj:yfn] hghfltsf] ;xeflutfdf

kf/]sf] k|efj M Ps cWoog -ck|sflzt_ .

;dfj]zL lghfdtL ;]jf cWoog tyf sfof{Gjogsf] sfo{bnsf] k|ltj]bg d:of}bf, @)^%, ;fdfGo

k|zf;g dGqfno l;+xb/af/, sf7df8f+} .

Gof}kfg], gf/fo0f, lghfdtL ;]jfdf hghfltsf] ;+nUgtfsf] cj:yf, k|zf;g, jif{ $#, c+s #, k"0ff{Í

!@!, cf;f9 @)^(, sf7df8f+}, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno l;+xb/af/ .

kl08t, k|sfz, @)^%, /fHo Joj:yfdf ;dfj]zLs/0f / o;sf pkfox¿, k|zf;g c+s !!!, k"0ff{Í

@, @)^%, sf7df8f+}}, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

lqkf7L, lzj/fh, g]kfndf n}lÎs ;dfgtfsf] r'gf}tL, :f+efjgf / ;zQmLs/0f, c+s ! k"0ff{Í !!

df3 @)^$, sf7df8f+}}, g]kfn ;/sf/ afnaflnsf tyf ;dfh sNof0f dGqfno .

>]i7, sNkgf, g]kfnsf] lghfdtL ;]jfdf ;dfj]zLs/0f M ;Defjgf tyf r'gf}tLx¿, k|zf;g, c+s

!!*,@)^*, sf7df8f+}}, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

kGt, k'is//fh, nf]s ;]jf cfofu]af6 lj1fkg ePsf kbx¿df Go"g dlxnf l;kmfl/; sf/0f /

;dfwfgsf pkfox¿, lghfdtL ;]jf klqsf, @)^#, sf7df8f}+ nf]s ;]jf cfof]u .

d}gfnL, Zofd k|;fb, cf/If0f / ;sf/fTds lje]b, lghfdtL ;]jf klqsf, sf7df08f}+, nf]s ;]jf


cfof]u .

Gof}kfg], gf/fo0f, cWofb]z c:jLs[tsf] b"/ufdL c;/, uf]/vfkq, dª\l;/ !$, @)^(,

sf7df8f}+ .

g]kfndf ul/aL, g]kfn hLjg:t/ ;j]{If0f t];|f] @)^^÷)^& df cfwfl/t ;+lIfKt k|ltj]bg, c;f]h

@)^*, sf7df8f}+, s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ ljefu .

PSsfO; a'Fb] sfo{qmd @)^), sf7df8f}+, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

zf;sLo ;'wf/ sfo{qmd cGtu{t ul/g] ;'wf/ sfo{qmdsf] dfu{lrq (Road map) @)^),

sf7df8f}+, k}/jL k|sfzg .

k|zf;g ;'wf/ cfof]usf k|ltj]bgx¿, cGt//fli6«o d~r, c;f]h @)%^, sf7df8f}+ .

;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfng_ P]g @)^$ / ;'zf;g -Joj:yfkg tyf ;+rfng_ lgodfjnL

@)^%, sf7df8f}+, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

k|zf;g k'gM;+/rgf cfof]usf] k|ltj]bg, g]kfn ;/sf/, k|zf;g k'gM ;+/rgf cfof]u .

lghfdtL ;]jfdf pTk|]/0ffsf] ljBdfg cj:yf ;j]{If0f cWoog k|ltj]bg @)^*, sf7df8f},

k|wfgdGqL tyf dGqLkl/ifbsf] sfof{no l;+xb/af/ .

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%%, sf7df8f+}, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g lgdfojnL @)%^, sf7df8f}+, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

bzf}+ of]hgf -@)%(–@)^$_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, @)%(, sf7df8f}+, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf]

;lrjfno .

tLg jifL{o cGtl/d of]hgf -@)^$÷^%–@)^^÷)^&_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, dª\l;/, @)^$,

/fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] ;lrjfno .

lqjifL{o of]hgf -@)^&÷)^*–@)^(÷)&)_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, dª\l;/ @)^*, sf7df8f+},

/fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] ;lrjfno .

nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] lqrfln;f}+b]lv lqkGgf} jflif{s k|ltj]bgx¿ -@)%(–@)^(_ sf7df8f}+M nf]s

;]jf cfof]u .

sfoiy, ;De'z/0fk|;fb, lghfdtL ;]jfdf ;dfj]zLs/0fsf] k|efj, lghfdtL ;]jf bk0f{ @)^&,

lghfdtL ;]jf lbj; d"n ;df/f]x ;ldlt, sf7df8f}+, d'b|0f ljefu .

s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ ljefu, g]kfn hLjg:t/ ;j]{If0f @)^^÷)^& ;f/ ;+If]k, sflt{s @)^*, sf7df8f}+,


s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ ljefu .

s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ ljefu, /fli6«o hgu0fgf @)^* sf] glthf, @)^*, sf7df8f}+, s]Gb|Lo tYofÍ

ljefu .

/fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] ;lrjfno, ;x;|fAbL ljsf; nIox¿M l:ylt tyf cfjZostf, cflZjg

@)^*, g]kfn ;/sf/, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u .

xf8f, uDeL/ axfb'/, g]kfndf ;dflhs ;dfj]zLs/0fsf] cfjZostf, k|zf;g, !!^ k"0ff{Í, @)^&

sflt{s, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

s]=;L, ;'/]Gb|, -@)^*_ cflbjf;L÷hghflt, dw]zL, blnt, ckfË / dlxnfx¿sf] jt{dfg cj:yf pTyfg k|of;, /xg;xg, ;d:of ;dfwfg / /xg;xgx¿, lghfdtL ;]jf klqsf, cfiff9 @)^*, sf7df8f}, nf]s ;]jf cfof]u .

af:tf]nf, l8NnL/fd, -@)^*_ g]kfndf lghfdtL ;]jf M ljut / jt{dfg, k|zf;g, $#-@_, !@),

sf7df08f}+, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno .

Gof}kfg], gf/fo0f, lghfdtL P]gdf t];|f] ;+zf]wg, uf]/vfkq, j}zfv $, @)&), sf7df8f}+ .

CBS, 2010, Statistical Pocket Book of Nepal 2010, Kathmandu: Central Bureau of Statistics,.

Ministry of Health and Population (2012), Population and Development Issues in Nepal, Kathmandu: Ministry of Health and Population.

Asian Development Bank (2011), Overview of Gender Equality and Social Inclusion in Nepal.

UNDP/NPC (2010) Millennium Development Goals Needs Assessment for Nepal,

Kathmandu: UNDP, National Planning Commission.www.psc.gov.npwww.moga.gov.npwww.npc.gov.npwww.docpr.gov.npwww.cbs.gov.np


cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^( sf] sfof{Gjog cj:yf

ls/0f hf]zL*

;f/f+zg]kfn ;/sf/n] ljleGg sfg'g, cfjlws of]hgf, gLlt tyf sfo{qmd Pjd\ ;do ;dosf] ah]6 jQmJo dfkm{t cfd gful/snfO{ cTofjZos pkef]Uo j:t' jf ;]jf ;xh, ;'ne / u'0f:t/Lo ¿kdf pknAw u/fpg, cefju|:t, lk5l8Psf, b'u{d / cfsl:ds k|sf]k kLl8t If]qdf pkef]Uo ;fdu|Lsf] aGbf]a:t ldnfpg tyf pTkfbs / pkef]QmfaLr pTkflbt j:t' Pjd\ ;]jfsf] k|jfxnfO{ lglj{£g kfg{ gLltut, sfg'gL / ef}lts k"jf{wf/ lgdf{0f u/L cfjZos ePdf ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿sf] ;d]t ;+rfng u/L cfk"lt{ Joj:YffnfO{ ;''lglZrt, Jojl:yt tyf k|efjsf/L agfpg k|of; ub{} cfPsf] 5 . ljutdf ;/sf/n] v'nf ahf/ tyf pbf/Ls/0fsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub{} cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgnfO{ cufl8 a9fPsf] kfOG5 eg] b]zsf ul/a, lgd'vf, b'u{d tyf ;+s6u|:t If]qsf hgtfnfO{ cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] ;xh pknAwtf tyf kx'Fr a9fpg / hgtfsf] cfwf/e"t cfjZostfnfO{ ;Daf]wg ug{ ;d]t ljleGg k|of; ub{} cfPsf] 5 . ;/sf/n] :j:y / k|lt:kwf{Tds ;fj{hlgs ljt/0f k|0ffnLsf] :yfkgf / vfB ;'/Iffsf] k"0f{ k|Tofe"ltsf] nflu ljz]if s[lif If]qx¿sf] klxrfg tyf k"jf{wf/ ljsf; dfkm{t\ d'n'se/ u'0f:t/o'Qm cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfx¿ ;/n, ;xh, lgoldt / ;j{;'ne 9+un] cfk"lt{ x'g] jftfj/0f l;h{gf u/L pkef]Qmfsf] xs lxtsf] ;+/If0f tyf ;fj{hlgs sNof0fsf] clej[l4 ug{] nIo lnPsf] 5 .

!= k[i7e"ld

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# sf] wf/f !* sf] pkwf/f -#_ n] hgtfsf] vfB ;Dk|e'tfsf] xs ;'lglZrt u/]sf] 5 . ;j{;fwf/0f hgtfnfO{ b}lgs cfjZos kg{] pkef]Uo j:t' tyf ;]jfx¿ lgoldt ¿kdf plrt u'0f:t/ tyf k|lt:kwL{ d"Nodf pknAw u/fpg' /fHosf] bfloTj xf] . /fHon] Psflt/ v'nf / pbf/ cy{tGqsf] efjgf cg's"n k|lt:kwL{ / :j:Yo ahf/ ;+oGq dfkm{t cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkg ug{‘ k/]sf] 5 eg] csf{]lt/ cfly{s ;fdflhs tyf cTofjZos pkef]Uo j:t'df ;xh kx'Fr k'¥ofpg jftfj/0f lgdf{0f ug{‘ k/]sf] 5 .

j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] dfu / cfk"lt{aLrdf cGof]Gofl>t ;DaGw /x]sf] x'G5 . j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] dfu / cfk"lt{aLrsf] ;Gt'ng k|efjsf/L tyf Jojl:yt ug{ ljutdf ePsf k|of; tyf ljBdfg Joj:yfn] ;do ;fk]If ¿kdf ck]lIft k|ltkmn lbg ;s]sf] 5]}g . Psflt/ v'nf / k|lt:kwf{Tds cy{tGqdf cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkg If]q lbgfg'lbg lj:t[t, hl6n / r'gf}tL k"0f{ aGb} uO/x]sf] 5 eg] csf]{lt/ ;du| cfk"lt{ If]qsf] Joj:yfkg, lgodg / k|Zff;gsf] nflu xfn;Dd PsLs[t gLltut Joj:yf gePsf]n] ;dGjofTds 9+un] sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{ sl7gfO{ eO/x]sf] 5 . o;} k[i7e"lddf cGt//fli6«o l;4fGt tyf Jojxf/nfO{ b[li6ut ub{} d'n'ssf] cfk"lt{ k|0ffnL tyf ljBdfg ;+/rgfdf

* zfvf clws[t, ;fdfGo k|zf;g dGqfno Email: [email protected]


;dofg's"n kl/jt{g u/L ljutdf ePsf sdL sdhf]/LnfO{ ;RofpFb} b]z / hgtfsf] ck]Iff cg';f/ ;dli6ut ;fdflhs, cfly{s, Jofj;flos tyf ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|jfxdf ;sf/fTds tyf bLuf] kl/jt{g ug{] clek|fon] cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^( hf/L ul/Psf] lyof] .

@= df}h'bf sfg'gL Joj:yf

;j{;fwf/0f hgtfnfO{ b}lgs cfjZos kg{] pkef]Uo j:t' tyf ;]jfx¿ lgoldt ¿kdf plrt u'0f:t/ / k|lt:kwL{ d"Nodf pknAw u/fpg' /fHosf] bfloTj xf] . h;sf nflu cfjZos ;]jf ;+rfng P]g, @)!$, cfjZos kbfy{ lgoGq0f P]g, @)!&, k]6]G6 l8hfOg / 6«]8dfs{ P]g, @)@@, vfB P]g, @)@#, :6]G88{ gfk / tf}n P]g, @)@%, :yfgLo k|zf;g P]g, @)@* hf/L eO{ sfof{Gjog eO/x]sf 5g\ . To;}u/L sfnf]ahf/ tyf s]xL cGo ;fdflhs ck/fw tyf ;hfo P]g, @)#@, cf}iflw P]g, @)#%, g]kfn u'0f:t/ P]g, @)#&, g]kfn u'0f:t/ k|df0f lrGx P]g, @)#&, sL6gfzs ljiffbL P]g, @)$&, pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f P]g, @)%$ ;d]t /x]sf 5g\ . k|lt:kwf{ k|jw{g tyf ahf/ ;+/If0f P]g, @)^#, k|lt:kwL{ k|jw{g lgodfjnL, @)^^ ;d]t /x]sf 5g\ .

ljut s]xL jif{otf d'n'sdf b]vfkg{ yfn]sf] vfBfGgsf] Go"g cfk"lt{ tyf pRr d"Noj[l4nfO{ ljrf/ u/L b]zdf cTofjZos j:t'sf] cefj x'g glbg] ;/sf/n] s]xL vfBj:t'sf] lgsf;Ldf k|ltaGw nufPsf] 5 . ;fj{hlgs ljt/0f k|0ffnLnfO{ ;'b[9 / Jojl:yt agfpg] p2]Zon] PsLs[t ;]jfs]Gb| ;+rfng lgb{]lzsf, @)^% hf/L ul/Psf] 5 . d'n'se/ u'0f:t/o'Qm cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfx¿ ;/n, ;xh, lgoldt / ;j{;'ne 9+un] cfk"lt{ x'g] jftfj/0f ;[hgf u/L pkef]Qmfsf] xslxtsf] ;+/If0f ug{] lqjifL{o of]hgfsf] bL3{sfnLg ;f]r 5 .

;+:yfut Joj:yf

g]kfn ;/sf/sf] sfo{ ljefhg lgodfjnL cg';f/ cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgsf] lhDd]jf/L jfl0fHo •tyf cfk"lt{ dGqfnonfO{ ;'lDkPsf] 5 .

cfk"[lt{ Joj:yfkg ahf/ cg'udg Pjd\ pkef]Qmf lxt ;+/If0fnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg •jfl0fHo ljefusf] k'gM;+/rgf ug{] k|lqmof ;'? ePsf] 5 .

ljleGg lhNnfx¿df ahf/ cg'udg ug{ ahf/ lg/LIf0f clws[t lgo'lQm ug{] k|s[of yfngL •ePsf] 5 .

vfBfGg cfk"lt{sf nflu vfB ;+:yfg, g'g / lrgL cfk"lt{sf nflu ;fN66«]l8ª cGo vfB tyf cfjZos j:t'sf nflu g]zgn 6«]lgª / k]6«f]lnod kbfy{sf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu g]kfn cfon lgud h:tf ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿ lqmofzLn 5g\ .

#= cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^(

#=!= cfk"lt{ gLlt @)^( sf ljz]iftfx¿

cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] cfk"lt{ Joj:yf ;xhLs/0f ug{ cfjZos k"jf{wf/ tof/ u/L •;fj{hlgs lghL tyf ;xsf/L If]qnfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug{],

vfBfGg cefj x'g] b'u{d If]qx¿df ljkGg ju{x¿nfO{ Wofgdf /fvL vfBfGg tyf cTofjZos •


j:t'sf] cfk"lt{ Joj:yf ;'lglZrt ug{ ;xsf/LnfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug{],

pkef]Uo j:t'sf] s[lqd cefj x'g glbg], cg"lrt d"No lgoGq0f ug{] tyf cfjZostfg';f/ •ahf/ x:tIf]k ug{],

pkef]Qmf lxt ;+/If0f ug{ pkef]Qmfsf k|ltlglwx¿ Pjd\ ;+3 ;+:yfx¿nfO{ klxrfg u/L •hgr]tgf clej[l4, ;"rgf k|0ffnLsf] ljsf;, ;'emfj ;+sng nufotsf k|rf/k|;f/ sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{],

sDtLdf dfWolds tx;Dd pkef]Qmf clwsf/ ;DaGwL kf7\oqmd tof/ u/L nfu" ug{],•cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL cWoog cg';Gwfg sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{],•cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgdf x'g] ahf/ PsfwLsf/, s[lqd cefj, d'gfkmfvf]/L nufotsf cj/f]w •/f]Sg s]Gb|Lo, If]qLo tyf :yfgLo cg'udg ;ldltsf] ;+oGq lgdf{0f u/L To;nfO{ ;lqmo / k|efjsf/L agfpg],

cfk"lt{ Joj:yfdf ;+nUg lghL If]qsf] ;+:yfut ljsf;nfO{ k|f]T;flxt ug{],•;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿sf] ;+nUgtfdf vfBfGg e08f/0f tyf ljt/0fsf] k|efjsf/L Joj:yf •ldnfpg],

b}jL k|sf]k, ljkb\ tyf cfkt\sfnLg cj:yfaf6 k|tfl8t hgtfnfO{ cfjZos j:t' tyf •;]jf pknAw u/fpg ljz]if sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{],

vfBfGgsf] nflu cfjZos aLpljhg tyf dnsf] cfk"lt{nfO{ lglZrt dfkb08 / tf}n •cg'¿k agfpg],

#=@= cfk"lt{ gLltsf] nIo, p2]Zo Pjd\ /0fgLltx¿

o; gLltsf] nIo b]zdf cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jf ;xh, ;'ne / lgoldt ¿kdf plrt u'0f:t/ / d"Nodf cfk"lt{ x'g] Joj:yf ldnfO{ pkef]Qmfsf] xs lxtsf] ;+/If0f ug{] /x]sf] 5 . ;f]sf] nflu b]xfosf p2]Zox¿ lnOPsf] 5 M

u'0f:t/Lo j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] lgoldt / ;j{;'ne ¿kdf ;xh cfk"lt{sf] Joj:yf •ug{ ;fj{hlgs, lghL / ;xsf/L If]qnfO{ k|f]T;flxt u/L k|lt:kwf{Tds t'Nofpg],

pkef]Qmfsf] xs lxt / clwsf/sf] ;+/If0f ug{],•cfk"lt{ x'g] j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] u'0f:t/ sfod ug{] tyf oyfy{k/s nfut d"Nosf] •cfwf/df pkef]Qmf d"No k|0ffnLnfO{ :yflkt u/fpg],

/fli6«o ¿kdf vfB ;'/Iffsf] Joj:yfsf] nflu cfjZos k|aGw ug{],•cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfdf ;xh kx'Fr gk'u]sf, Go"g cfo ePsf ljkGg tyf b'u{d •If]qsf pkef]Qmfsf] ;'ljwf / /fxtsf] nflu PsLs[t cfk"lt{ k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ug{],

j:t' tyf ;]jfdf x'g] sfnf]ahf/L / s[lqd cefj lgoGq0f ug{],•j:t' tyf ;]jfdf x'g] u}/ k|lt:kwf{Tds lqmofsnfknfO{ lgoGq0f ug{] .•

dfly plNnlvt nIo Pjd\ p2]Zx¿nfO{ xfl;n ug{sf] nflu of] cfk"lt{ gLltn] ljleGg /0fgLltx¿nfO{ c+uLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . o; gLltdf ;d]l6Psf k|d'v /0fgLltx¿nfO{ lgDgfg';f/ pNn]v ug{ ;lsG5 M


cfk"lt{ Joj:yfnfO{ r':t, b'?:t / k|efjsf/L agfpg ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfg, lghL If]q, Jofkfl/s •k|lti7fgx¿sf aLr ;dGjo ug{ ;/sf/n] ;xhstf{sf] e"ldsf v]Ng],b}lgs pkef]Uo j:t' tyf ;]jf lglZrt dfkb08, u'0f:t/ tyf k|lt:kwf{Tds d"Nodf ;j{;'ne •tl/sfn] pknAw x'g] ;+oGq ldnfpg],cfk"lt{ Joj:yfnfO{ lgoldt, ;j{;'ne / e/kbf{] agfpg c:jfefljs cj:yfdf ahf/ •x:tIf]k u/L ;j{;fwf/0fsf] lxt ;+/If0f ug{],lghL If]qsf] ;xeflutfdf j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] cfk"lt{sf nflu k"jf{wf/ ljsf; ug{],•s[lif pTkfbgdf lap lahg / dnsf] dfkb08 / u'0f:t/sf] nflu s[lif ljsf; dGqfno •nufot o; If]qsf ;Da4 cg';Gwfg s]Gb|x¿;Fu ;dGjo / ;xsfo{ ug{],pkef]Qmf xslxt ;+/If0fsf nflu JolQm / ;+3;+:yfnfO{ ;lqmo agfpg] / ;"rgf tyf •r]tgfd"ns sfo{qmd ;+rfng ug{],;8s oftfoftdf kx'Fr k'u]sf If]qsf] cfk"lt{df lbFb} cfPsf] 9'jfgL cg'bfg 36fpFb} n}hfg],•ljs6 pRr kxf8L tyf b'u{d If]qdf ;xsf/L dfkm{t\ cfk"lt{df ;xof]u k'Ug] vfBfGgjfnL •ljsf; sfo{qmd nfu" ug{ ;/f]sf/jfnf kIf;Fu ;dGjo / ;xsfo{ ug{],PsLs[t cfk"lt{ Joj:yf nfu" u/L ;/sf/L ;+:yfgx¿af6 ljt/0f x'g] j:t' tyf ;]jfx¿ •cfk"lt{ ug{] sfo{sf nflu /f;g sf8{sf] Joj:yf ug]{,pkef]Qmf xs lxtdf ;+nUg s]Gb|Lo, If]qLo, lhNnf tyf :yfgLo cg'udg ;ldltnfO{ •;fwg;|f]t ;lxt ;lqmo agfpg],pkef]Qmf lxt ;+/If0fsf] nflu pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f sf]ifsf] Joj:yf ug{],•cTofjZos vfBfGg h:t} rfdn, bfn, t]n, g"g / k]6«f]lnod kbfy{sf] e08f/0fsf] Joj:yf •sDtLdf klg # dlxgf;Ddsf] nflu wfGg ;Sg] u/L ug{],pkef]Qmf ;r]tgfsf nflu dfWolds txb]lv g} pkef]Qmf lzIffsf] Joj:yf ldnfpg],•pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f P]g, @)%$ nfO{ ;+zf]wg u/L ;d;fdlos agfpg],•cfjZos pkef]Uo j:t' tyf ;]jf / lgdf{0f ;fdu|Lx¿sf] cfk"lt{ ;j{;'ne Pjd\ lgoldt •agfpg pTkfbg, cfoft lgof{t / laqmL d"No ;DaGwL ;"rgf k|jfx ug{] k|0ffnLsf] ljsf; ug]{ .

$= jt{dfg l:ylt

cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgsf] nflu ljutdf ul/Psf ljleGg sfg'gL tyf ;+:yfut k|of;x¿sf] afah'b klg b]zdf cfk"lt{sf] ;Ifd, ;'ne tyf k|efjsf/L Joj:yfn] ck]lIft k|ult xfl;n ug{ g;s]sf] oyfy{ ljBdfg 5 . b]zsf] x/]s If]qdf cfd pkef]Qmfsf] nflu cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] cfk"lt{ kof{Kt, ;/n, u'0f:t/Lo / Jojl:yt x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . oBlk b'u{d If]qsf hgtfnfO{ ;dodf g} kof{Kt / ;xh tl/sfn] vfBj:t', :jf:Yo ;]jf, OGwg, UofF; nufotsf cfwf/e"t cfjZostfsf] kl/k"lt{ ug{ /fHon] 7"nf] ldlxg]t ul//x]sf] cj:yf 5 . Psflt/ j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] cfk"lt{sf] nflu g]kfn afx\o b]zaf6 x'g] cfoftdf lge{/ /x]sf] 5 eg] csf{]lt/ b]zleq 9'jfgLsf] ;xh kxF'r g/x]sf] cj:yf 5 . o;n] ubf{ cfk"lt{ Joj:yf ;j{;'ne / k|efjsf/L x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgsf] d]?b08 tyf d'Vo cfofdsf] ¿kdf /x]sf] ;fj{hlgs lghL


;fem]bf/Lsf] ;+oGq, pkef]Qmf cg'udg, vfB ;'/Iff, ;+:Yffg ;'wf/ tyf ahf/ Joj:yfkg;Fu ;DalGwt sfg'gx¿aLr pko'Qm gLltut, ;+:yfut / sfo{ut tfbTDo tyf ;dGjosf] cefj b]lvG5 . kmn:j¿k /fHon] xfn;Dd c+uLsf/ ub{} cfPsf] cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgsf ;/f]sf/jfnf lgsfox¿aLr ;Defljt cgfjZos åGåsf] cj:yf tyf kof{Kt ;dGjo / bfloTj af]w gx'Fbf /fHo / hgtfn] Go"gtd k|ltkmn klg k|fKt ug{ g;ls/x]sf] cj:yf 5 . clxn] wgL / ul/aaLr cfo tyf hLjg:t/sf] b"/L Hofb} km/flsnf] ePsf]n] ul/a, lgd'vf tyf Go"g cfo ePsf hgtf cTolws dsf{df k/]sf] l:ylt 5 . /fHon] cfk"lt{;Fu k|ToIf ;/f]sf/ /fVg] df}lns xs / /fHosf lgb{]zs l;4fGt tyf gLltx¿nfO{ ;d]t Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf c+uLsf/ ub{} hfg] ;Gbe{df cfk"lt{ Joj:yfkgsf] ljBdfg ;+oGq / k|0ffnLdf ;dofg's"n kl/jt{g ug{ cfjZos x'g cfPsf] 5 .

%= ;d:of tyf r'gf}tL

ljutdf cfk"lt{ Joj:yfsf nflu u7g ul/Psf ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿sf] Joj:yfkg sdhf]/ tyf x|f;f]Gd'v x'g', jt{dfg cj:yfdf cfd gful/sx¿sf] a9\bf] rfxgf, clwsf/k|ltsf] a9\bf] r]tgf / b]zsf] /fhg}lts kl/jt{gn] NofPsf] ;fdflhs tyf dfgjLo ljsf;sf] kl/jt{g, b]zdf lau|Fbf] cf}Bf]lus ;DaGw, ;/sf/ pBf]uL aLrsf] åGå, c:jfefljs ¿kdf a9\bf] dxFuL, sfnfahf/L, sf6{]lnªh:tf lau|Fbf] cfly{s sf/s tTTjx¿ cfk"lt{ Joj:yfsf ;d:of / r'gf}tLsf ¿kdf /x]sf 5g\ . h;nfO{ a'Fbfut ¿kdf lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ug{ ;lsG5 M–

ljz]ifu/L cfk"lt{ Joj:yfsf ;Gbe{df cTofjZos j:t'sf] dfusf] k|If]k0f • (Demand Projection) x''g g;Sg',

vfBfGg, lrgL, k]6«f]lnod kbfy{ h:tf j:t' cfjZos kl/df0fdf hu]8f /fVg g;Sg',•cTofjZos j:t'sf] pTkfbg, cfoft tyf hu]8fsf] af/]df oyfy{k/s ;"rgfsf] sdL •x'g',

b'u{d lhNnfx¿sf] k'gMjuL{s/0f x'g g;sL ;'ljwfhgs / clt b'u{d 7fpFdf ;d]t •cfk"lt{df Ps} lsl;dsf] cj:yf sfod /xg',

cfk"lt{ ul/g] j:t'sf] d"No, u'0f:t/ / tf}nsf] k|efjsf/L cg'udg x'g g;Sg',•cfk"lt{ ul/g] j:t'x¿sf] nfut • (Cost) cg'udg x'g g;Sg',

cfk"lt{;Fu ;DalGwt ;+:yfgx¿sf] lz/f]ef/ nfut • (Overhead cost) a9L x'g' tyf PsLs[t cfk"lt{ Joj:yfsf] sdLn] ubf{ ;+:yfgx¿n] ug{] 9'jfgL nfut a9\g',

cfk"lt{ sfo{qmddf blnt, pTkLl8t, ljkGg tyf cGo nlIft ju{sf] klxrfg tyf ls6fg •gx'gfn] /fHon] k'¥ofpg] ;]jf nlIft ju{df k'Ug g;Sbf ;b'kof]u x'g g;Sg',

cfk"lt{ Joj:Yffkgdf :yfgLo lgsfo, :yfgLo k|zf;g, ;]jfu|fxL tyf :yfgLo pkef]Qmf •;d"xsf] plrt kl/rfng x'g g;sg',

cTofjZos j:t'x¿sf] Go"gtd df}Hbft kl/df0f tf]s]/ To;sf] nflu ah]6sf] oyf]lrt •Joj:yf x'g g;Sg' .


sf/0fx¿

ef}uf}lns ljs6tfsf sf/0f j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] pknAwtf ljt/0f tyf 9'jfgLdf •sl7gfO{,

cfk"lt{ ;DaGwL 7f]; tyf PsLs[t sfg'g, ;+:yfut Joj:yf / >f]t ;fwgsf] cefj, •cfk"lt{sf nflu u7g ul/Psf ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfgx¿sf] Joj:yfksLo sdhf]/L,•c:jfefljs ¿kdf a9\bf] dx+uL, sfnfahf/L / sf6{]lnª,•k|efjsf/L cg'udg, d"Nof+sg / lgodgsf] cefj .•sfnfahf/L, PsfwLsf/ k|0ffnL -l;lG8s]8_ ldn]dtf]k"0f{ efp lgwf{/0f, sf6{«]lnª tyf •ahf/ k|j]zdf cj/f]w l;h{gf,

^= ;d:of ;dfwfgsf pkfox¿

gLltut ;'wf/

cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^( sf] k"0f{ sfof{Gjog ug{],•pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f P]g, @)%$ / lgodfjnL, @)%^ df cfjZos ;+zf]wg u/L k|efjsf/L •sfof{Gjogsf] Joj:yf ldnfpg],

cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jf ;+rfngdf ;+nUg lgsfo / pkef]Qmf ;+:yfx¿sf] nflu •cfrf/ ;+lxtf th'{df ul/ sfof{Gjog ug{],

k]6«f]lnod kbfy{sf] sf/f]jf/df lghL If]qnfO{ ;+nUg u/fpg] P]g lgdf{0f ug{] .•

;+:yfut ;'wf/

g]kfn vfB ;+:yfgnfO{ Jofj;flos lx;fan] ;+rfng u/L cfTdlge{/ agfpg],•g]]kfn cfon lgudnfO{ a9L :jfoQtf k|bfg u/L cGt//fli6«o ahf/sf] k/n d"Nosf] •cfwf/df d"No ;dfof]hg ug{] clwsf/ lbg],

k]6«f]lnod af]8{sf] :yfkgf ug{],•PsLs[t ;]jfs]Gb|sf] :yfkgf / ;+rfngdf hf]8 lbg],•cGt/dGqfno ;dGjo ;'b[9Ls/0f ug{] -jfl0fHo tyf cfk"lt{, s[lif, ;xsf/L tyf ul/jL •lgjf/0f, ;+3Lo dfldnf tyf :yfgLo ljsf; / u[x dGqfno_ .

lgisif{

s'g} klg ;/sf/sf] k|d'v bfloTj eg]sf] cfkm\gf gful/snfO{ cTofjZos j:t' tyf ;]jf ;xh, ;'ne / plrt d"Nodf tyf lglZrt u'0f:t/df g36\g] u/L pkef]u ug{;Sg] jftfj/0f lgdf{0f ug'{‘ xf] . g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# n] lzIff, :jf:Yo, cfjf;, /f]huf/L / vfB ;Dk|'etfdf ;a} gful/ssf] clwsf/ :yflkt ug{] ljifonfO{ /fHosf] bfloTjsf] ¿kdf cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] 5 . ;f] cg';f/ xfnsf] v'nf ahf/df b]lvPsf ljleGg k|sf/sf ljs[lt / ljrngnfO{ lgoGq0f ub{} pkef]QmfnfO{ x'g;Sg] ;Defljt xflg gf]S;fgL / 7uLaf6 hf]ufpg' klg bfloTj xf] . x'g klg /fHosf] ;+qmd0fsfnLg cj:yf / ;/sf/sf] sdhf]/ pkl:yltsf] gfhfoh kmfObf p7fP/ clxn] ahf/df ljleGg k|sf/sf


ljs[ltx¿ h:t}M j:t' tyf ;]jfsf] s[lqd cefj, sfnf]ahf/L, rqm tyf Psflwsf/ k|0ffnL -l;lG8s]6_, ldn]dtf]k"0f{ efp lgwf{/0f -sf6{]lnª_ tyf :jtGq ¿kdf ahf/ k|j]zdf :jtGq / ;xh cfk"lt{ x'g gkfO{ hyfefjL d"No j[l4 ug{], vfB tyf k]o kbfy{df ld;fj6 ug{], u'0f:t/xLg j:t'sf] laqmL ljt/0f ug{] / cf}iflw, vfBfGgh:tf cTofjZos j:t'sf] ;xh / lg/Gt/ cfk"lt{df Jojwfg pTkGg ug{] h:tf k|j[lQ df}nfpFb} 5g\ . o:tf ljs[ltnfO{ lgoGq0f u/L cfd gful/ssf] j:t' / ;]jfsf] k|flKtdf kxF'r j[l4 ug{ c:j:y ahf/ ultljlwnfO{ lg?T;flxt u/L pkef]Qmfsf] xs clwsf/sf] ;+/If0fsf nflu ;d;fdlos 7f]; gLltsf] cfjZostf dx;'; eO{ cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^( hf/L ul/Psf] xf] . o; gLltnfO{ cfufdL lbgdf ;/sf/n] lghL If]q tyf gful/s ;dfhnfO{ ;d]t ljZjf;df lnP/ kof{Kt ;fwg;|f]t ljlgof]hg u/L pko'Qm sfg'gL Joj:yf ldnfO{ cIf/zM sfof{Gjog ug{]tkm{ tbf?stf b]vfpg' cfjZos 5 . pk/f]Qm sfo{x¿ ug{ ;s]df dfq cfk"lt{ gLlt ;f/jfg\ gLltsf] ¿kdf :yflkt eO{ lgwf{l/t nIo / p2]Zo k|fKt ug{ ;lsg] 5 .

;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg,@)^#, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .•

lqjifL{o of]hgf -@)^&÷^*—^(÷&)_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]usf] ;lrjfno .•

cfk"lt{ gLlt, @)^(, jfl0fHo tyf cfk"lt{ dGqfno .•

pkef]Qmf lxt k'l:tsf, @)^&, jfl0fHo ljefu .•

pkef]Qmf ;+/If0f P]g, @)%$ / lgodfjnL, @)%^, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .•


z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f cjwf/0ffM ;d:of / ;'wf/sf kIfx¿

;/:jtL u'/fufO{+*

;f/f+z

ljs]Gb|Ls/0f s]Gb|sf] ljsNk / k|lt:kwL{ geO{ kl/k'/s xf] . of] k|hftflGqs zf;g k4ltsf] cleGg c+u ;d]t xf] . of] /fHosf] s]Gb|Lo txaf6 :yfgLo txdf clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L, zlQm, ;|f]t ;fwg / pQ/bfloTj :yfgfGt/0f ug]{ k|lqmof xf] . o;n] hg;xeflutf kl/rfng ug{, :yfgLo hgtfsf] ;zQmLs/0f ug{ tyf pQ/bfloTj / hjfkmb]lxtf jxg ug{ ;xof]u k'¥ofpF5 . To:t} o;af6 ;fwg ;|f]tsf] kl/rfng / ;]jf k|jfxdf k|efjsfl/tf Nofpg ;d]t ;xof]u k'Ub5 . o;n] s]Gb| / :yfgLo txsf] cfk;L ;xof]u / ;dGjoaf6 zf;g k|lqmof ;~rfng ug'{‘‘kg]{df hf]8 lbG5 . o; cjwf/0ffn] :yfgLo txdf ;fj{ef}d hgtfsf] clwsf/ :yflkt x'g'k5{ eGg] dfGotf /fVb5 . ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf ljleGg k|sf/ dWo] z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f klg Ps xf] . :yfgLo ;d'bfox¿ ljBfnok|lt pQ/bfoL eO{ lg0f{o k|lqmofdf ;xefuL x'g kfpg] u/L clwsf/sf] lgIf]k0f (Devolution) u/L z}lIfs u'0f:t/ clej[l4 ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] cjwf/0ff z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] xf] . ljs]Gb|Ls[t z}lIfs Joj:yfkgdf ljBfnosf] z}lIfs of]hgf lgdf{0f, ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] kl/rfng ug]{ sfo{ :yfgLo ;d'bfonfO{ g} x:tfGt/0f ul/Psf] x'G5 . z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ z}lIfs ;+:yfx¿sf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu clwsf/ lbP/ ul/g] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f / z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu :yfgLo :t/sf] Ifdtf ljsf; u/]/ ul/g] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f u/L ljefhg u/]/ cWoog ug{ ;lsG5 . k|:t't n]vdf z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] cjwf/0ff tyf kl/efiff, o;sf] If]q Pjd\ k|sf/, cfjZostf / cf}lrTo, pkfud, xfnsf] cj:yf, ;d:of / ;dfwfgsf ;'emfjx¿ pNn]v ub}{ lgisif{ ;d]t ;d]l6Psf] 5 .

!= cjwf/0ff

ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ ;'zf;g k|jw{g, k|zf;lgs, /fhg}lts, ;fdflhs, cfly{s / ljsf; lgdf{0fsf sfo{ ;~rfng ug]{ k|lqmof, hg;xeflutf clej[l4 ug]{ /0fgLlt / hg;zQmLs/0f ug]{ k|d'v dfWodsf] ¿kdf :jLsf/ ul/Psf] 5 . /fHosf] cfw'lgs l;4fGt cg';f/ /fHon] gful/s ;dIf k'¥ofpg' kg]{ ;]jf, ;'ljwf tyf ug'{kg]{ ;Dk"0f{ sfo{x¿ s]Gb| ;/sf/n] dfq ug'{ c;Dej / cg'ko'Qm ePsf]n] :yfgLo txdf hxfF h] h:tf ;d:of / cj;/x¿ 5g\ ;f]sf] klxrfg u/L ToxLFsf hgtfnfO{ ;+:yfut ¿kdf ;+ul7t u/fP/ ;xeflutfTds tj/n]df ;dfwfg ug'{ pko'Qm dflgG5 . o;} cg'¿k /fHo ;~rfng tyf hgtfnfO{ ;]jf ;'ljwf k'¥ofpg s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/af6 dfq ;xh gx'g] tyf u'0ffTds k4ltsf cfwf/df sfd ug]{ l;4fGt (Principle of Subsidiarity) sf] cjnDag u/L zlQm ljs]Gb|Ls/0f ug]{ k|rng ljleGg k|hftflGqs Pjd\ nf]ssNof0fsf/L /fHodf ljBdfg /x]sf] kfOG5 .

* zfvf clws[t, ljBfno lzIfs lstfavfgf Email: [email protected]


g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# n] ;+3Lo zf;g k|0ffnL cjnDag ub}{ d'n'ssf] zf;g Joj:yfdf hgtfsf] a9LeGbf a9L ;xeflutf k|jw{g ug{, hgtfnfO{ :yfgLo :t/df g} ;]jf ;'ljwf pknAw u/fpg / nf]stGqsf] :yfgLo :t/b]lv g} ;+:yfut ljsf; ug{ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f tyf clwsf/ lgIf]k0fdf cfwfl/t :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g ;DaGwL Joj:yf :jLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . :yfgLo lgsfosf] Ifdtf clej[l4, ;|f]tsf] ljlgof]hg / kl/rfng tyf ljsf;sf] k|ltkmnsf] ljt/0fnfO{ ;Gt'lnt, Gofof]lrt Pjd\ ;dtfd'vL agfO{ :yfgLo :t/sf of]hgfsf] klxrfg, th'{df / sfof{Gjogdf ;DalGwt :yfgLo lgsfonfO{ g} kl/rfng ug{' h?/L x'G5 .

@= ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] kl/efiff

ljs]GbLs/0f k|hftflGqs zf;g k4ltsf] cleGg c+u xf] . of] Pp6f ljlw Pjd\ k|lqmof xf] h;sf] dfWodaf6 s]Gb|df lglxt /fhgLlts, ljQLo, k|zf;lgs clwsf/x¿ :yfgLo lgsfox¿nfO{ x:tfGt/0f ug]{ ul/G5 . ljs]Gb|Ls/0f of]hgf lg0f{o, ;]jf ;'ljwfsf] k|jfx / Joj:yfkg;Fu ;DalGwt clwsf/, ;|f]t;fwg, lhDd]jf/L tyf pQ/bfloTj s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/ tyf cGtu{tsf lgsfoaf6 :yfgLo lgsfo jf tNnf txsf ;/sf/L lgsfo, cw{–:jfoQ ;fj{hlgs ;+:yfg, u}/;/sf/L ;+:yf tyf lghL If]qnfO{ k|Tof]hg ug'{;Fu ;DalGwt 5 . of] s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/sf] ljsNk xf]Og g t k|lt:kwL{ g} xf] . of] s]Gb| / :yfgLo txaLr cfk;L ;xof]ufTds k4ltsf] cfwf/df sfd ug]{ cjwf/0ff xf] .

ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ kl/eflift ug]{ qmddf n]vs Lord Bryce n] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f k|hftGqsf] c;n kf7zfnf xf], o;sf] ;kmntf g} :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;gsf] cEof; xf] eg]sf 5g\ . Eannis S. Rondinelli n] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eg]sf] s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/ / o;sf Ph]G;Lx¿af6 If]qLo ;+u7gx¿, ;xfos ;/sf/L lgsfox¿, cw{ :jfoQ ;/sf/L ;+:yfg, If]qLo Pjd\ lglZrt ef}uf]lns lgsfox¿ sfo{;~rfng lgsfox¿ tyf u}/;/sf/L ;+:yfx¿nfO{ of]hgf th'{df ug]{ lg0f{o tyf Joj:yfkgsf] clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg u/L x:tfGt/0f ug'{ xf] eg]sf 5g\ . g]kfnL j[xt\ zAbsf]zsf cg';f/ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f æzf;gsf] zlQm jf ;Qf s]Gb|Lo :t/df dfq ;Lldt g/fvL c~rn, lhNnf / ufpF tx;Dd k|Tofof]hg ug]{ sfd jf :yfgLo ;d:ofx¿ ;'NemfO{ ;d"lrt ¿kdf k|zf;g rnfpg ;lsof];\ eGg] p2]Zon] x'g] ;/sf/ ljifos sfo{ tyf pQ/bfloTjsf] :yfgLo ;/sf/df ljefhg xf] .Æ

ljs]Gb|Ls/0f s]Gb|sf] ljsNk tyf k|lt:kwL{ xf]Og, kl/k"/s xf] . o;n] cfk;L ;xof]ufTds k4ltdf sfd ug]{ l;4fGt (Principle of Subsidiarity) df cfwfl/t eO{ sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug]{ x'Fbf zf;gsf] cjlzi6 l;4fGt / Jojxf/ adf]lhd clwsf/ lgIf]k0f ug'{k5{ eGg] s'/fdf cfd ;xdltsf] jftfj/0f aGb} uPsf] 5 . t;y{ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eg]sf] ;du| zf;sLo k4ltsf] Pp6f kIf xf] hxfF s]Gb| ;/sf/df /x]sf] sfd, clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTj :yfgLo txdf x:tfGt/0f ul/G5 . pQ/bfloTj (Accountability), ;xeflutf (Participation), ckgTj (Ownership), /fhg}lts b[li6sf]0f (Strategic vision) / lbuf]kgf (Sustainability) ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf ljz]iftf x'g\ .


#= ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] qmd tyf k|sf/

ljleGg ljåfg\x¿sf egfOsf cfwf/df ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] qmdnfO{ b]xfo adf]lhd juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 M

!= k|Tofof]hg (Delegation),

@= 5/f]6 (Deconcentration),

#= lgIf]k0f (Devolution),

$= ljs]Gb|Ls/0f÷lghLs/0f (Decentralization and Privatization)

o; ljefhgsf cfwf/df s]Gb|df /x]sf] z}lIfs clwsf/sf] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f d"ntM $ txdf ul/G5 .

!= klxnf] tx– clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg (Delegation) : of] pRr Joj:yfksx¿af6 cfkm"nfO{ k|fKt clwsf/x¿ dWo] s]xL clwsf/ dftxtsf kbflwsf/LnfO{ ;'Dkg] sfo{ xf] .

@= bf];|f] tx – clwsf/sf] :yfgfGt/0f (Deconcentration) : of] s]Gb|n] cfˆgf zfvf, k|zfvf / s]xL xb;Dd :yfgLo txsf sfof{no, OsfO jf lgsfox¿nfO{ lg0f{o ug]{ clwsf/ lbg' xf] .

#= t];|f] tx – clwsf/ lgIf]k0f (Devolution) : of] s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/n] :yfgLo lgsfox¿nfO{ lg0f{o, lgoGq0f / Joj:yfkgsf] If]qdf sfg'gL ¿kn] :joQtf k|Tofe"t u/fpg] u/L clwsf/ / lhDd]jf/L ;'Dkg] sfo{ xf] .

$+ rf}yf] tx– ljs]Gb|Ls/0f÷lghLs/0f (Decentralization and Privatization) M of] ;]jf tyf ;'ljwfx¿ k|efjsf/L Pjd\ k|lt:kwf{Tds 9Ën] k'¥ofpg j:t' / ;]jfsf] pTkfbg, ljt/0f tyf lgoGq0f h:tf sfo{df ;/sf/L bfloTj Go"g ub}{ lghL If]qn] cxd\ e"ldsf v]Ng kfpg] / ;]jfsf] u'0f:t/ lgwf{/0f, lgoldt cg'udg / tf]lsPsf] ;]jf k'¥ofpg] sfd s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/ jf :yfgLo lgsfon] ug]{ u/L sfg'gåf/f clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L / hjfkmb]lxtf lgwf{/0f ug]{ k|lqmof xf] .

ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] ljefhgsf] ;Gbe{df ;DalGwt If]qsf lj4fg\x¿ aLrdf dt}So /x]sf] kfOFb}g . s'g} lj4fg\n] o;nfO{ /fhg}lts ljs]Gb|Ls/0f, k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f, ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0f / ahf/d'vL ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eg]/ ljefhg u/]sf 5g\ . s;}n] o;nfO{ :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;gsf] kof{osf ¿kdf t s;}n] :yfgLo :jzf;gsf] dfWodsf] ¿kdf dfg]sf 5g\ . lj4fg\x¿n] o;nfO{ h]–h;/L ljefhg u/] klg Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf x]g]{ xf] eg] clwsf/sf] ljefhg / :yfgfGt/0f g} ljs]Gb|Ls/0f xf] eGg] dfGotf :yflkt ePsf] kfOG5 . ;fdfGotof ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ b]xfo cg';f/ juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsG5 M

-s_ /fhg}lts ljs]Gb|Ls/0f M :yfgLo hgtf jf pgLx¿åf/f lgjf{lrt hgk|ltlglwx¿nfO{ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g / ;]jfsf] Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL ljifox¿df lg0f{o ug]{ :jfoQtf / clwsf/ k|bfg ug'{nfO{ /fhgLlts ljs]Gb|Ls/0f elgG5 . clwsf/sf] lgIf]k0fnfO{ /fhg}lts ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] dxTTjk"0f{ cjwf/0ffsf] ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . lgIf]k0f k|lqmofn] ;]jf k|bfosx¿ ;]jfu|fxLk|lt hjfkmb]xL x'g'kg]{


l:yltsf] l;h{gf ub}{ :yfgLo :t/df ljsf; lgdf{0f / ;]jf k|jfxdf ;/f]sf/jfnfsf] :jfldTj, ;dtf, kf/blz{tf, pQ/bfloTj af]w h:tf cfwf/e"t tTTjx¿nfO{ ;'lglZrt ul/Psf] x'G5 . :yfgLo :t/sf cfjZostfsf] klxrfg, hgkIfLo lg0f{o / sfof{Gjog, hg;xeflutfsf] ;'lglZrttf, ;|f]t;fwgsf] Joj:yfkg h:tf kIfx¿df gful/s :jod\ jf lghsf k|ltlglwsf] ;xeflutf / lg0f{o ug]{ k4ltn] hgtfsf cfjZostfnfO{ a9L dfqfdf lrgfpg ;S5 . /fhgLlts ljs]Gb|Ls/0f cGtu{t ;fwg;|f]t kl/rfng, /fh:j ;+sng, ;]jf k|jfx, zf;g–k|zf;g ;~rfng, ljsf; lgdf{0f Pjd\ ljsf; lgdf{0f ug{ kfpg] clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTj lgIf]k0f ul/Psf] x''G5 .

-v_ k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f M k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fn] ljleGg txdf sfo{/t lgsfox¿df ;fj{hlgs ;]jf k|bfg ug{sf nflu cfjZos kg]{ ;fwg;|f]t, lhDd]jf/Lsf] ljt/0f ug]{ k|lqmofnfO{ hgfpF5 . h; cGtu{t :yfgLo lgsfosf] k|zf;lgs k|lqmofsf] Joj:yfkg s]Gb|Lo lgsfoaf6 geO{ :yfgLo lgsfo s} ;+/rgf tyf hgzlQm dfkm{t\ ul/G5 . :yfgLo txsf lgsfox¿nfO{ /fhgLlts / ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] dfWodaf6 k|fKt x'g] sfd, st{Jo, clwsf/ / lhDd]jf/L s'zntfk"j{s ;Dkfbg ug{ Ifdtfjfg\ agfpg] s'/fdf k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fn] hf]8 lbG5 . k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f cGtu{t b'O{ j6f cjwf/0ff – clwsf/sf] :yfgfGt/0f / clwsf/ k|Tofof]hg /x]sf 5g\ .

-u_ ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0f M ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eGgfn] sfg'gtM ul7t :yfgLo lgsfonfO{ lgIf]lkt sfd, st{Jo, clwsf/ / lhDd]jf/L lgjf{x ug{ cfjZos ljQLo lg0f{o ug]{ zlQm, clwsf/ / Joj:yfksLo lhDd]jf/L k|bfg ug'{ xf] . ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0fn] /fh:j cfh{g ug]{ :jfoQtf / kof{Kttf, vr{ ug]{ :jfoQtf / C0f lng] clwsf/ h:tf cfly{s Pjd\ ljQLo Joj:yfkgsf ;f/e"t tTTjx¿nfO{ ;'lglZrt ub{5 . ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0f cGtu{t sfo{ lhDd]jf/L / nfut cg'dfg, /fhZj lhDd]jf/L, cGt/lgsfo ljQLo :yfgfGt/0f / C0f lng] Joj:yf h:tf cfwf/:tDe /x]sf 5g\ .

-3_ ahf/ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f M P]gåf/f g} lghL If]q / ;fj{hlgs If]qsf] e"ldsfnfO{ :ki6 ¿kdf kl/eflift u/L lghL If]q, u}/;/sf/L ;+:yf / gful/s ;dfhn] ;kmntfk"j{s ;DkGg ug{ ;Sg] sfo{x¿ pQm lgsfonfO{ x:tfGt/0f ug'{ ahf/ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f xf] . h; cGtu{t ;/sf/sf k/Dk/fut sfdx¿ h:t} /fli6«o ;'/Iff, afx\o ;DaGw, Gofo ;Dkfbg, /fli6««o cv08tfsf] ;+/If0f / lghL If]q ;+nUg gx'g] t/ ;fj{hlgs lxt k|jw{g gu/L gx'g] sfo{x¿, k'glj{t/0fLo d"Nosf lx;fan] k|bfg ul/g] cTofjZos ;]jf / lqmofsnfksf sf/0f lghL If]qn] s'zntfk"j{s ;Dkfbg ug{ g;Sg] sfo{x¿ afx]s cGo ljsf; lgdf{0f tyf ;]jf k|jfx ;DaGwL sfo{ lghL If]q dfkm{t\ ug'{kg]{ dfGotf /flvG5 / j:t' tyf ;]jf ;'ljwfx¿ k|bfg ug]{ lhDd]jf/L lghL tyf ;fd'bflos If]qdf x:tfGt/0f ul/G5 .

-ª_ z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f M :yfgLo ;d'bfox¿ ljBfnok|lt pQ/bfoL eO{ lg0f{o k|lqmofdf ;xefuL x'g kfpg] u/L clwsf/sf] lgIf]k0f (Devolution) u/L To;sf] dfWodaf6 z}lIfs u'0f:t/ clej[l4 ug'{‘k5{ eGg] cjwf/0ff g} z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f xf] . ljs]Gb|Ls[t z}lIfs Joj:yfkgdf ljBfnosf] z}lIfs of]hgf lgdf{0f, ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] kl/rfng ug]{ sfo{ :yfgLo ;d'bfonfO{ g} x:tfGtl/t ul/Psf] x'G5 . lagfe]befj ;a} afnaflnsfsf] lgldQ cg's"n d}qLk"0f{ z}lIfs jftfj/0f l;h{gf u/L


;'wfl/Psf] k7gkf7g k|lqmof ;~rfng ug'{ g} o;sf] nIo xf] .

;fdfGo cy{df z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eGgfn] ljBfno lzIffsf] ;Dk"0f{ clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L / bfloTj ;d'bfodf lgIf]k0f (Devolution) cyf{t\ x:tfGt/0f ug'{ xf] . lj:t[t cy{df eGg'kbf{ s]Gb|Lo lgsfo tyf kbflwsf/Lx¿af6 k|of]udf cfO/x]sf z}lIfs k|zf;g ;DaGwL k|zf;lgs tyf Joj:yfksLo clwsf/, lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfloTj sfg'gåf/f g} :yfgLo lgsfo, pkef]Qmf ;d"x, Joj:yfkg ;ldlt / cGo ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿nfO{ pknAw u/fpg' g} z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f xf] . z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f eg]sf] ljBfyL{ s]lGb|t l;sfO xf] . ljgf e]befj ;a} afnaflnsfsf] lglDt cg's"n d}qLk"0f{ jftfj/0f l;h{gf u/L ;'wfl/Psf] k7gkf7g k|lqmof ;~rfng ug'{ g} o;sf] nIo xf] . ;d'bfoleqsf ;a} afnaflnsfnfO{ lzIff cfh{g ug{ kfpg] cj;/ ;'lglZrt ug'{ o;sf] d'Vo p2]Zo /x]sf] 5 . z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] ;}4flGts 9fFrfsf] rrf{ ubf{ @ j6f gd"gf (Model) x¿ k|of]udf /x]sf] kfOG5 M

s_ z}lIfs ;+:yfx¿sf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu clwsf/ lbP/ ul/g] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f,

v_ z}lIfs ;+:yfsf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu :yfgLo :t/sf] Ifdtf ljsf; u/]/ ul/g] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f .

$= z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] cfjZostf / cf}lrTo

z}lIfs gLlt lgdf{0fsf sfo{df ;/f]sf/jfnfx¿sf] ;xeflutfdf j[l4 ug{,–

sfo{;Dkfbgdf ;/ntf, zL3|tf / r':ttf sfod ug{,–

z}lIfs ;+u7gsf] sfddf ldtJolotf / sfo{bIftf j[l4 ug{,–

z}lIfs d''2fdf ;xeflutfd"ns Joj:yfkgsf] cEof; ug{,–

sd{rf/L tyf lzIfsx¿df dgf]an, pTk|]/0ff / sfo{s'zntf j[l4 ug{,–

;|f]t ;fwgsf] clwstd kl/rfng ug{ tyf ;f]sf] nfe ljt/0f ug{,–

;]jf k|bfosnfO{ ;]jfu|fxLk|lt pQ/bfoL agfpg,–

;]jfu|fxLdf z}lIfs ljsf;k|lt ckgTjsf] efjgf ljsf; ug{,–

s]Gb|Lo lgsfosf] cfly{s bfloTj sd ug{,–

z}lIfs of]hgf th'{df, sfof{Gjog, cg'udg / d"Nof+sg k|0ffnLnfO{ a9LeGbf a9L k|efjsf/L – / pknlAwd"ns agfpg,

z}lIfs ;+u7gsf] pTkfbsTj – (Productivity) a9fpg,

sfo{;Dkfbgdf cfwfl/t ;'ljwf / k|f]T;fxg k|0ffnL nfu" ug{,–

nlIft ;d"xdf ;j{;'ne / Gofof]lrt 9+un] ;]jf k'¥ofpg,–

z}lIfs ultljlwsf] sfof{Gjog k|lqmofdf kf/blz{tf sfod ug{,–

ljBfno jftfj/0fnfO{ n}lËsd}qL agfpg,–


cg'udg k|0ffnLnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg,–

z}lIfs If]qdf ;'zf;gsf] cg'e"lt k|bfg ug{,–

u}/;/sf/L ;+:yfx¿;Fu ;dGjo ug{,–

ljBfno ljsf;df bLuf]kgf sfod ug{,–

;a}nfO{ u'0f:t/Lo lzIff k|bfg ug{,–

:yfgLo :t/df ;'zf;gsf] k|jw{g ug{,–

bLuf] / hgd'vL ljsf;sf] cfwf/zLnf tof/ ug{,–

;|f]t;fwgsf] b'¿kof]u / clgoldttfnfO{ lg?T;fxg ug{,–

u'0f:t/o'Qm z}lIfs k|ltkmn k|fKt ug{ .–

%= z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf pkfudx¿

Downsizing Approach:1. o; cGtu{t k|ToIf ¿kdf ljBfno Pjd\ :yfgLo ;/sf/nfO{ cfjZos ljQLo Pjd\ dfgjLo ;|f]t x:tfGt/0f ul/G5 . ;~rfns :yfgLo lgsfok|lt pQ/bfoL x'G5 .

Empowering Local Government Approach :2. of] ljQLo ;|f]tsf] kl/rfng, sd{rf/L Joj:yf, kf7\oqmd, ljBfyL{ d"Nof+sg h:tf ljifosf] Joj:yf ug{;Sg] u/L :yfgLo lgsfosf] Ifdtf clej[l4 ug]{ tyf pQm clwsf/sf] k|Tofof]hg ug]{ pkfud xf] .

School Based Management Approach:3. Joj:yfksLo clwsf/ dfq k|Tofof]hg ug]{ geO{ ljBfnosf] :jfoQtf Pjd\ lg0f{o k|lqmofsf] clwsf/ lzIfs, cleefjs tyf ;d'bfosf] g]t[Tj ju{nfO{ x:tfGt/0f ug'{k5{ eGg] o; pkfudsf] cfzo xf] .

Commuity Funding Approach:4. o;n] lzIfssf] tna, eQf ;fy} ljBfnosf] k|zf;lgs vr{ s]Gb|Lo ;/sf/af6 Joxf]g]{ tyf hldg, ljBfnosf] ef}lts cj:yf -ejg, kmlg{r/_ sf] Joj:yfkg :yfgLo ;d'bfon] g} ug'{ kg]{ dfGotf /fVb5 .

Demandside Financing Approach 5. M o; pkfud cGtu{t ljBfyL{ cfˆgf] OR5f cg';f/ h'g;'s} -;/sf/L xf];\ jf lghL_ ;+:yfdf egf{ x'g;S5 / o;sf nflu 5gf]6sf] cj;/ l;h{gf ul/g' kb{5 .

Curriculum Reform Approach :6. ;dfhsf] cfjZostf cg';f/ kf7\oqmd, lgb]{zg tyf d"Nof+sgsf ljleGg ;fwg dfkm{t\ u'0f:t/ clej[l4 tyf ;dtf sfod ug'{ g} o; pkfudsf] p2]Zo xf] .

^= g]kfndf z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] ljBdfg cj:yf

@)@* ;fneGbf cufl8 ljBfno Joj:yf ;DaGwL ;Dk"0f{ lg0f{o ;d'bfon] g} lnPsf] kfOG5 t/ @)@* ;fndf /fli6«o lzIff k4ltsf] of]hgf sfof{Gjogdf cfP kZrft\ ljBfno Joj:yfkgsf]


clwsf/ ;/sf/n] lnPsf] lyof] . lj=;+= @)$^ ;fndf k|hftGqsf] k'g{:yfkgfkl5 tL clwsf/ klg qmlds ¿kn] ;d'bfon] lnFb} cfPsf] kfOG5 . g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# cg';f/ k|To]s ;d'bfonfO{ sfg'gdf Joj:yf ePadf]lhd dft[efiffdf cfwf/e"t lzIff kfpg] xs 5 . o;}u/L :yfgLo ;/sf/ Pjd\ ;d'bfonfO{ ljBfno, k|fljlws lzIffno, SofDk; / ljZjljBfno ;~rfngdf lhDd]jf/L ;lxt ;xefuL agfpg] Joj:yf lqjifL{o of]hgfsf] cfwf/kq -@)^&÷^*–@)^(÷&)_ df pNn]v ePsf] 5 .

k|To]s ufpF ljsf; ;ldlt -uf=lj=;=_ tyf gu/kflnsfn] cf–cfˆgf] If]qleq cfˆgf] ;|f]taf6 k"j{ k|fylds ljBfno :yfkgf ug]{, :yfkgf ug{ cg'dlt lbg] tyf ;~rfng Joj:yfkg ug]{, cfˆgf] If]qleq ;~rfng ePsf] ljBfnosf] /]vb]v / Joj:yfkg ug]{, dft[efiffdf k|fylds lzIff pknAw u/fpg ;xof]u ug]{ sfg'gL Joj:yf :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%% df /x]sf] 5 . To;}u/L :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%% / lzIff P]g, -;+zf]wg ;lxt_ @)@* cg';f/ k"j{ k|fylds ljBfno / lzz' ljsf; s]Gb| uf=lj=;= jf g=kf=n] vf]Ng] jf :jLs[lt lbg ;Sg] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . lzIff P]g, @)@* tyf lzIff lgodfjnL, @)%( df ljBfnosf] ;~rfng, /]vb]v, Joj:yfkg Pjd\ ;dGjo ug{sf] nflu ljBfno Joj:yfkg ;ldlt u7g ug]{ Joj:yf 5 . uf=lj=;= If]qleq ;~rfng x'g] ljBfnoaLr ;dGjo ug]{ sfd ;d]tsf nflu ufpF lzIff ;ldltsf] u7g ug]{, ljBfnosf] z}lIfs u'0f:t/ clej[l4df ;xof]u ug{ lzIfs cleefjs ;+3 (Parent Teacher Association) sf] ;d]t Joj:yf 5 . k|To]s ljBfnon] cfˆgf] ljBfno ;'wf/ of]hgf agfO{ sfof{Gjog ug'{kg]{, CTEVT n] k|fljlws tyf Joj;flos tflnd lbg] ;+:yfx¿ :jLs[lt lbg ;Sg], ;fd'bflos cWoog s]Gb| / cgf}krfl/s lzIff ;DaGwL ljleGg sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug]{ ;ldltx¿ /xg] Joj:yf ;d]t 5 .

dGqLaf6 cfkm"nfO{ g]kfn ;/sf/ sfo{ ljefhg lgodfjnL @)^$ åf/f k|bQ clwsf/ ;lrj nufot cfkm" dftxtsf ljleGg clwsf/LnfO{ k|Tofof]hg ug]{ k|rng /x]sf] 5 . ;a}sf nflu lzIffsf]d"n b:tfj]h -@))$–@))(_ n] of]hgf / nufgL aLrsf] pko'Qm ;DaGw sfod u/L ljBfno / ;d'bfosf] cfjZostf k"/f ug{ :jLs[t of]hgfdf cfwfl/t Psd'i7 cg'bfg k|bfg u/L Principle of subsidiarity nfO{ cjnDag ub}{ z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fdf 6]jf k'¥ofpg] nIo /fv]sf] 5 . To;}u/L cfwf/e"t tyf k|fylds lzIff sfo{qmd -@)%^–@)^!_ df Bottom up Planning sf] cjwf/0ffn] :yfgLo txdf z}lIfs of]hgf th'{df ug]{ / ;f]xL of]hgfsf cfwf/df ;|f]t kl/rfng ug]{ gLlt cl3 ;f/]sf] lyof] . oxL gLlt adf]lhd ljBfno txdf ufpF lzIff of]hgf (VEP) / lhNnf txdf lhNnf lzIff of]hgf (DEP) lgdf{0f ug]{ cEof; eO/x]sf 5g\ . To;}u/L k|To]s lhNnfdf lhNnf lzIff ;ldlt u7g u/L ;f] dfkm{t\ lhNnf:t/Lo z}lIfs gLlt lgdf{0f Pjd\ sfof{Gjogsf] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 .

/fli6«o kf7\oqmd k|f¿k, @)^# n] @) k|ltzt;Dd kf7\oqmd :yfgLo txdf lgdf{0f ug{ kfpg] Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . lhNnf txdf k/LIff ;~rfng ug{ ;Sg], ljleGg tflnd s]Gb| / lhNnf txdf lzIfs tflnd lbg ;Sg] tyf x/]s lhNnfdf ;|f]ts]Gb|x¿ :yfkgf u/L z}lIfs sfo{qmd ;~rfng /


cg'udg tyf d"Nof+sg ug]{ Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f lgod hf/L u/L SofDk; ;~rfns ;ldlt u7g ug{ Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 .

&= z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f;DaGwL ;d:ofx¿, ;'wf/sf kIfx¿ tyf cj;/ / ;Defjgfx¿

&=! ljBdfg ;d:ofx¿

ljs]Gb|Ls/0f, z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f h:tf zAb g]kfndf cToGt} nf]slk|o 5g\ . r]tgfsf] cefj / :yfgLo txsf] Ifdtf cToGt sdhf]/ ePsf] xfd|f] h:tf] ax'eflifs / ax';f+:s[lts ;dfhdf nIo cg'¿k z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ sfof{Gjog ug]{ ljifo eg] Tolt ;xh 5}g . :yfgLo :t/af6 Joj:yfkg u/L :jlg0f{o, :jlgoGq0f h:tf :jfoQ cEof;sf] yfngL tyf sfof{Gjog x'g yfn]sf] eP klg z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fnfO{ Jofjxfl/s ¿kdf sfof{Gjog ug{ cem} ;lsPsf] 5}g . z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f s]xL ;d:ofx¿ lgDgfg';f/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .

cjwf/0ffut c:ki6tf x'g',–

k|efjsf/L /0fgLlt / lglb{i6 sfo{of]hgfsf] sdL,–

;/sf/L, u}/;/sf/L / :yfgLo lgsfox¿sf] sfddf bf]xf]/f]kg /xg',–

sfof{Gjogdf b]lvPsf ;d:of, r'gf}tL, cj;/ / ;Defjgfx¿sf] j:t'lgi7 – ljZn]if0fsf] cefj,

s]Gb| / :yfgLo txdf /xg] cGt/;DaGw / hjfkmb]lxtfsf] c:ki6tf,–

:yfgLo lgsfox¿sf] Ifdtf clej[l4 -;+:yfut, Joj:yfksLo, dfgj ;+zfwg, ljQLo – Joj:yfkg, ef}lts l:ylt / sfo{ jftfj/0f_ k|lt a]jf:tf,

lgIf]lkt sfo{ ;DkGg ug{;Sg] Ifdtfsf] cefj,–

/fhgLlts k|lta4tfsf] cefj,–

j:t', ;]jf / ;|f]tsf] k|jfxdf ;dtfsf] cefj,–

z}lIfs, cfly{s, ;fdflhs tyf ;f+:s[lts ¿kfGt/0faf/] hgr]tgfdf sdL,–

aflemPsf P]g lgodsf] sf/0f ljs]Gb|Ls/0fdf afwf,–

ul/a, ljkGg, dlxnf, lk5l8Psf / nlIft ju{;Dd sfo{qmd k|jfx x'g g;Sg',–

lzIff If]q /fhgLltaf6 d'Qm x'g g;Sg',–

lghL If]qsf] ;+nUgtfaf/] :ki6 b[li6sf]0fsf] cefj,–

lzIffdf ljQLo ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] cjwf/0ff :ki6 gx'g',–

:yfgLo lgsfok|lt hjfkmb]xL sd{rf/L ;+oGq tof/ eO{ g;s]sf] cj:yf,–

:yfgLo ;|f]t;fwgsf] k|efjsf/L kl/rfng x'g g;Sg' .–

z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf ;d:ofnfO{ gLltut, /fhgLlts, Joj:yfksLo, ljQLo, ;fdflhs, sfg'gL


/ ;+/rgfut ;d:ofsf ¿kdf ljefhg u/]/ klg cWoog tyf ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 .

&=@ cj;/ / ;Defjgfx¿

ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] cjwf/0ff /fHo ;+rfngdf cfjZos 5 / of] /fHo ;+rfngsf] dxTTjk"0f{ dfWod – xf] eGg] s'/fdf cfd ;xdlt /xg',

cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# df ePsf] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f / :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g ;DaGwL sfg'gL – Joj:yfn] :yfgLo lgsfo hgtfnfO{ ;]jf ;'ljwf k|bfg ug]{ / nf]stGqnfO{ ;+:yfut ug]{ cfwf/e"t ;+/rgf x'g\ eGg] k|dfl0ft x'g',

:yfgLo lgsfonfO{ k'gM;+/rgf u/L pko'Qm ;+/rgfdf ¿kfGt/0f ug]{ jftfj/0f aGb} hfg',–

cfkm"nfO{ c;/ kg]{ s'g} klg lg0f{odf hgtf cfkm}F ;xefuL x'g'k5{ / ljsf; lgdf{0f / ;]jf – ;'ljwfsf] k|jfx ;DaGwL sfo{df hgtfsf] kx'Fr ;'lglZrt ul/g'k5{ eGg] dfu a9\b} hfg',

:yfgLo lgsfox¿nfO{ ef}uf]lns If]q, hg;+Vof, ;]jf k|jfx ug{ ;xh l:ylt / ;|f]t;fwgsf] Gofof]lrt ljt/0f cg's"n x'g] u/L k'gM;+/rgf ug{ ;s]df /fhg}lts, ljQLo / k|zf;lgs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f u/L :yfgLo ;]jfsf] Joj:yfkgdf an k'Ug uO{ clwsf/df cfwfl/t lgIf]k0f / ;fFrf] cy{sf] ljs]Gb|Ls/0f k|lqmofnfO{ cl3 a9fpg] ;Defjgfx¿ /xG5g\ .

&=# ;'wf/fTds kIfx¿

;d'bfos f] Joj:yfkg Ifdtf clej[l4 ug{sf nflu z}lIfs ;r]tgf Pjd\ cled'vLs/0f sfo{qmd – Jofks ¿kdf kl/rfng ug]{,

sfg'gdf cfjZos kl/dfh{g u/L ljBfno Joj:yfkg ;ldltnfO{ clwsf/sf] lgIf]k0f ug]{,–

;g\ @)!% ;Dd ;a}sf nflu lzIff k'¥ofpg] p2]Zo k"/f ug{ nufgL, kx'Fr / u'0f:t/ h:tf – ljifodf cfjZos ;'wf/ ug]{,

;/sf/, ljBfno / ;d'bfosf] bfloTj / e"ldsf :ki6 ug]{]{,–

:yfgLo :t/df ;~rfng x'g] ljleGg ;/sf/L / u}/ ;/sf/L If]qsf sfo{qmdx¿df /x]sf] – bf]xf]/f]kg x6fO{ PsLs[t / ;dGjofTds 9Ën] sfo{ ;~rfng ug]{,

lzIfsx¿sf] ;]jf, ;t{ / ;'ljwfsf] ljifonfO{ ;'lglZrt / :ki6 agfpg'kg]{,–

ljBfnodf pknAw x'g] ;Dk"0f{ ;|f]t;fwgx¿ nlIft ;d"x;Dd k'¥ofpg lzIff dGqfno, lzIff – ljefu, cGo ljefu:t/Lo sfof{no, If]qLo lgb]{zgfno, lhNnf lzIff sfof{no, cflb lgsfosf] e"ldsf / bfloTj sfof{Gjogtkm{ s]lGb|t x'g'kg]{,

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%% tyf lzIff P]g, @)@* aLr aflemPsf ljifo aflemPsf – xb;Dd ldnfpg' kg]{,

z}lIfs ;dfxLs/0f / d"n k|jfxLs/0fsf] gLlt cjnDag ug]{,–

lzIff gLlt lgdf{0f ubf{ ;/f]sf/jfnfsf] clwstd ;xeflutf ;'lgZrt ug]{,–


ljBfno jftfj/0fnfO{ n}lËs d}qL agfpg],–

/fhgLlts k|lta4tf sfod ug]{,–

/fhgLlts bnx¿aLr ;dGjo / ;xsfo{ ug]{,–

;]jfu|fxLdf z}lIfs ljsf;k|lt ckgTjsf] efjgf hfu[t u/fpg],–

z}lIfs lqmofsnfk / of]hgf ;~rfngdf u}/;/sf/L ;+:yfx¿sf] ;xeflutf clej[l4 ug]{ .–

*= lgisif{

cfh hgtfdf :jfldTj / kx'Fr :yflkt u/fpg] ;afndf ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ ckl/xfo{ tTTjsf ¿kdf lng ;lsG5 . z}lIfs gLlt tyf sfo{qmdnfO{ k|efjsf/L ¿kdf sfof{Gjog ug{ z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0f dxTTjk"0f{ ;fwg klg xf] . lzIffdf ljs]Gb|Ls/0f nfu" ug{ cjwf/0ffut c:ki6tf, sfo{of]hgfsf] sdL, ;/sf/L tyf u}/;/sf/L / :yfgLo lgsfox¿sf] sfddf bf]xf]/f]kgf, hjfkmb]lxtfsf] c:ki6tf, Ifdtfsf] cefj, c;dfg'kflts ;fdflhs ;+/rgf, /fhgLlts k|lta4tfsf] cefj, aflemPsf P]g lgod, lghL If]qsf] ;+nUgtfaf/] :ki6 b[li6sf]0fsf] cefj, :yfgLo ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] pko'Qm kl/rfng x'g g;Sg' h:tf ;d:ofx¿ /x]sf 5g\ . o:tf ;d:ofx¿sf] ;dfwfg ug{ z}lIfs ;r]tgf Pjd\ cled'vLs/0f sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug]{, ljBfno Joj:yfkg ;ldltnfO{ clwsf/sf] lgIf]k0f ug]{, nufgL, kx'Fr / u'0f:t/ h:tf ljifodf cfjZos ;'wf/ ug]{, ;/sf/, ljBfno / ;d'bfosf] bfloTj / e"ldsf :ki6 ug]{, :yfgLo :t/df ;~rfng x'g] ljleGg ;/sf/L / u}/ ;/sf/L If]qsf sfo{qmdx¿df /x]sf] bf]xf]/f]kg x6fO{ PsLs[t / ;dGjofTds 9+un] sfo{ ;~rfng ug]{, aflemPsf sfg'gx¿ ;+zf]wg u/L ldnfpg], z}lIfs lqmofsnfk / of]hgf ;~rfngdf ;xeflutf clej[l4 ug]{ /0fgLltnfO{ k|fyldstf lbg'kb{5 . juL{o, eflifs, n}lËs, ;f+:s[lts, wfld{s, If]qLo e]befjsf] cGTo ub}{ dlxnf, blnt, cflbjf;L, hghflt, dw]zL, pTkLl8t, pk]lIft / cNk;+Vos ;d'bfo, lk5l8Psf If]q nufotsf ;d"xsf ;d:ofx¿nfO{{ ;Daf]wg ug{ /fHosf] jt{dfg s]Gb|Ls[t / PsfTds 9fFrfsf] cGTo u/L /fHosf] ;dfj]zL, nf]stflGqs / cu|ufdL k'g;+/rgf ubf{ ljs]Gb|Ls/0f, clwsf/sf] k|Tofof]hg / lgIf]k0fsf] ;}4flGts dfGotfleq /xL /fhgLlts, cfly{s / k|zf;lgs Pjd\ z}lIfs lhDd]jf/L ;lxtsf] :yfgLo :jfoQ ;/sf/sf] cjwf/0ff :yflkt ug'{ h?/L b]lvG5 .

d'n's ;+3Lo nf]stflGqs u0ftGqdf k|j]z ul/;s]sf] cj:yfdf casf] z}lIfs Joj:yfkgsf] 9fFrfn] cGt/;+3Lo z}lIfs ;xsfo{nfO{ plrt Wofg lbg' cfjZos 5 . h;n] ;xhLjg / ;xcl:tTjnfO{ :jLsf/ u/L z}lIfs Gofo / JolQmTj ljsf;sf] 9f]sf vf]Ng'sf ;fy} /fli6«o / cGt//fli6«o ;fk]Iftfdf ;lDdng x'g] cj;/ k|fKt x'g ;sf];\ . efjL lbgdf ;+3Lo ;+/rgfnfO{ k|lt:kwL{ agfO{ /f]huf/d"ns, Gofok"0f{ tyf ;/f]sf/jfnfsf] ;xeflutfdf kx'Fr :yflkt x'g] ljs]Gb|Lt z}lIfs Joj:yfkg x'g ;s] ck]lIft z}lIfs pknlAw xfl;n x'gsf ;fy} z}lIfs ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] Jofjxfl/s tyf j:t'ut k|of]udf ;d]t 6]jf k'Ug] b]lvG5 .


;Gbe{ ;fdu|L

g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^#, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt .

lzIff P]g, @)@* tyf lzIff lgodfjnL, @)%( -;+zf]wg ;lxt_, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt, aa/dxn, sf7df8f}F .

:yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g P]g, @)%% -;+zf]wg ;lxt_, :yfgLo :jfoQ zf;g lgodfjnL, @)%^ -;+zf]wg ;lxt_, sfg'g lstfa Joj:yf ;ldlt M sf7df8f}F .

/fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, lqjifL{o of]hgfsf] cfwf/ kq -@)^&÷^* – @)^(÷&)_, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u M sf7df8f}F .

lzIff ljefu -@)%^_, cfwf/e"t tyf k|fylds lzIff kl/of]hgf sfof{Gjog lgb]{lzsf, lzIff ljefu M eQmk'/ .

lzIff tyf v]ns'b dGqfno, ;a}sf nflu lzIff d"n b:tfj]h tyf ;a}sf nflu lzIff /fli6«o sfo{of]hgf g]kfn -@))!–@)!%_, lzIff tyf v]ns'b dGqfno M sf7df8f}F .

yfkf, Pg=kL= -@)^#_, lzIff zf:q / g]kfndf lzIff tyf lg/LIf0f ;DaGwL ljifo -@)^@÷^#_, af}l4s ;+;f/ M sf7df8f}F .

g]kfn, hgfb{g, -@)^$_, g]kfnsf] lzIff k|0ffnL M r'gf}tL / ;Defjgf, >LdtL rGb|fjtL g]kfn M sf7df8f}F .


Does Aid Work? A Human Resource PerspectiveLalshankar Ghimire*

One of the objectives of giving and receiving foreign aid is to meet the skills gaps in the recipient countries i.e. human resources development. Therefore, foreign aid works in the context that countries like ours lack skilled manpower to meet the socio-economic development challenges. In other words, foreign aid works. This is also manifested in most of the assessments or evaluations. One should however, note that most of the assessments or evaluations are primarily carried out by the officials of the donors, if not by the officials of the recipients.

Against this context, this article attempts, though in brief, to look at the impacts of the foreign aid, particularly aspects of human resources development - from a rather critical angle. Four aspects are chosen: (i) sending people abroad, (ii) hiring of talents, (iii) guaranteed staffing, and (iv) backbiting. The intention here is to give some sums not the whole. It should however, be borne in mind that in many occasions the total of sums becomes greater than the whole! And, regrettably conclusions appear to be disappointing attesting that foreign aid does not work. Let us look at how foreign aid does not work?

First, foreign aid helps to send members of the bureaucracy or the government officials abroad for training - foreign aid that Nepal has been receiving can simply be categorized as grant and loans. Both the grants and loans finance human resources development programme of the government, and every year number of government officials are sent abroad for various types of trainings and study programmes. It is not a bad idea to send people abroad when they are trained for the country’s benefit. However, it turns out to be harmful, when the motive is to get rid of those who are talented, and are sent abroad in order to assist donors’ universities in getting bursaries and scholarships. Not only have such practices created a drain in the pool of human resources of the Nepalese bureaucracy, it also leads to capital flight. In other words, some share of foreign aid that has been committed to Nepal never enters into Nepal.

Second, foreign aid provides opportunities to the Nepalese talents both in the private and public sectors to work in local donors offices. Such opportunities for employment of Nepalese talents to work for foreign aid cause further drain on higher levels of skilled manpower particularly in the public sector. It would not be appropriate for them to be labeled as inefficient, though the impression is that once they are selected or inducted to the donor’s office; most of them act as hypocrites, if not act as very loyal servants! In many contexts, these types of people can be seen as opportunists, if not inefficient and incapable, who hardly mark up to a minimum standard in the bureaucracy or elsewhere. Some of them could be having joined donors’ offices because they could not compete in the competitive examinations conducted by the Public Service Commission. Interestingly, once they are employed, they become

* Joint Secretary, Office of the Prime Minster and Council of Minister, The opinions contained in this article are strictly personal. Email: [email protected]


experts. They do nothing but expect the officials from the recipient’s end to follow their advices or instructions. In addition, these so-called experts even resort to teach, for example, recipients how to curb corruption or how to bring people into the tax net. Regrettably, they themselves pay no tax, nor are they required to disclose their assets and properties. In many occasions, these people resort to getting help or to mobilizing donors’ influence whenever any attempts are made by tax authorities. As the saying goes, beggars have no choices and therefore remain weak. In other words, it is the tax authority who most of the time withdraws, meaning that efforts to bring them into the tax net become a mere and futile attempt, and these people remain largely escaped. Is not it fair to say then that those who have cheated have the knowledge to teach the government how to hook evaders?

Third, foreign aid always seeks a priori guarantee to staffing organizations or units which many often are created at donor’s behest for the implementation of specific projects. Most of the times, donors compelled the recipients to assign the bests available in the Ministries. While an assignment of bests and talented to ensure successful implementation of the projects, which is being carried out or implemented, is important for the recipients, from a ministerial or country’s perspective such assignments lead to draining bests who could have contributed more than particular project from ministerial and country’s perspective if they were to be continued in the Ministries or elsewhere within the bureaucracy.

Finally, foreign aid breeds back biting, that is, by backbiting against and spoiling manpower who appear to be more capable, talented, and highly professional compared to consultants and expatriates appointed by the donors and also compared to visiting and residential employees and representatives of donors, with the help of proletarian politicians and senior bureaucrats. In essence, advisors, expatriates, and other aid officials and administrators are not kept merely to their specified and limited tasks, meaning that they never work out their tasks without meeting policymakers at the national level. The poor guys in the government or in the bureaucracy are left with no choice but to quit their job or keep their fingers crossed and lips tightened.

While one may still argue and many have been arguing that none of the aspects mentioned above reduce total manpower available particularly in the longer term, the reality is that Nepal’s needs are immediate. Left to longer term, in the short term, foreign aid has been distorting human resources distribution in a manner detrimental to the interests of the country considered as a whole. The foreign aid therefore, is not working!


A Brief Introduction of Street Level Bureaucrats and its Present Situation in the Context of Nepal

Arjun Kumar Khadka*

AbstractA value of street level bureaucrats depends on good human relations and accountability of civil servants. Basically, street level bureaucrats play a “crucial role” to manage essential administrative value, which also known as a part of good governance and “de facto” value of public administration. However, there is not a clear and universally accepted value of street level bureaucrats in many countries, in particular developing countries like Nepal. In practice, street level bureaucrats are a “prima facie” component for good governance, which grip all administrative activities and necessary for all concerned government agencies/firms/companies. This is a reason street level bureaucrats have always been a principle concern for government. In fact, they address and manage “holistic areas” such as basic needs of people (food, health and education), development (road, infrastructure), security and social institution (police, institutions) cultural, social and religious areas. However, in the context of Nepal, there is tradeoffs due to a lack of political determination, an absent of local elected leaders, poor human relations and less answerable civil servants’ work (not accountable) particularly in public sector. It is therefore we need to urgently manage those issues for good governance through amicable solution.

1. IntroductionPublic service is familiar as “scarce and stereotype” job in most of the countries including Nepal. Civil servants have deserved a high social status and power to exercise unseen rights in some issues like a formulation of public policy. They, however, have a certain norms and division of responsibility to perform their regular work.

A value of civil servant, basically, depends on culture and legal condition of the country. For instance, civil service in America had adopted political patronage until 1883, the Pendleton Act of 1883 espoused efficiency as well as the elimination of politics from personnel decisions and based on merit principle (Peters, Guy, Routledge 2001). Nepal, for example, had adopted patronage values during RANA’s regime, but it changed into merit system after promulgation of Civil Service Act, 1956. After this act, Nepal was adopted a merit based principles and also developed human relations and accountability to public sectors through legal norms.

In practice, Nepal has adopted many administrative theories including street level bureaucratic value. The street level bureaucratic value, known as “ornament” of good governance, it is poor in implementation due to absence of elected political leaders in

* Under Secretary, Ministry of Law and Justice. Email: [email protected]


local level since more than a decade. Furthermore, in some cases, civil servants are less answerable to their work and their human relations performance is poor, which are hindrance for good governance. In fact, Nepal is facing some hindrances such as political instability and uncertainly in public administration influencing negatively if or good governance present situation.

The paper first briefly examines street level bureaucrats especially focusing on its concept. Second, it discusses human relations and its interconnection with street level bureaucrats. Third, it attempts to review the concept of accountability with its various’ forms. Furthermore, it tries to briefly overview good governance and street level bureaucrats.

2. Meaning of Street Level BureaucratsA street level bureaucrat is a key component for good governance in public administration, because the street level bureaucrat is directly worked with public at local level. Michael Lipsky defined street-level bureaucrat as public service workers who interact directly with citizens in the course of their jobs, and who have substantial discretion in the execution of their work (Lipsky, 1980:3). The street level bureaucrats, in broaden sense, include local elected leaders, teachers, welfare workers, health worker and other public employees who control access to public programs or enforce public laws and regulations at local level. Basically these bureaucrats work as a norms of local body, and need to connect with local elected leaders in many countries.

Nepal, for example, local body like village development committee (VDC), municipality and district development committee (DDC) which are directly related to people and have direct relationship with street level bureaucrats in most of the essential works and also providing various facilities such as monthly allowance for senior citizens and single women. Considering such things the local bodies have occupied a unique, and uniquely influential position in the implementation process of many crucial issues. Therefore good governance really depends on local bodies and its performance in the context of Nepalese.

3. Street Level Bureaucratic depends on Human RelationsHuman relations are essential to create structural realities and build a co-operation within the organization, which is enhanced to establish a friendly environment than mechanical contraptions. The concept was originated in the late 1920s’ through the popular “Hawthorne Studies” (by Elton Mayo), which examined the effects of social relations, motivation and employee satisfaction on the factory productivity. Initially it viewed workers in terms of their psychology and fit with companies, rather than as interchangeable parts. But, nowadays, its using everywhere both public and non-profits organization as “ornament”, because such relation promotes trust, co-ordination, communication, collaboration and interaction among concerned actors. For instance, Metropolitan Alliance of Community Centers (MACC), a USA based nonprofits organization is one of the best organizations for human relations sector,


which became popular within a short time because of its adopted human relationship nature and friendly and truly behavaviour among concerned agencies/ actors.

Many organizations are developing an increasing orientation toward service to customers. Relationships are becoming more important than physical products and services. For public and nonprofits organization inter alia, hospitals, banks, colleges, airlines and even in retail stores, human relations is “crucial” and very important because if these organizations fail to maintain good relations with their customer, the situation will be miserable and harmful for the organization. For example, few years back, in Nepal, one of the District Officers misbehaved a journalist after drunk, It was a small case but became national wide because many journalist, and civil society people’ were against his misbehavior and asked legal action for him only. After a negotiation/ compromised between agitation group and government authority to legal action him, the problem was solved.

In addition, every organization has required to have accurate communication and need to convey information for the favor of organization because it helps to solve conflicts and customer can maintain more compatible relationships. Human relations accepts both way communication such as lower staffs to chief executive as well as vice versa, like an office helper to the head of office. It is so, human relation is a crucial tool for everyone especially in public organization like street level bureaucrats/ municipality where most of the people come for their essential works. In Nepal, however, local elected bodies has vacant since long years. Thus, many local people are suffering from friendly service from local government.

4. Street Level Bureaucracy and Accountability of Civil ServantsAccountability is one of tool of strengthen street level bureaucracy. However, ‘the government accountability’ does not refer to sovereigns holding their subjects to account, but to the reverse. It is the authorities themselves who are being held accountable by their citizens. Since the late twentieth century, the Anglo-Saxon world in particular has witnessed a transformation of the traditional book keeping function in public administration into a much broader form of public accountability (Harlow 2002: 19). This broad shift from financial accounting to public accountability ran parallel to the introduction of New Public Management by the Thatcher-government in the United Kingdom and to the Reinventing Government reforms initiated by the Clinton-Gore administration in the United States. Both reforms introduced a range of private sector management styles and instruments into the public sector (Pollitt and Bouckaert, 2005), including contract management both within and outside the public sector, the use of performance indicators and benchmarks to evaluate and compare the effectiveness and efficiency of public agencies.

Most of these instruments require extensive auditing to be effective on a performance of street level bureaucrats. In fact, street level bureaucrats are controlled by politician, and politician are directly connected with public through election. It is


thus, if politician is not liable to public needs, probably they will loss an election. So, street level bureaucrats especially politicians always liable to public. However, there is a possibility of politics- administration dichotomy in street level bureaucracy (Wood and Waterman, 1994). In addition, transparency, which is often used as a synonym for accountability, is not enough to constitute accountability as defined. Organisational transparency and freedom of information will often be very important prerequisites for accountability, because they may provide forums with the necessary information. However, transparency as such is not enough to qualify as a genuine form of accountability (Fisher 2004: 504), because it only seen as an element of public accountability, the disclosure of information, the accessibility of the debates to the general public or the disclosure of the judgment. Therefore, public reporting, another offspring of the New Public Management reforms, does not itself qualify as public accountability.

In fact, in contemporary political and scholarly discourse ‘accountability’ often serves as a conceptual umbrella that covers various other distinct concepts. It is used as a synonym for many loosely defined political desiderata, such as transparency, equity, democracy, efficiency, responsiveness, responsibility, and integrity (Mulgan 2000b: 555; Behn 2001: 3-6; Dubnick 2002). The term has come to stand as a general term for any mechanism that makes powerful institutions responsive to their particular publics (Mulgan 2003: 8). It is thus accountability and transparency played a fundamental role to strength street level bureaucrats, and also its assets for human relations in many public organisations.

Nepal, for instance, after the popular movement of 1990, and 2006 has adopted public accountably and transparency norm in various sectors especially in public domain, and adopted liberalisation, globalisation and democratization norm as well as friendly legal framework like Local Governance Act, 2055, Good Governance Act, 2064, and Regulation, 2065, which directly related to public domain(people). However, the implementation level is poor. For example, personally, I had gone to District Administration Office, Kathmandu to register an alumni association, but the concern officer including district administration officer did not perform their job friendly and responsibly as they guided by laws.

5. Basic Nature of AccountabilityIn fact, accountability is one of the pillars of good governance, which covered many areas for strength streets level bureaucratic, therefore the following areas especially four cores areas are concerned with this:

Political accountability,•Legal accountability,•Administrative accountability,•Professional accountability,•Social accountability•


Political accountability

It is especially related to elected representatives, political parties, voters and media. Basically, political accountability is an extremely important type of public accountability within democracies. Here, accountability is exercised along the chain of principal-agent relationships (Strom, 2000). Voters delegate their sovereignty to popular representatives, who in turn, at least in parliamentary democracies, delegate the majority of their authorities to a cabinet of ministers. The ministers subsequently delegate many of their authorities to their civil servants or to various, more or less independent, administrative bodies. The mechanism of political accountability operates precisely in the opposite direction to that of delegation. In parliamentary systems with ministerial accountability, such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Germany, public servants and their organisations are accountable to their minister, who must render political account to parliament (Flinders, 2001; Strom, Muller and Bergman, 2003).

In some sense, the people’s representatives render account to the voters at election time. Thus viewed, each of the links in the chain is, in turn, not only principal and agent, but also forum and actor. It is only the two ends of the chain – the voters and the executive public servants – who do not exchange roles. In nations characterised by political cabinets and political appointments, such as the United States, France and Belgium, political parties and party barons often also function as important, informal political forums. In many developing countries including Nepal, the media are fast gaining power as informal forums for political accountability (Elchardus, 2002; RMO, 2003).

Legal accountability

In most western countries, legal accountability is of increasing importance to public institutions as a result of growing formalization of social relations (Friedman 1985; Behn 2001: 56-58) or because of a higher degree of trust upon courts than parliaments (Harlow, 2002:18). These can be the ‘ordinary’ civil courts, as in Britain, or also specialized administrative courts, as in France, Belgium, and The Netherlands (Harlow 2002:16-18). Legal accountability will usually be based on specific responsibilities, formally or legally conferred upon authorities. Therefore, legal accountability is the most unambiguous type of accountability. The legal scrutiny is based on detailed legal standards, prescribed by civil, penal or administrative statutes or precedent like Local Administration Act, Public Procurement Act, Civil Servant Act and relating other laws created legal accountability in the context of Nepal.

Administrative accountability

Auditors, inspectors, and controllers next to the courts form, a wide range of quasi-legal forums exercising independent and external administrative and financial supervision and control and have established in the past decades - some even speak of an ‘audit


explosion’ (Power, 1994). These new administrative forums vary from European, national or local ombudsmen and audit offices to independent supervisory authorities, inspectors general, anti-fraud offices and chartered accountants (Pollitt and Summa, 1997). Also, the mandates of several national auditing offices have been broadened to secure not only the probity and legality of public spending but also its efficiency and effectiveness (Pollitt and Summa, 1997). These administrative forums exercise regular financial and administrative scrutiny, often on the basis of specific statutes and prescribed norms (Harlow, 2002).Nepal, for example, has formed administrative accountability through legal basis like Land Management Act, 2021, Copy Right Act, 2059, Citizenship Act, 2063 and concerns other laws.

Professional accountability

Apart from being general managers, many public managers are professionals in a more technical sense. They have been trained as engineers, doctors, veterinarians, teachers or police officers (Abbot 1988; Freidson 2001). This may imply accountability relationships with professional associations and disciplinary tribunals. Professional bodies lay down codes with standards for acceptable practice that are binding for all members. These standards are monitored and enforced by professional supervisory bodies on the basis of peer review. Such type of accountability relationship is particularly relevant for public managers who work in professional public organizations such as hospitals, schools, police, district administration office, local development office and need professional accountability to perform their job smoothly.

Social accountability

Due to a perceived lack of trust in government among interest groups, charities and other stakeholders, there is an urge in many western democracies for more direct and explicit accountability relations between public agencies on the one hand and clients, citizens and civil society on the other hand (McCandless, 2001). Influenced by the debate on corporate social responsibility and corporate governance in business, more attention has been being paid to the role of NGOs, interest groups and customers or clients as relevant ‘stakeholders’ not only in determining policy but also in rendering accountability (European Commission, 2001; Rekenkamer, 2004). Agencies or individual public managers should feel obliged to account for their performance to the public at large or, at least, to civil interest groups, charities, and associations of clients.

6. Good governance is holistic approach to implement street level bureaucrats’ norm in practiceHuman relations and civil servants' accountability are fundamental tools for street level bureaucrats and also essential for holistic development. In fact, in a broader sense, accountability helps to develop a human relation, which is beneficial for various activities in the organization, practically in local level. It develops a common culturale to create network within intra-organization and outside-organization to maintain formal


and informal relation between concerned actors, to solve the problem, to build a social network among concerned actors and exchange view and ideas for innovative work or tackle the problems in organization at local level or national level.

In addition, a key point of accountability is ethics, and commitment, which also plays a role in interpersonal relations. Particularly, ethics refer to moral rules or values governing the conduct of a person or group. Perhaps more than anything else, an individual’s adherence to values related to what is morally right determines the respect that others hold for that person. Lack of respect for one individual by another is likely to lead to poor human relations among concerned actors. But co-ordination, trust, relationship and compromise in common interest is very dynamic way to handle a difficult problem. For example, in China, Shanghai city, in recent year, the police authority was highly succesful to reduce various crimes such as burglary, fraud and robbery from the society, through a mediation and regular dialogue with stakeholders, local community, media and relating other actors. Many countries, such as Nepal, China, and Singapore have adopted a concept of “neighborhood police” to make friendly and truly relations with local people and community to maintain peace and security, control crime and wrongful activities. The “neighborhood police” concept is one of the perfect examples for human relations at local level.

In practice, good governance is not synonymous with government. It is instead a complex process that considers multi-level participation beyond the state, where decision-making includes not only public institutions, but also private sector, civil society and the society in general. Good governance frameworks refer to new processes and methods of governing and changed conditions of ordered rule on which the actions and inactions of all parties concerned are transparent and accountable. It embraces the relationships between governments and societies, including laws, regulations, institutions, and formal and informal interactions which affect all the ways in which governance systems function, stressing the importance of involving more voices, responsibilities, transparency and accountability of associated organizations.

Furthermore, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) highlights that governance denotes the use of political authority and exercise of control in a society in relation to the management of its resources for social and economic development. The World Bank defines governance as the way in which power is exercised in the management of the economic and social resources of any country. It takes into consideration the countries’ political regimes, the processes by which authority is exercised in the management of economic and social resources for the development of a nation, and the capacity of governments to formulate and implement policies and allocate functions. The World Bank has set three goals for good governance which include empowering citizens to hold governments accountable through participation and decentralization, enabling governments to respond to new demands by building capacity and enforcing compliance with the rule of law and greater transparency.


The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) considers governance as the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage the affairs of any country at all levels, and the mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences. Similarly to other international organizations, UNDP considers that good governance requires participation, transparency and accountability, and that it should promote the rule of law. Governance encompasses the state, but also the private sector and the civil society organizations.

Basically, good governance is helpful for the following domains which enhance to execute street level bureaucrats norms, and also know as a value of new public services:

Inter-organizational relations– basically it refers to the relationships between •union, employers and government.Inter-agency coordination – basically refers to the coordination of public •agencies at ministry, department or bureau level or lower to implement policies such as ministry of Labor and concerning other government agencies.Collaboration – usually refers to the positive relationship of union, employers •and government. Networks – normally it refers to work together / gathering for common goal. It •could be formal or informal as team work, like media, professional organizations (such as teachers' organization) academicians, government agencies, various labors unions. So networking is a tool for all agencies to achieve the public value/ common goal.Public-Private Partnership – normally it refers to the government working •closely with the private sector to deliver service or implement policies.

In fact networking system embraces the relationships between government agencies, private sectors and societies including laws, regulations, institutions and formal and informal interactions. It “affects” all the ways in which governance system functions, stressing the importance of involving more voices, responsibilities, transparency, openness and accountability of formal and informal organizations. These are key component for policy formulation, implementation and social justice. If networking system is correctly managing these policies will more effectively implement in the ground, which is also a norm of good governance and new public (administration) service.

For example, in a brief form this can list as follows:

Input Process Output Outcome Positive Impact

In the context of Nepal, the local government has played a vital role for wholist development of local level including implementing the norms of street level


bureaucrats. However, since more than a decade the local bodies have vacant due to political instability and uncertainty. So, our administrative accountability, human relations and street level bureaucrats norm are actually based on paper than action in present context.

7. ConclusionThe relationship between elected leaders (principal) and civil servants (agents) is hierarchical and could be understood to be a series of contracts of transactions between buyers of services and providers of services. In addition in the public context, the elected “buyer” attempts to shape the service to his or her preferences by laws, regulations, and executive orders, appropriations, hearings and all manner of co-management. Similarly, the bureaucratic “seller” of services is a mixture of professional education and expertise, responds to laws and constitutions and attempts to serve their clients. In this regard, Wood and Waterman conclude that there are dynamic bidirectional relationships on which legislators signal preferences to bureaucrats and bureaucrats signal preferences to legislators. However, street level bureaucrats are representation of both sides ‘buyer’ and ‘seller’. Thus, the local or street level bureaucrats’ especially local elected leaders are more important for good governance and holist development of the country and urgently necessary to fulfill the local bodies through democratic norms(election).

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Faerman, S.R. (1996).Managing Conflicts Creatively, in James L. Perry (Ed.), Handbook of Public Administration, 2nd ed, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.


Management Training to Government Auditors: A Case Study

Janak Raj Gautam*

AbstractTraining is a reliable and useful transfer of appropriate knowledge skills, attitude and behaviors to the participants that lead to the achievement of predetermined and specified outcomes. Understanding of principles, concept, human behavior, organizational parameters and practices are some of the basic elements of learning from management training in all discipline. In this regard, auditing is not an exception and there is a requirement of management education in addition to core-competency and specific-area competency for performing auditing work. Then, an independent audit institution should help promote good governance through quality audit service to the nation on managing public resources effectively and economically.

A survey found that capacity for auditors on human resources, internal governance, corporate support, continuous improvement, personality development and stakeholders are more related to the various forms of audit. The lessons from such training can promote auditors’ knowledge and skills to compare, verify, analyze, monitor, evaluate, and prepare reports on any deviation and non-compliance in financial transactions and events etc. Additionally, training on management helps to boost professional capacity of supervisory and leadership responsibilities of auditors.

1.IntroductionTraining is the consistent and effective transfer of appropriate knowledge, skills, attitude and behaviors that lead to the achievement of predetermined and specified outcomes. Organizational success largely depends upon individual commitments and competency of the staff members. Public employees are bound to update their management knowledge and skills in meeting with the changing demands and aspirations of the Nepalese people and the society. Junior and middle level managers have crucial roles in making the organization a dynamic entity.

All organizations need management, i.e. management is the basic prerequisite of all organizations. Therefore, management refers to an integrated set of functions and process designed to initiate and unify group efforts for carrying great weight directing towards certain goals. Understanding philosophy, principles, concept, theories, general applicability and universality are some of the basic fundamentals of learning from training on management education. Management involves mobilization and utilization of physical, human and other resources to judicious manner through certain skills, techniques and activities (ICAAI, 2000). Furthermore, organizational system, human * Deputy Auditor General, Office of the Auditors General. Email: [email protected]


behavior, project and financial management are also very much noteworthy aspects to learn in a better way. Sound human resource management can provide employees a rewarding and a professional environment, as well as maintaining the capabilities of the people enhanced. As a result, well trained and professionally competent work force plays a considerable role in achieving high quality output (Ka Sham, 2010).

2. Key Areas of Management Training for Auditors2.1 Objectives:The objectives of the program were to develop behavioral and managerial skills among participant auditors in general and also to make aware of organizational management systems in particular. Thus after completion of the training, the participants may be able to:

Explain about leadership qualities and interpersonal skills that require working •efficiently in group,

Describe key elements of positive thinking and creativity that affect in •performance management of the organization,

Make clear about organization learning for better results, coordination and •linkage development in organizational context,

Define the key techniques of managing organization change with regard to •resolving conflict and promoting work simplification in the work place,

Verify, discuss, challenge and search away of thinking around management •strategy and proper communication of the same,

Boost professional capacity in leading, managing , decision-making, working in •team and maintain work-life balance,

Analyze the procedures, system, human resources, personnel tasks and official •resources.

Evaluate the internal control system and test whether it is in proper operation, •and

Compare new public management and the old one for quality management in •auditing.

2.2 Leadership:The word ‘Leadership’ is the most heard in every management forum, class rooms, sessions, training, seminars, and research reports. Leadership is one’s ability to get


others to willingly follow one. It is the ability to get others or a team direct to achieve organizational goals.

A good leadership should be humble, fair, honest and open. Jack Welch said, ‘Good leader creates a vision, articulates the vision, passionately owns the vision and relentlessly drives to completion. One goes straight getting bigger and bigger becoming more and more successful. That is only a linear progress. The other takes another route to shift from big to great, and then it takes a ‘ U’ turn. A superficial journey may blast at some point of time, if you use your leadership to show you are more knowledgeable, indispensable (crucial), vital and powerful than others.

2.3 Management Knowledge and Skill to the Auditors:Government auditors with functional, supervisory and leadership responsibilities are considered to be professionally competent and performing their respective duties and accountability effectively. Therefore, auditors should be team-players, performance-oriented, job-motivated and be self-driven by ethical values. Following grid shows knowledge and skills of auditors on management to be considered while designing a management training to them (AJGA, 2011).

Table 1: Conceptual Human and technical Knowledge and Skill to Auditors on Management Training

Level of audit management Area of knowledge and skills improvement

Top Management Conceptual 40% Human 50% 10% Technical

Middle Management Conceptual 30% Human 45% Technical 25%

Operational level Conceptual 10% Human 40% Technical 50%

2.4. Conventional and Contemporary methods:According to Audit Malta of Essar Group, ‘An organization that does not learn will cease to earn. More importantly, earning is a matter of your survival successfully in future. Living at the current edge of chaos and a future state of uncertainty, alert organizations learn. The real change corrects not only auditors’ behavior but also their needs, reality, assumptions and practical functions focusing on management domain of auditing. Following table compares conventional practices with the contemporary thinking of auditing on several dimensions (ICAI, 2000).


Table 2: Conventional practice Vs Contemporary thinking of Auditing

Attributes Conventional practice Contemporary thinking

1.Composition Hierarchical position and vertical relationship

Team-based relation horizontally with well defined structures

2. Scope of work Sequential activities Simultaneous activities

3. Center of attention Financial statements and books of accounts

Entire organizational images including behaviors of office-bearers also

4.Incumbent' response Positional reactive Knowledgeable proactive

5. Auditor's successExamining quickly and spontaneously what should be done for fact finding

Following a carefully worked out audit plan and perform through the systematically for fair finding

6. ObservanceLaw, regulation, internal control should be adhered; and then work is felt dull and tedious; rules (de-jure)

Empower mindsets, inspire insights and smart and dynamic results; reasons (de-facto)

7. Senior authority How to control the auditors and regulate by strict rules

What to focus in verification, when to be attentive to results and how to coordinate the team members and audit activities

8. Behaviour Fear, mistrust, buck- passing and compliance

Fair, trust, responsibility, integrity and constructive

9. Organization Fitting people into structures

Individuals joyfully participating in self-created networks

10.PathCorridor approach of accounting with procedure-driven audit

Combining traditional route with the realm of general management accompanying process-oriented audit

3. Case Study: Management Training for Auditors3.1 Arguments:The following statements and events indicate the need of training on management education for auditors:

On 22 December, 2011, the 66• th United Nations General Assembly adopted the resolution” Promoting the efficiency, accountability, effectiveness and transparency of public administration by strengthening supreme audit Institution”(SAI). It emphasizes the role of SAI is conducive to achieve national development objectives and priorities as well as the internationally agreed


development goals (OAG/N,2012).The Auditor General’s Office of the Maldives and the Chamber of Accounts of •the Republic of Azerbaijan invited the service providers for consultancy, training and technical advice in various subject matters of human resource management, communication and public relations in addition to auditing aspects.*

Similarly, the Office of the Auditor General of Nepal (OAG/N) has given •emphasis on human resources, internal governance, corporate support, continuous improvement, and stakeholders, among the eight domains, that are more related to management education and training (IDI-ASOSAI, 2007).IDI-AFROSAI convened a regional level senior management development •program (MDP) workshop first in South Africa with 50 participants of SAI covering strategic and technical management issues in 2009. The short term and long term strategy of the program aims to raise awareness, increase management capacity, document regional management development, share knowledge and experiences, create a pool of regional resource persons and facilitate management development initiatives (IJGA, 2010). Upto June 2011, four types of management training programs were held for various SAIs auditors in synchronization with the same management program (AJGA, 2011).‘• Transparency and accountability are not governments’ gracious concessions; instead, they are the legal, ethical and moral obligation that no one can over look.’ According to Arturo Gonzdleg Aragon, former chairman of International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) Governing Board. In tuning with the same line Mr. Claes Norgen, Auditor General of Sweden has expressed that ‘Supreme audit institutions (SAIs) help their governments to improve performance, enhance transparency, ensure accountability, fight against corruptions, promote public trust and foster efficient and effective receipt and use of public resources for their citizens (AJGA, 2011). The vision of the OAG/N is, ‘an independent, efficient and effective audit institution to promote good governance’. Likewise, the mission is to “provide quality audit service to the nation for the efficient management of public resources (OAG/N, 2012).

3.2 Existing Audit Act:Audit Act, 1991 of Nepal has following provisions to link management aspects in auditing among others:

The organization, management and job allocation of offices are reasonable, • proper and operating satisfactorily; There is any duplication of work, or that any function is being performed • unnecessarily or has been omitted; The progress of work is on schedule and the quality and quantity of the work •

* www.intosai.org


produced is satisfactory; andThe objectives and policies of each office are clear and the programs are in • conformity with such objectives and policies.

3.3. Conduct of the Training Program: Considering the contextual requirements for organizational and individual capacity building of the OAG/N, Centre for Financial Management of Nepal Administrative Staff College(NASC) conducted two management training programs for the officers of the OAG/N in June 2012.The aim and contents of the program are elucidated in Table 3 (NASC, 2012 ):

Table 3: Aims and Subject matters of Training Program

Aim Subject matter and level

To help the participants to develop their leadership qualities with regard to improving their individual personality.

'Leadership and Personality Development' for the Class first Officers of OAG/N.

To enhance management capacity of the participants to develop behavioral and managerial skills and improve performance.

'Capacity Development for Effective Performance' for the Class second Officers of the OAG/N

3.4. Achievement of the Training:The participants improved their leadership and personality development skills during the program. They were able to develop leadership qualities required in their work environment. The training contributed to:

develop conceptual understandings about self-management leadership and •change management for performing as change agents in the workplace,work effectively in group and able to manage their interpersonal conflicts,•improve better knowledge and skills in decision-making and problem-solving •process,understand leadership role models in the context of Nepalese administrative •systems professionally,learn concept and process of managing-self for professional and personality •development for better results, andbuild up a positive attitude and well-behavior with a view to influence people in •an organizational environment.

3.5. Feedback and Suggestion from the Participants:Based on the feedback from the participants, following topics were found the most


useful and relevant for their individual, professional and organizational development (NASC, 2012) :

Leadership and Personality Development

Capacity Development for Effective Performance

Developing positive attitude and behavior Positive thinking and Creativity

Influencing people Capacity development for effective performance management

Managing inter-personal conflict Organizational learning and management

Managing-self and work-life balance Working in conflict

The suggestions and comments provided by the participants about other aspects were:

The program should be run as a residential course out of valley annually as a •refresher course.The training found useful for their daily life and in working environment to •manage our stress.Session should present supporting details and practical exercises regarding •financial management, accounting and auditing.Class should be run audio-visually including some movies. •The program should be exposed with field visit.•Ethical, emotional, social and spiritual learning should be included to purify •mind and knowledge.

4. ConclusionTo sum up, this paper reviews management training for the auditors considering a case of Nepal. The training was focussed on class first and second officers of OAG/N about organization and management such as structural arrangements, job descriptions, behavioral aspects, systems and other managerial requirements.

Eventually, management training, in addition to core-competency and specific-area competency of auditing, regimes in operational, supervision and top-management levels for operating, organizing, directing, monitoring, decision making and preparing policies. However, auditing is such a profession that needs having a wide-variety of knowledge on which no one has set a limit yet. In the years to come, the auditors should be familiar with the value system, i.e. what is morally right and what is not.

Furthermore, auditors should balance their work-life and also maintain their professional success and personal life. We should understand that professional success and happy personal life are not mutually exclusive. Therefore, an auditor should be physically vigorous, spiritually sound and mentally attentive.


ReferencesAbdul Kasham (2010). ASOSAI Training Specialist, ASOSAI Journal.Asian Journal of Government Audit (2011). New Delhi, October.Danida Fellowship Centre (2007).Public Sector leadership course, Danida Fellowship Centre, Copenhagen.ICAI (2000). Organization and Management, Board of Studies, The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.IDI-ASOSAI (2007).Capacity Building Need Assessment Survey, Kathmandu.LBMC (1991). Audit Act, 1991, LBMC: Kathmandu. NASC (2012). Management training programs reports of the officers of the office of the Auditor General of Nepal in June 2012.OAG/N (2012). Nepalese Journal of Government Auditing, Office of the Auditor General Nepal.The Economic Times, daily newspaper, New Delhi.US Government Accountability Office (2010).International journal of Government Auditing January, US Government Accountability Office Washington DC.www.intosai.org


New Public Management and its Significance in Nepalese Public Administration

Kushal Pokharel*

AbstractNew Public Management (NPM) entails a management philosophy which aims to revolutionize the functioning of the public administration. Primarily influenced by market oriented economic management, NPM seeks to reengineer the public sector. Against this backdrop, this article discusses into the epistemological foundation of NPM. It specifically analyzes the ecology of NPM in Nepalese context to explore a host of factors that affect NPM practices in Nepalese public administration. It also establishes linkages between effective public service delivery and the role of the NPM to make public administration more result oriented, productive and customer-friendly.

Keywords: New Public Management, Public service, Management reform.

1. Conceptualizing New Public ManagementIn ordinary parlance, the term ‘New Public Management’ (NPM) refers to government policies aimed at enhancing the effectiveness of public sector. Since the 1980s, the management philosophy of NPM has been gaining greater importance in theory and practice across the world. The reengineering of the public sector with focus on its market oriented management is the hallmark of NPM.

The NPM represents a culmination of a revolution in public management. Rather than focusing on controlling bureaucracies, public managers are expected to cater the aspirations of ordinary citizens and politicians to be an enterpreneur of “new, leaner and increasingly privatized government” (Denhardt and Denhardt, 2000). Moreover, it is centered on the proposition that a distinct activity-management can be applied to public sector, as it has been applied to the private sector with elements such as:

an adoption of private sector management practices in the public sector,• an increasing focus on efficiency,• a paradigm shift from input controls, rules and procedures towards output • measurement and performance targets,a preference for private ownership, contestable provision and contracting out of • public services, and The devolution of management control with improved monitoring and reporting • mechanisms (Aucoin, 1990; Bale and Dale, 1998).

* Freelancer Email: [email protected]


Basically, the use of the economic market as a model of political and administrative relationships is the foundation of NPM. Heavily influenced by the assumptions of public-choice theory, principal-agent theory and transaction cost economics (Kaboolian, 1998), the NPM movement is driven to maximize productive and allocative efficiencies that are adversely affected by public agencies that are unresponsive to the demands of citizens. In other words, it pertains to management culture that emphasizes the centrality of a customer or citizen as well as accountability for results.

In a nutshell, the NPM is related to the notion of re-engineering the public sector or the reinventing of government. Re-engineering seeks to revamp the process through which public organizations operate in order to increase efficiency, effectiveness, and competitive ability. In addition, it embraces client-oriented, mission-driven, quality enhanced and participatory management, using resources in new ways to enhance efficiency and effectiveness (Barzelay, 1992; Osburne and Gaebler, 1992; Halachimi, 1995).

2. Rationale of the NPM The NPM can be regarded as a normative reconceptualization of the public sector management consisting of several inter-related components. Against the backdrop of the social and economic realities which governments had to face during the past two decades (Borins, 1995), the notion of NPM emerged strongly. These realities comprise:

Too large and expensive public sectors,•The need to utilize information technology to increase efficiency,•The demand by the public for quality service, and•The gradual decline of the centrally planned economic systems which •underscored the poor performance of government service worldwide.

Other intellectual and practical justifications for the NPM have also evolved along the lines of the New Public Service (NPS) being a mutually reinforcing and normative model of managing service delivery in the public sector where values such as efficiency and productivity should not be lost, but should be placed in the larger context of democracy, community, and the public interests. According to Denhardt and Denhardt (2000, 553–557), the NPM is based on the following tenets:

Serve, rather than steer:• Public servants should help citizens articulate and meet their shared interests rather than attempts to control or steer society in new directions;The public interest is the aim, not the by-product:• Public managers should contribute to building a collective and shared notion of the public interest which should result in the creation of shared interests and shared responsibility;Think strategically, act democratically:• Policies and programs meeting public


needs can be most effectively and responsibly achieved through collective efforts and collaborative processes;Serve citizens, not customers• : Public servants should not merely respond to the demands of “customers” but focus on building relationships of trust and collaboration with and among citizens; Accountability isn’t simple:• Public servants should be attentive not only to the market but also to statutory and constitutional law, community values, political norms, professional standards, and citizen interests;Value people, not just productivity:• Public organizations and the networks in which they participate are more likely to succeed in the long run if they are operated through processes of collaboration and shared leadership based on respect for all people; andValue citizenship and public service above entrepreneurship:• The public interest is better advanced by public servants and citizens committed to making meaningful contributions to society rather than by entrepreneurial managers acting as if public money were their own.

It becomes obvious from the discussion of the above mentioned characteristics that NPM is primarily interested in solving problems that has to do with governance. Kettl (2000) has convincingly demonstrated that the governance issue is derived from the implicit assumption that the government of the past century will not effectively tackle the problems of the next and the success or failure of the NPM movement will, ultimately, depend on how deeply its reforms become an integral part of the nation’s governance system such as the political institutions and civil society. Thus, the ultimate goal of this global public management is to maintain good governance through reform initiatives inspired by NPM.

3. Administrative Reform and NPM: Nepalese ContextWith the advent of democracy in 1950, a new era of administrative reform ushered in Nepal. The Buch commission was constituted in 1952 to review the Civil Service System and make recommendations for its reorganization. Likewise, Administrative Reorganization and Planning Commission was set up in 1956 to further strengthen the Nepalese administration system. In the same way, the Administrative Reform Commission of 1968 and 1975 were also mandated with the task of making the civil service more competent and development oriented. However, these efforts were confined to traditional forms of reforms focusing on setting organization structures and formulating rules and regulations rather than making bureaucracy effective and result oriented.

The restoration of multiparty democracy in 1990 brought significant changes in the economic and political system of the country. The national planning document i.e. the Eighth Five Year Plan for the first time incorporated the policy of liberalization and privatization for accelerating the socio-economic development of the country. In the same way, a high-level Administrative Reform Commission (ARC) was established


under the chairmanship of the then Prime Minister Girija Prashad Koirala in 1991. ARC recommended some sweeping reforms in the areas of redefining the role of government, privatization, effectiveness of public service delivery, restructuring public organizations, reduction of overstaffing and right-sizing bureaucracy, procedural simplification, delegation of power and authority to the line agencies among others (ARC Report, 1992). A large number of these reform components are aligned with the ideas of NPM.

In 2001, Governance Reform Program (GRP) was introduced for the duration of 5 years under the soft loan assistance of the ADB. GRP had envisaged making the Nepalese bureaucracy more result-driven, people-oriented, and gender-responsive. Within the broader objective of GRP, following five components were focused:

To develop an internal capacity for leading reform to improve the management • structure at the center of government to lead the reform efforts. To improve efficiency of the civil service for fiscal savings by rightsizing • the government and improving the personnel management systems to support enhancing performance and outcomes. To enhance overall competence and motivation of civil servants to increase • the motivation and improve skills of civil servants by adopting modern human resource management principles and enhancing pay level. To improve governance and reduce corruption in government to strengthen • legal framework for combating corruption. To improve the performance of the key ministries of the government to deliver • better services to citizens by reinforcing a NPM culture and work process (GRP Policy Document, 2001).

Within these broader policy frameworks the Government of Nepal adopted a Road Map of Governance Reform Program in 2004. If we look at broad objectives of GRP and its Road Map thoroughly, a number of reforms are similar to NPM approaches.In 2006, after the successful people’s movement, a number of fundamental political changes have taken place in the country. Following the change in the political regime, an increasing realization for making the public service delivery more effective and hassle free is also rising. After assuming his forth tenure as the Prime Minister of the nation, Girija Prasad Koirala, in his first meeting with top bureaucrats, asked them to work for a Ten Years Vision Paper to modernize Nepalese Civil Service in August, 2006. Following the instruction of the Prime Minister, a Vision Paper Task Force was formed. The main terms of reference of the Task force was to work on the following areas:

to find out the rationale of the number of ministries and central level •organizations, to identify the ways to transfer the centralized administration to decentralize •


one,to identify the areas that can be devolved, •to explore the ways in order to make the civil service more client oriented, •accountable and responsive,to work for the balance between merit based civil service and social inclusion, •the ways to re-engineering the structures and modus operandi of the government, the ways to make decision processes less lengthy, to find out the reform measures to bring changes in the behavior and develop •positive thinking of civil servants, andto find out the point of departure of public administration (Vision Paper for Civil •Service, 2007).

In this way, although the NPM based practices have started in our public administration, they have not been implemented fully. Owing to this, ordinary citizens are still finding it very difficult to get their work done on time and without any hassles. The red tapism widely prevalent in our bureaucracy has stifled our public delivery system. Moreover, corruption and malpractices pertaining to money has made the implementation of NPM more daunting. Although there has been some serious thinking of late in our public service organizations that the need for result-oriented administrative system is urgent, the conservative mindset and the empire building nature of our politicians and administrators to expand their own sphere of influence has made the implementation of NPM based practices more daunting. In this scenario, a tabular presentation of the major reform approaches and their implementation status is presented below to give a glimpse of the status of NPM practices in our administration.

Table 1: NPM Related Reforms and Implementation Status

Major Reform Approaches Implementation Status

1.Reviewing the role of government Not implemented

2.Restructuring public organizations Not implemented

3.Rightsizing the number of employees Partly implemented

4.Improving public service delivery Not implemented

5, Procedural simplification Partly implemented

6.Managerial decentralization Not implemented

7.Human resource development Not implemented


Major Reform Approaches Implementation Status

8.Privatization Partly implemented

9.Developing internal capacity of leading reform institutions Partly implemented (only structures)

10.Improving efficiency of civil service Not implemented

11.Improving the performance of ministries Not implemented

12.Performance contract Not implemented

13.Application of 'Citizens Charter' Citizens’ Charter board are there but its spirit is not followed

Source: Report of the Administrative Reform Commission-1992, Policy Documents of Governance Reform Program, 2001-2005 and Its Road Map-2004 and Report of the Vision Paper for Civil Service-2007.

4. Factors Affecting NPM Reforms in Nepalese Public AdministrationNPM reforms are affected by a host of factors- political, bureaucratic, policy process, economic and institutional:

A. Political factors:

It is one of the most prominent factors for making NPM related reforms effective. Commitment of politico-administrative leaderships is very much crucial for leading changes in public sector. Political instability may hinder the NPM oriented reforms, but it is not a major factor in comparison to the lack of political will for the effectiveness of reform programs. To put simply, NPM related reforms may apply effectively if political parties and politico-administrative leaderships are committed to lead the reform programs with integrity.

B. Bureaucratic factors:

The understanding of bureaucrats on the spirit of reforms and support is important for effective reform initiatives. Interpersonal relationship between senior and junior level employees is pivotal to apply NPM work culture in public bureaucracy. If there is a cold relationship between upper and lower echelons in bureaucracy that may hinder application of NPM oriented work culture. Similarly, harmonious relationship between administrators and general public helps for the NPM oriented service delivery effective.


C. Policy process:

It also directly affects NPM related reforms. There may be a causal relationship between policy transfer process of NPM and its effectiveness. If there is voluntary process of policy learning from NPM approaches of reforms, it may be effectively implemented. If policy process of reforms is hurriedly made without taking sufficient time to analyze the implications of certain policy in the national context such reforms are likely to be ineffective.

D. Institutional factors:

There may be a causal relationship between reform leading/ monitoring institutions and the effectiveness of reform programs. Success story of reform programs may largely depends on the performance of reform leading/monitoring institutions. If reform leading and monitoring institutions are active and work centred they can make reform programs successful.

E. Economic factors:

The ecnomic factors may have least influence on introducing NPM oriented changes in the public sector in comparison with other factors. It may not necessary to have strong economic condition of the country to apply NPM approaches for reforming public administration. There may be minimal relationship between the application of NPM oriented reforms and donors support. In other words, NPM related reforms may apply effectively without supports from donor agencies. Reform programs may also not be effective in real sense if donors support the reform programs imposing certain aid conditions.

5 ConclusionFor effective, systematic and hassle-free public service delivery requires adhering to the principles of NPM in letters and spirits. The existing bureaucratic system of administration characterized by red tapism, despotism and unresponsiveness can be overhauled by orienting the public administration towards more customer friendly approaches of NPM injecting in the system. Decentralization of authority from upper level officials to lower level can be one of the most effective ways of getting things done in less time. Obsessed with blind rules and regulations, it becomes unthinkable to see a major overhaul in bureaucracy until our administrators change their orthodox mindset and realize that every social system including bureaucracy needs to be dynamic to match with the changing needs of society. Simplification of working procedures, focusing on transparency and accountability are pivotal to make our current public service delivery effective and accessible.


ReferencesAdministrative Reform Commission, Report (1992). Department of Printing and Publishing, Kathmandu.

Aucoin, P. (1990). Administrative reform in public management: paradigms, principles, paradoxes, and pendulums. Governance, 3(2), 115–137.

Bale, M., and Dale, T. (1998). Public sector reform in New Zealand and its relevance to developing countries. TheWorld Bank Research Observer, 13(1), 103–121.

Barzelay, M. (1992). Breaking through bureaucracy: A new vision for managing in government. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Borins, S. (1994). Government in transition: A new paradigm in public administration. A Report on the inaugural conference of CAPAM. Toronto: Commonwealth Association for Public Administration and Management.

Borins, S. (1995). The new public management is here to stay. Canadian Public Administration, 38(1), 122–132.

Denhardt, R. B., & Denhardt, J. V. (2000). The new public service: Serving rather than steering. Public Administration Review, 60(6), 549–559.

Governance Reforms Program (2001-2005). Policy Documents, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu.

Halachmi, A. (1995). Re-engineering and public management: Some issues and considerations. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 61(3), 329–341.

Kaboolian, L. (1998). The new public management: Challenging the boundaries of the management vs. administration debate. Public Administration Review, 58(3), 189–193.

Kettl, D. F. (2000). The global public management revolution: A report on the transformation of governance. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

Osborne, D., and Gaebler, T. (1992). Reinventing government. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.

Road Map, Governance Reform Program (2004). Ministry of General Administration, Government of Nepal.

Vision Paper for Civil Service, Report (2007). Government of Nepal.


The Impact of Fiscal Decentralization on District Economic Growth of Nepal: An Econometric

Analysis - K L(KhimLal) Devkota*

AbstractThis paper aims to estimate the effect of fiscal decentralization on district level economic growth of Nepal. I use panel data of 20 districts for the period of 2007-2009. The expenditure decentralization index is introduced into the model as an independent variable to test the effect of fiscal decentralization on economic growth. The regression estimates suggests that fiscal decentralization has a positive and significant effect on district economic growth. A higher level of fiscal decentralization leads to a higher economic growth. The result quantitatively supports the theories on decentralization and emphasizes the importance of decentralization on local level growth and reducing regional disparity.

Key Words: Fiscal Decentralization, Economic Growth, Nepal, District

1. Introduction In general, decentralization is the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions from the central government to intermediate and local governments (LGs). Decentralisation has been adopted in one or another form in almost all countries around the world whether a country adopts a federal or unitary system of governance. It is a long process and manifests itself in various forms and formats.

Both in the developed and developing countries, people are demanding more decentralization for participatory local democracy and local development, effective service delivery and addressing diversities. It has become an integral part of the modern governance at central, provincial and local level. It promotes democratization, equity, people’s participation and effective service delivery at local level through transfer of authority, power and responsibilities including fiscal authority and resources to lower level of the government. It may also ensure better service delivery and participatory governance.

Fiscal decentralization is the transfer of fiscal power from the central government to local government(s). It is the assignment of expenditure functions and revenue sources to LGs. In other words, it entails the assignment of resources to LGs to finance the functions for which they are responsible. It is considered as an effective policy instrument to improve efficiency in the public sector and to increase competition among * Fiscal Decentralization Expert, Local Bodies Fiscal Commission ( LBFC)and Local Governance and Community Development Program ( LGCDP), Nepal. Email: [email protected]


LGs in delivering public services. It contributes to stimulate economic growth and macroeconomic stability. It enhances the economic growth directly by increasing the efficiency of public expenditures (Samuelson, 19954, Oates 1972, 1993) and indirectly through enhancing economic efficiency, creating horizontal fiscal equality and by maintaining macroeconomic stability (Martinez-Vazquet and McNab, 2005). In recent years, there has been a growing interest among policy makers, economists, development professionals, government and development partners on fiscal decentralization as a primary tool for promoting economic growth (United Nations, 1991).

On this background, this article discusses the literature of fiscal decentralization and economic growth. It provides empirical support for theoretical argument considering a case of Nepal.

2. Fiscal Decentralization in NepalNepal is in the midst of a major political, administrative and fiscal transformation moving towards a federal governance structure. At presently, Nepal has two-tier system of LG, comprising districts as the intermediary level and municipalities and villages as the lower levels. Decentralization is not a new concept in Nepal. Several attempts were made to deconcentrate, diffuse and decentralize in the past. (Kelly, 2011 Koirala, 2011), the process initiated in 1962 ended up by creating 75 districts, 14 zones and later 5 development regions in 1972. Subsequently in 1999, the government consolidated its local governments system through enacting the Local Self Governance Act (LSGA). The current Local Government structure is embodied in the LSGA, together with the Local Self Governance Regulation, 2000. These laws pave the legal foundation for current local government structure of Nepal and define various LGs expenditure and revenue functions. These laws also provide the underpinnings for strong local autonomy in planning and budgeting. The LSGA makes an important point when it creates Local Bodies (LBs) instead of LGs.

In Nepal, the true level of fiscal decentralization started after the promulgation of Local Self-Governance Act 1999 (LSGA) and Local Self Governance Regulation 2000 (LSGR). LBs are assigned the expenditure responsibilities with revenue authorities by LSGA and LSGR. In addition every year Government of Nepal (GON) grants, both conditional and unconditional, to them. Besides, GON directly invests a huge sum of money annually for socio-economic and infra-structural development at local level through its district level agencies and offices. In addition, LBs are collecting revenues from own sources by using various types of tax and non tax sources. In fact, the LBs are mobilizing thousands of millions of financial resources every year. The resource transfer from central government to different level of local bodies and the revenue which they are collecting is, thus, expected to enhance the local economic development overtime.

3. Existing Literature The role of fiscal decentralization has been widely discussed in the literature. It has


long been held that, in theory, fiscal decentralization may be conducive to economic growth. Tiebout (1956) and Oates (1972, 1993, 1999) state if few public goods entail nationwide externalities, sub-national governments are likely to be more efficient in the production and delivery of public goods. It is also asserted that decision-making on expenditures at lower levels of government is more responsive to diversified local preferences and needs and, therefore, more conducive to production, allocative and economic efficiency. Their another argument in support of the fiscal decentralization is that, it increases the likelihood that the central government responds quickly to the demands of the local people by promoting competition among LGs. As stated by Samuelson (1954), fiscal decentralization enhances the economic growth directly by increasing the efficiency of public expenditures. Sinha and Estache (1995) mention that fiscal decentralization tends to increase both total and sub-national spending on infrastructure possibly because the preferences of sub-national governments in terms of quality and quantity of infrastructure are different from that of central government.

In fact, fiscal decentralization has many proponents, in particular as a strategy to improve service delivery at local level. Commonly accepted objectives for fiscal decentralization include those of an efficient allocation of resources via a responsive and accountable government, an equitable provision of services to citizens in different jurisdictions, and preservation of macroeconomic stability and promotion of economic growth. Boschmann, (2009) rightly says, particularly during the last two decades, countries throughout the world have been decentralizing responsibilities for infrastructure delivery from the central state to lower spheres of government.

In the same way, the World Bank (1994) stresses that improvement of basic infrastructures such as roads, water, sewerage, and electricity are essential ingredients in improving the life of the poor in many countries. As stated by the Bank these are the basic services to generate the income of the poor in the short run and enhancing the productivity of the country in the long run.

However, the empirical literature on decentralization and economic growth in the context of development is still in its infancy (Bardhan, 2002) and it is harder to confine. Kim (1995) found a positive relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth using an international panel data. Using data for 80 countries, Huther and Shah (1996) found a positive association between fiscal decentralization and economic growth. Similarly, Martinez-Vazquet and Mcnab (2001) found that fiscal decentralization may indeed have a direct impact on economic growth. Akai and Sakata (2002) used US states as their unit of analysis. They found a positive relationship between fiscal decentralization within states and state economic growth. Haldar(2007) also found that fiscal decentralization in general is positively correlated with favorable economic outcomes.

In contrast, Davoodi and Zou (1998) found a negative relationship between fiscal decentralization and economic growth in developing nations, but no relationship in developed nations. Similarly, Xie, Zou and Davoodi (1999) also found a negative, relationship between the aggregate local share of US government spending and US


economic growth. Further, using data from Chinese provinces, Zhang and Zou (1997) found a negative association between the ratio of provincial government spending to central government spending and provincial economic growth. The finding contradicts with the often-asserted hypothesis that greater decentralization is associated with higher economic growth.

Additionally, a comparative study of China and India by Jin (2009) has shown that the degree of fiscal decentralization in both countries is far from the point where its effect on economic growth becomes positive. Despite the dangers of widening disparities in terms of interregional fiscal resource distribution from further decentralization, no substantial evidence shows a trade-off between horizontal fiscal equalization and growth in either country. It suggests that an in-depth penetration of fiscal decentralization with greater emphasis on the equalization of fiscal disparities is required for significant effect on sustainable economic growth as well as social harmony in these two giant Asian countries.

In the case of Nepal, Devkota and Shrestha (2010) using the fiscal transfer data over the period 1995-2009 have estimated a regression model. They have shown that, fiscal decentralization is conductive to economic growth. Similarly, using ordinary least square estimation for 75 districts data over the period 2005-2009, Devkota (2013) found that the effect of fiscal decentralization on secondary school enrollment rate, a proxy for human development is positive.

4. Model and Empirical ResultsTo assess empirically whether fiscal decentralization is supportive to district economic growth, a simple linear model is applied:

0 1 2it it it itY a FD Xβ β e= + + +where the indices i and t denote district and years respectively. Y represents average annual per capita of district agriculture growth a proxy for the growth of district GDP per capita; FD is a index of fiscal decentralization measured as the ratio of total District Development Committees (DDCs) expenditures with the total district expenditures (DDCs and Government of Nepal). X includes a set of control variables comprising districts characteristics. These include population, primary school enrollment rate, number of primary schools and sectoral capital expenditures on education, health, road, agriculture, drinking water and others. The parameter α0 is a scalar and β represents a vector of parameters. ei is an error term, which is assumed to be normally distributed, homoscedastic, and independent across observations.

The data set for agriculture production and district level government expenditure were taken from Ministry of Agriculture Development and Financial Comptroller General Office respectively. The data set for population was derived from Central Bureau of Statistics whereas the data set for schooling and sectoral capital expenditure were taken from Department of Education and Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local Development


respectively.

All control variables used here are measured as of the initial year in each cross-section sample. The data set are from the 20 districts for the period of three years (2007-2009). Based on existing governance structure, the data set equally balances the development and ecological regions and selected on the basis of human development index and the own source revenues. The name of these sampling districts is included in Annex 1. Further, all coefficients are estimated with fixed-effects with correction for panel with heteroskedasticity and panel serial correlations. Finally, all variables are converted into logs.

The final formulations and expanded version of above model is given as follows;

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10

it it it it it it it

it it it it it

Y a FD PS PSE Pop PCEdu PCHPCR PCAgri PCDWS PCOthβ β β β β β

β β β β e= + + + + + ++ + + + +

Where, Y and FD are already explained. PS is number of total primary schools at community level in districts measured at per thousand district population. PSE is primary school enrollment rate at community schools. Pop is district population. PCEdu, PCH, PCR, PCAgri, PCDWS and PCOth represent the per capita capital expenditures in education, health, road, agriculture, drinking water and sanitation and other sectors respectively.

The estimation results are presented in Annex 2. The results show that estimated coefficient of fiscal decentralization is positive and statistically significant at 10 percent level.This finding provides evidence that fiscal decentralization contributes to economic growth.

Regarding control variables, the primary school variable is statistically significant. However, its impact is negative. The coefficients of primary school enrollment rate and population are not statistically significant. In sectoral capital expenditures, only two variables namely road and drinking water are found statistically significant. However, the coefficient of these variables is negative. None of the coefficients of sectoral capital expenditure variables are positive. It suggests that local bodies in Nepal are spending money without concrete and proper plan. However, it does not mean that they are not doing well. Needless to say, the overall expenditure is supportive to district economic growth.

5. ConclusionThe objective of this article is to analyze the effect of fiscal decentralization on district economic growth using panel data of 20 districts for the period three years (2007-2009). Based on panel regression model, fiscal decentralization is supportive to district per capita agriculture growth, i.e. the proxy of district per capita GDP growth of Nepal and it is a crucial step towards economic growth in aggregate. So, fiscal decentralization enhances the district economic growth. The finding is in line with the theory which


suggests that a close match between expenditure and revenue assignments at local government level improves allocative efficiency, production efficiency, and fiscal efficiency and hence enhances the economic growth. The positive association between fiscal decentralization and district GDP per capita growth is directly or indirectly consistent to Samuelson (1954), Tiebout (1956), Oates (1992, 1993, 1999), Kim (1995), Huther and Shah (1996), Akai and Sakata (2002), Martinez - Vazquez and Robert M. (2001,2005 ), Haldar (2007), Devkota and Shrestha (2010) and Devkota (2013).

Conclusively, the process of fiscal decentralization is conducive for economic growth and thus beneficial to the economy of Nepal. This suggests for effective implementation of fiscal decentralization for growth and regional equality.

ReferencesAkai, N. and M. Sakata (2002). Fiscal decentralization contributes to economic growth: Evidence from state-level cross section data for the United States. Journal of Urban Economics, 93–108.Bardan, P. (2002). Decentralization of Government and Development. Journal of Economic Perspective, 16 (4) : 185 -204.Boschmann, N. (2009). Development Partners Working Group on Local Governance and Decentralization. Berlin: DPWG-LGD. Davoodi, H.and H. Zou (1998). Fiscal decentralization and economic growth: A cross-country study”. Journal of Urban Economics, 43 (2): 244-57. Devkota, K.L. (2013). Effect of fiscal decentralization on human development of Nepal; SWASHASAN, The journal of Self-Governance and rural Development. Kathmandu, Ministry of Federal affairs and Local Development. Devkota, K.L. and C.L. Shrestha (2010). Impact of fiscal decentralization on economic growth of Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Development and rural Studies, Vol. 7 No 2. Dillinger, W. (1994). Fiscal Decentralization and its Implications for Urban Service Delivery. Urban Management and Municipal Finance Discussion Paper No. 16. Washington, DC: The World Bank.Halder, P. (2007). Measures of Fiscal Decentralization. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Department of Economics. Huther J. and A. Shah (1996). A simple measure of good governance and its application to the debate on the appropriate level of fiscal decentralization. Washington, DC: World Bank. Jin, Y. (2009). A Comparative Study of Fiscal Decentralization in China and India; an unpublished PhD dissertation. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University. Kelly, R. (2011). Stock Taking of Fiscal Decentralization Policies : Consolidated


Report. Kathmandu, Nepal: Local Bodies Fiscal Commission.Kim S. (1995). Fiscal decentralization, fiscal structure and economic performance: Three empirical studies. University of Maryland, Unpublished PhD dissertation.Koirala B. (2011). Report on Stock Taking of Fiscal Decentralization Policies (Expenditures). Kathmandu, Nepal: Local Bodies Fiscal Commission. Martinez-Vazquet J. and R. McNab (1997). Fiscal Decentralization, Economic Growth and Democratic Governance. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Working Paper 97-7. --------------( 2001). Fiscal Decentralization and Economic Growth. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, Working Paper 01-01. --------------( 2005). Fiscal Decentralization, Macro stability and Growth. Andrew Young School of Policy Studies, Georgia State University, working paper, 05-06. Samuelson, P. A. (1954). The pure theory of public expenditure. Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 36(4), pp. 387-389. Sinha, S. and A.Estache, ( 1995). Does Decentralization Increase Spending on Public Infrastructure? The World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, WPS 1457, Washington, DC: World Bank.Oates, W. E. (1972). Fiscal federalism. New York : Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. -------------- (1993). Fiscal decentralization and economic development. National Tax Journal, 46 ,237–243. -------------- (1999). An Essay on Theory of Fiscal Federalism, London: Harcourt Brace. Tiebout, C. (1956). A pure theory of local expenditures. Journal of Political Economy , 64, 416–424. United Nations (1991 ). Fiscal Decentralization and the Mobilization and Use of National resources for Development : issues Experiences and Policies in the ESCAP region. New York: United Nations. World Bank (1994). The World Development Report: Infrastructure for Development. Washingtan, DC: World Bank. Xie, D., H. Zou and H. Davoodi (1999). Fiscal Decentralization and economic growth in the United States. Journal of Urban Economics, 45 (2): 228-39. Zhang, Tao, and H. Zou, (1997). Fiscal Decentralization, the Composition of Public Spending and Regional Growth in India.Development Research Group Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank.


Annex 1. Name of Sampling Districts

S.N Development Region District Ecological Region

1 Eastern Development Region

Dhankuta Hill

Khotang Hill

Taplejung Mountain

Jhapa Terai

2 Central Development Region

Kathmandu Hill

Makawanpur Hill

Dolkha Mountain

Sarlahi Terai

3 Western Development Region

Gulmi Hill

Lamjung Hill

Mustang Mountain

Rupandehi Terai

4 Mid Western Development Region

Jajarkot Hill

Salyan Hill

Mugu Mountain

Banke Terai

5 Far Western Development Region

Achham Hill

Dadeldhura Hill

Bajura Mountain

Kanchanpur Terai


Annex 2. Panel regression resultsIndependent Variables Coefficient t-statistics P value

FD* 9.709 1.94 0.062

logPS* -3.567 -1.83 0.077

logPSE -0.528 -0.87 0.39

logPOP 0.760 1.42 0.165

logPCEdu 0.293 1.51 0.141

logPCH -0.039 -0.22 0.831

logPCR** -0.593 -2.06 0.048

logPCAgri 0.311 1.49 0.124

logPCDWS* -0.462 -1.95 0.061

logPCOth -0.017 -0.15 0.883

Constant -0.798 -0.58 0.565

F-value 1.67

Prob > F 0.13

R2 0.36

Hausman Stastics 22.4

p-value of Hausman test 0.0000

No of groups 20

No of observations 60

Note: Dependent Variable is the log GDP per capita growth. FD: index of fiscal decentralization measured as the ratio of total DDC expenditures with the total district expenditures (DDCs and Government of Nepal), PS: number of primary schools per thousand population, PSE: primary school enrollment rate at community schools, Pop: district population. PCEdu, PCH, PCR, PCAgri, PCDWS and PCOth represent the per capita capital expenditures in education, health, road, agriculture, drinking water and sanitation, and other sectors respectively.

* and ** indicate variables whose coefficients are significant at 5 and 10 percent levels respectively.


Demand-driven Governance: Contextual Agenda of Development in Nepal

Narayan BahadurThapa*

1. IntroductionOver the past two decades, governance has become a core development aspect. The governments of less developed countries are unable to exercise effective and accountable public authority and also unable to deliver basic public goods and services. It is due to the lack of demand driven governance system.

State should be responsible to its citizens whether or not they are organized, or they are located at centre or remote part. Citizen should not be discriminated on the basis of their social status, class geographic location, developmental stage or any other classifications.

At present, citizen centric governance is being an emerging concept. It is believed that citizen approach improves service delivery with efficiency, fairness and responsiveness. This approach strengthens the capacity of the citizen to create demand and voice as per their needs. So, decentralization and participatory planning system contribute to promote the demand driven governance. Whereas demand is basically concerned with the claim by the people for their citizen right, decentralization and participatory planning are concerned with the governance which deals with involvement of concerned stakeholders in decision making process in resource mobilization and sharing. So, citizens can raise the demand if they are empowered properly by using appropriate tools such as social mobilization.

The current trend in Nepal is social inclusion and demand-driven governance, reflected in three year interim plan of National Planning Commission. The three year interim plan is based on provisions made by the Interim Constitution for the development of rights, promotion of inclusive local democracy and a policy of making the local governance bodies the subsidiary government responsible and accountable for service delivery and local development works. The plan delineates a participatory planning system based on people’s aspirations and local demand through inclusion and mainstreaming at the local level.

2. Demand Driven Governance2.1 ConceptConceptually, governance is linked with the ideological triumph of neo-liberalism. The theoretical roots of governance are located in ‘neo-liberal’ economic theories, especially ‘new right ideology’. Government is ‘redefined’ in market paradigms by redrawing boundaries of public administration. In the new dispensation, governance

* Program Director, National Planning Commission Secretariat Email: [email protected]


is an interface between state, market, and civil society. The ‘governance’ discourse has its origin in, (1) the new thrust towards neo-liberalist restraint on the ‘state’ along with the positing of ‘market’ as a competing social authority and bringing in ‘civil society’ as a provider of local-level social service, (2) the international funding authorities’ (Particularly, the World Bank) concern for more accountable, transparent, open and participative rule, and (3) the newly, emergent ‘globalization’ trend-a socio-economic integration of the world propelled by economic, technological, and political considerations. (Chakrabarty and Bhattacharya, 2008: 21).

By definition, governance is the exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It is an old English word, referring to people who had authority over others, which in centuries past meant mostly religious and political leaders in the community, but it could, conceivably, also include leaders of other organizations. It fell out of common use after the eighteenth century, more particularly after the French Revolution when much of what was to become the modern administrative bureaucratic state evolved in Europe. Instead, the word ‘government’ replaced it to describe leadership of the nation-state, with its political arrangements heading a professional public service in an enlarging public sector.

The revival of the term ‘governance’ dates from the second half of the twentieth century, when opposition arose to Big Government, expressed: (1) ideologically, by fears of a forthcoming return to serfdom, as epitomized by totalitarian regimes; (2) politically, by mounting criticism of higher taxes and public expenditures; (3) pragmatically, by the increasing practice of having out government activities to a mélange of non-governmental organizations; (4) socially, by complaints about the inadequacy of public sector performance that was failing to live up to political promises and public expectations; (5) globally, by increasing interdependence that poses challenges to existing governmental arrangements; and (6) academically, by a shift from the static approach of the positive paradigm focusing on objectivity to post-positivism that stresses complexity, interconnections, interactions, and processes (Caiden, Gerald E.2008: 105-106).

The term ‘governance’ put government in its proper place as only one of several social institutions that alone or through mutual cooperation meets contemporary challenges. Cleveland’s analysis fits nicely into a future that would de-emphasize government, the administrative state and public management, and strengthen institutional alternatives that would play a more important part in public policy and the delivery of public goods and services (Caiden and Gerald, 2008: 107).

By meaning, demand is a desire and ability to get and a claims for something. In the sense of governance, it is an act of asking especially with authority. Demand driven governance is for bottom-up development in to the contrast supply-driven development which is more centralized and guided. It is a form of decentralized governance and is mostly concerned with developing countries. According to Lier, Haugand Regmi, demand-driven governance is an approach to development which emphasizes:

A decentralized component of resource allocation and distribution,-


Substantial participation and co-determination from local actors and civil - society organizations,Alignment and coordination with political authorities and governance structures - at a local scale, or a future plan to establish such a relationship,A set of ‘checks and balances’ to insure local transparency and allow community - constituencies to hold state and developmental systems accountable (bottom-up accountability) (Lier, Haug and Regmi, 2009: 7).

The concept of demand-driven governance is like a slogan. It combines different words such as community, demand, governance, development, democracy and others. Fundamentally, it focuses on demand for something less tangible, such as accountability or transparency. So, the demand side of good governance addresses the will of the state to operate in an accountable, transparent and responsive manner (Lier, et al., 2009: 6).

Osborne and Gaebler prescribed customer driven government to meet the needs of citizens in their book Reinventing Government. The single best way to make public service providers responding to the needs of their customers is to put resources in the customers’ hands and let them choose. When the citizens handle the resources, they can choose the destination and rout according to their needs. But at present, citizens are not the customer. They are service holder implying limitation of the concept of Osborne and Gaeblerin present governance scenario.

2.2 Limitations of Demand Driven GovernanceAn evaluation of the demand-driven approach by the UN’s International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) reveals some challenges in the implementation of these programs on the ground (IFAD, 2008). First, community mobilization was an effective strategy, but only succeeded in involving a small proportion of the population. Second, the poorest communities struggled to participate, as they could not afford to raise the small amount of the investment costs which the beneficiaries were required to contribute. Third, the approach was more successful in the area of social investments, as opposed to income-generating projects, as the former issue was more suitable for village-level mobilization. Fourth, without any strong linkages to government structures, the different demand-driven initiatives were too scattered to create synergy effects in terms of local economic development. In sum, the evaluation argued for a higher level of coordination and alignment between donors, government structures and community-based organizations. In other words, demand-driven development would arguably be more successful if it contained a component of demand-driven governance (Lier, Haug and Regmi, 2009: 9).

2.3 Participatory Planning and Demand Driven GovernanceIn general, participatory planning process is simply the involvement of a group of directly benefited people in all stages of the development planning cycle. It includes their participation in the initiation, identification, design, implementation, monitoring


and evaluation, benefit sharing, maintenance and follow up of the planning. It involves an active involvement or collaboration of all concerned stakeholders including policy makers, officials and beneficiaries.

Conceptually, participatory planning is closer to the governance approach that demands active involvement of multi-stakeholders in common issues. It fosters democratic values and cultures at local level. As people are involved as active players, it helps to develop a high level of ownership in development activities and increases transparency in planning and programming. It is a process-oriented approach which blends the expertise of planners with transcendental knowledge of local citizens. In the process, both types of knowledge are combined and transformed into collective action. It is a social learning process and helps to create enthusiasm in the community that leads and effective and efficient implementation. Participatory planning concept is based on the philosophy that people in general have the following inherent aims:

They seek knowledge to enable them to improve their own situation,- They desire freedom, in which they can engage in productive activities,- They wish to organize themselves in autonomous, social groupings in order to - gain access to services, to acquire social security and to exercise their rights.

Participatory local planning encourages people’s participation in planning and implementation of development program and mobilizes and uses local resources more effectively and efficiently. It also promotes social inclusion and enhances community initiatives in finding creative solutions for local problems. Basically, it is a demand driven planning process which builds ownership of people and stakeholders and supports to strengthening democratic decentralization and sustainable development. Therefore, participatory local planning process came into existence as a new phenomena and pertinent part of development (Thapa 2066: 99).

The governance engagement with formal or informal groups of citizens, and or service oriented organizations such as NGOs and cooperatives will be part of the strategy of local planning (Paudeland Chapagain: 9).Responsive and representational governance must be established across all political scales, and decentralization is seen as a prerequisite for local accountability in development programs. Following figure presents flowchart of local planning process in Nepal. Local Self-Governance Act, 1999, Local Self-Governance Regulation, 2000 and Nepal Government’s guidelines have clear steps for bottom up Participatory Planning. These steps of planning have been exercises since past one and half decades.


Planning Process at VDC and Municipal Level in Nepal

Local Self-Governance Act, 1999, Local Self-Governance Regulation, 2000 and Nepal Government’s guidelines have clear steps for bottom up Participatory Planning. These steps of planning have been exercise since past one and half decades. Although these steps being effective example of participatory planning process in South Asian sphere, due to the absence of elected representatives at DDC, VDC and Municipalities it has hampered to materialize steps smoothly and effectively in Nepal. So, some alternative provisions have been arranging in participatory planning process at VDC and Municipal level as shown in the figure below.


According to LSGA and LSGR community and ward committees are very powerful for participatory planning. Recently, to fulfill the gap of elected representative “Ward Citizen Forum is active for Participatory Planning by creating the Demands and Integrated Planning Committee with Inclusive representation.

Whereas, the planning process has been adopting at local level, but some practical limitations are also in existence at field level. Communities and civil society organizations have a high capacity to generate demands, the government’s capacity to respond, to plan, to priorities and to implement is limited in Nepal. Therefore it is argued that building the capacity of governance institutions is a crucial challenge.

3. Social Mobilization and Demand Driven GovernanceGenerally, social mobilization is a dynamic, democratic and participatory process of empowering the people especially those who are poor and socially excluded. It is a process that opens new possibilities in the society and generates social mutual understandings and social cohesion. It also contributes for the access to resources and to acquire appropriate support and skills required for economic development. It is also a process of mobilizing people in developing their own institution for the common benefit by creating social capital. Therefore, social mobilization is found to be a very practical strategy to bring stakeholders, particularly the citizens, in the governance activities, like local planning.

Social mobilization has been accepted as an effective means to facilitate voice, demand and influence of citizens and to improve absorption capacity at the grassroots. It is a movement in achieving development goal through self-reliant efforts. It takes in account the felt needs of the people, embraces the critical principle of community involvement and seeks to empower individuals and groups for action.


Social mobilization is necessary for effective engagement of citizens in governance process. It empowers the people and strengthens the capability of citizens whether in group or personal basis and contributes to create the voice or demands of citizens. It strengthens the bargaining power and makes capable for good negotiation which supports to reflect the voice in to response. It also supports for downward and upward accountabilities of service provider and recipients.

Social mobilization is a movement in achieving development goal through self-reliant efforts. It takes into account the felt needs of the people, embraces the critical principle of community involvement, and seeks to empower individuals and the groups for actions. Therefore it is accepted as an effective means to facilitate voice, creates demands and helps for accountable governance.

Conceptually, social mobilization supports to empower the citizen and community to attain the result in a sequential way. Different inputs like opportunity to share in resource, involvement in public activities, equal political rights are essential to the citizen and community members. These inputs make aware their role and create new ideas. The process contributes to make a responsible and accountable governance system and creates conducive environment for response of demand and voice of citizen and community by introducing proper negotiation and improving the access of citizen in governance process.

Osmani has described social mobilization as an essential element of citizen empowerment. The process of social mobilization must therefore be accompanied with measures that support to remove extreme insecurities of the poor. It is essential to make conscious effort at social mobilization with the help of change agents. But so long as the poor suffer from extreme economic insecurity, illiteracy and lack of self confidence. They might be able to exercise effective bargaining power with the help of social mobilization.

The sustainability and legitimacy of demand driven approaches depends on how to establish accountability and coordination with local governments and other structures of governance. Training programs on participatory planning, leadership promotion and social inclusion that have been implemented with donor supported programs like DLGSP, RUPP, and LGCDP require through assessment. Social mobilization is the main approach used by different projects directly or indirectly to transfer project assets in Nepal. The processes of empowerment, building voice and agency that should be in intrinsic part of the social mobilization appearing to be secondary and in some cases invisible. Mobilization is contracted by projects to NGO service providers who subcontract to social mobilizers. As a result, when the contract ends, the social mobilization ends with neither the scope of career development of the mobilizer nor continued supports to the groups (Hobleyand Paudyal, 2008: viii).

4. Accountability, Citizen’s Voice and Demand Driven GovernanceIn a democracy, the state is the servant of the people. It performs many functions essential for the welfare and development of its citizens and provides an array of


essential services many of which are ‘public goods.’ The state collects taxes from the people to discharge its functions and is accountable to society for the proper use of the resources entrusted to it. Periodic elections are seen as the ultimate lever that citizens can use to hold those wielding power in the name of the state accountable for their performance. But, the dilemma is that while much happens between elections in terms of transactions between the state and its citizens, there is little an individual citizen can do in the short run if things go wrong in the discharge of functions or services by the state agencies. Waiting for the next election is of little help to a citizen who needs immediate corrective action. The problem arises because the citizens have no ‘exit’ unlike in the marketplace where they can exit from one supplier of a good or service to another. When citizens have no exit option, they can only vent their feelings through ‘voice.’ Voice may take the form of protest, non-cooperation, or the rejection of political representatives through the ballot process. Collective action in any of these forms can act as an instrument of accountability, signaling the authorities that they must listen to the people’s voice and take remedial action. Of these different forms of voice, the ballot process is the most difficult to access because of the long time gap between elections. Other forms of collective action are more easily resorted top when people face problems continually with the functioning of governments, especially with the delivery of services.

There is a growing literature on the use of voice as an aid to accountability and evidence from numerous experiments based on this approach. A framework for accountability is presented in World Development Report (WDR), 2004. WDR uses the term ‘client power’ to denote the voice of the users or clients, who are larger and more powerful than a mere client of public services. Citizens, for example, have rights and avenues for action that may not always be available to mere clients. The preference of this author, therefore, is to use the term ‘citizens’ voice (Paul 2008: 162).

The WDR framework refers to the long route and the short route of accountability. Both operate in a circular fashion (see Fig. 4). Citizens/clients can use voice to signal policy makers and leaders on their needs and problems. The latter in turn can hold service providers accountable for the delivery of services through a compact, much as a contract, with explicit terms and obligations of a mutual kind. Service providers then deliver services through their frontline workers and units that directly interface with citizens. Accountability here is enforced through the use of voice that works through the political process. In the short route, the linkage between citizens and providers is more direct. Here, client voice directly impacts on the provider and accountability is achieved through this direct pressure.

But, the big question is whether this framework can actually be made workable. The logic is appealing. In a democratic setting, listening to the people or responding to their collective voice seems desirable and feasible. Are there barriers that can derail or weaken these linkages? (Paul,2008:164).

The figure below highlights two sets of barriers, one that could weaken the power of voice and the other that can render the compact ineffective. Voice, for example,


will not work when citizens/clients do not have necessary information or knowledge to make it effective. Even if people are educated but have no access to information, then the outcome will be no different. Thus, governments can create barriers to voice by denying people’s knowledge about their rights and entitlements and standards and norms pertaining to services. Even when such information is available, if citizens do not have a sufficient background for understanding this information, it can potentially act as a barrier to voice. The poor often tend to suffer from this handicap (Paul, 2008: 164-165).

There are equally important barriers to collective actions as a form of voice. Collective action demands for time, organizational skills and resources. It requires capacity to identify key issues and knowledge about possible remedies. The poor, typically, are weak in terms of these capabilities. When they are struggling to survive, they may neither have the ability nor the incentives to invest in collective action. It is the reason why intermediary organizations (such as NGOs) enter the scene and organize the poor and marginalized communities. Collective action is easier to organize for the better-off deprived section of the society. Nevertheless, it is an uphill task even for them because of the ‘free rider’ problem and the indifference characteristic of many middle-class citizens who seek easy exit. It is not uncommon, for example, for people to pay a bribe to get their work done (Paul,2008: 164-65).

5. Conclusion Demand-driven governance model must be context-specific, flexible and should emphasize facilitation of community-local state relations from the beginning. The intervention should capitalize on what it exists. It must include targeted representation


of minorities and women and, possibly, alternative forms of community organization that foster reconciliation between the factions of the society.

Social mobilization need to empower people from all sections of society and also empower relevant institution and mechanisms. The strategy for social mobilization and community empowerment should be multi track. Accordingly, providing relevant information and space for voice of their demands, engaging citizen in public affairs, disseminating information through different media (electronic and print), organizing events (public auditing, debates and dialogue) frequently and institutionalizing structures and processes are also effective measures to ensure demand driven governance.

Engagement of citizen groups or local organizations in local governance is also the main contribution of social mobilization. It improves the quality and scope of citizen engagement in local governance and enhances public service delivery. The envisaged situation is that the citizens are empowered, skilled, and have necessary mechanism for their meaningful participation in public services delivery by local authorities and public service agencies. The participation should be ensured in the aspects such as planning, implementation, monitoring and feedback.

Working on the demand side of governance equation is an effective way to achieve good governance. There is no doubt that supply side, inter-alias, building institutional infrastructure, promotion of education, developing innovation techniques, reforming administration and insuring impartial accountability should also be considered. Both supply and demand side endeavors must combine for governance outcomes.

ReferencesAdhikari(2006). Towards Local Democracy in Nepal: Power and Participation in District Development Planning. PhD Dissertation submitted to the University of Dortmund.

Hobley and Rai (2008).Study of Income Generating Activities in Kapilvastu and Ramechhhap Districts, Nepal.

Lier, H. and Regmi (2009).Demand- driven Governance: An Analysis of the Intervention of International Agencies. Norwegian Institute for Urban and Regional Research, Guastadalleen 21, Oslo.

Thapa, N.B. (2066). “Local Planning Process: Nepalese and Indian Experiences,” SWASHASANThe Journal of Self-Governanceand Rural Development, 33, Ministry of Local Development: 97-106.

Paudel, P. and Chapagain (2008).”Study on Social Mobilization/Community Empowerment Strategy and DLGSP Exit Strategy”Kathmandu.

Chakrabarty, Bhattacharya, (2008).The Governance Discourse. New Delhi: Oxford university Press.


Caiden, E.(2008). The Repositioning of Public Governance.Chakrabarty, Bidyut and Bhattacharya, Mohit (ed.), The Governance Discourse (103-131). New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Paul, (2008).Auditing for Social Change.Chakarabarty, Bidyut and Bhattacharya, Mohit (ed.), The Governance Discourse (160-178). New Delhi: Oxford University press.

http: www.ied.eth,ch/news...birner.pdf. (assessed on 29 Jan, 2011).


Factors Affecting Nepal’s Economic DevelopmentDr. Balkrishna Subedi*

AbstractThe development process of an economy mainly depends on the economic factors such as natural resources, infrastructure, monetary and fiscal policy, agricultural and industrial development and so on. But these factors are not sufficient for the rapid economic development of a country. Development process is affected by human endowment, socio-cultural and political condition, organizational pattern, and administrative system as well. It is important to know that these factors are not independent but tend to reinforce and influence each other. However, a detailed study in a particular factor is needed to suggest policy interventions in which a particular country should pay attention for growth and prosperity.

1. Conceptual FrameworkEconomic development is a frequent slogan of the contemporary society especially in the less developed countries. It is an integrated process in which all the sections of the society are expected to actively participate and cooperate. It is not only concerned with economic but also with many non-economic factors. Non-economic factors may be scientific advancement, capacity to invest, number of children and household size. Meanwhile the economic factors may be availability of economic resources, capital formation and productive resources.

United Nations Research Institute for Social Development has developed a list of economic and socio-demographic indicators of economic development. The economic indicators include agricultural production, electricity consumption, foreign trade including import and export and transport and services available to the society as a whole as well as per capita. Under the socio-demographic indicators, infant mortality rate, expectation of live birth, doctor-patients ratio, crude birth rate, literacy rate of the society, available housing facilities and number of telephone users per thousand population are included (cited in Raj, 1988). According to Prof. Cairncross-

“Development is not just a matter of having plenty of money but is it purely an economic phenomenon. It embraces all aspects of social behavior the establishment of law and order, scrupulousness in business dealings, including with the revenue authorities, relationships between the family literacy, familiarities with mechanical gadgets and so on.”

Since economic development is closely associated with human endowment, social attitudes, political condition and historical accidents, only economic attributes are not sufficient for development. Political, psychological, social and cultural requirements are equally important for development (Jhingan, 1986).

* Lecturer, Tribhuvan University. Email: [email protected]


2. Nepal’s Development ScenarioNepal started its planned development effort in 1956 and now has an experience of 56 years. The country has achieved remarkable progress in the areas such as road, irrigation, drinking water, information and communications, literacy and life expectancy. However in terms of economic growth, the progress is not satisfactory. The economic growth rate, a major indicator of economic development, is not at desired level. Achieving a double digit growth rate has been a dream due to various underlying impeding factors. Energy crisis has been a major constraint for economic development affecting all aspects of life and economic activities. Given this background, this paper discusses following economic and non-economic factors which affect the economic development of Nepal.

3. Economic Factors3.1 Natural Resources

Natural resources such as land, forest, minerals, climate and water resources are determining factors in the pace of economic development. The composition of land and its fertility, availability of minerals and water resources all have greater role in development. Generally, a country which has sufficient natural resources will be fortunate to develop its economy rapidly. For example, Australia has abundant land leading to comparative advantage to produce commodities such as wool, mutton and wheat. Similarly, Nepal can specialize in the utilization of water resources and can earn a huge amount of foreign currency. Forest fire, uncontrolled grazing, export of boulder, illegal collection and export of non timber forest products and use of forest area for other purposes are seen frequently in forest sector (Three Year Plan, 2010/11 - 2012/13). Furthermore, the investment in mineral resource development in Nepal is almost negligible. So, Nepal has failed to optimally utilize its natural resources.

3.2 Capital Formation

Capital formation is another important factor for development process. The process of capital formation passes through different phases - saving, financial institution for the mobilization of saving and investment in capital goods are basic requirements of capital formation. Establishment of financial institutions in the remote and backward areas to collect capital and to invest in productive sector through desired channels is an urgent need of developing countries like Nepal. Establishment and expansion of such institutions can help the development process through mobilizing financial resources. It is also equally remarkable that one fourth of the population lives below poverty line whose propensity to consume is high leading to almost nil saving. Even the affluent segment of the society may not have strong motive to save and invest, particularly in contemporary Nepal. Financial resources are either horded or invested in unproductive sectors such as purchasing gold, jewelry or investing in real state. Furthermore, money is frequently used to meet cultural and social requirement to maintain higher status in the society. Unproductive consumption among affluent group has also created


constraints in saving and investment. So, to increase income and saving, government should launch programs targeting lower income group in the society through saving incentive mechanism.

Low interest rates on bank deposits, increase in consumption pattern, high rate of inflation and limited financial access especially in rural areas are the major problems in mobilizing savings towards productive channels.

3.3 Size of Market and Foreign Trade

The market size affects productivity since large size of markets allows firms to produce in large scale. In the era of globalization, international market has become a substitute for domestic market. There is emperical evidence showing that open trade is positively associated with development. The perfect market competition both at domestic and foreign markets are important for driving market efficiently and thus enhancing business productivity by ensuring production of goods and services by the most efficient firms. Recent Financial Crisis, 2008 is an evidence of high degree of interdependence of the economies worldwide. Specialization and division of labor increases productivity. This also helps large scale production. Both agricultural and industrial development is impossible in the absence of division of labor and specialization. The market with small size does not provide incentive to the division of labor, specialization and also to the large scale production. Nepal is facing this problem due to small domestic market. The share of export and import in total foreign trade remains 14.1 percent and 85.9 percent respectively (MoF, 2012). In the same way, trade balance is one of the major challenges of development in Nepal. A large amount of foreign currency has been needed to import consumer goods rather than it in investment and capital formation.

3.4 Physical Infrastructure

Extensive and efficient infrastructure base is an important requirement for ensuring the effective functioning of an economy. It shapes spatial allocation of economic activities and sectors of activities can develop in a particular economy. Well-developed infrastructure reduces the effect of distance between regions, integrating domestic market and connecting it at low cost to the markets in other countries and regions. Furthermore, the quality and extensiveness of infrastructure significantly impacts economic growth and reduces economic inequalities and poverty in a variety of ways. A well-developed transport and communication infrastructure network and power supply is a basic requirement for access to the core economic activities. Telecommunication network helps for a rapid and free flow of information, which increases overall efficiency by helping to ensure that business can communicate and decisions are made by economic actors taking into account all available relevant information. Physical infrastructures are mostly concentrated in urban area compared to rural area. So, effective modes of transport such as roads, railways, ports and air transport enable entrepreneurs to get their goods and services to market in secure and timely manner and facilitate the movement of workers to the most suitable and profitable jobs. Furthermore, due to lack of free flow of interregional transportation, apple in Jumla has damaged while we are importing large quantities of such fruits from our neighboring countries. Regular


supply of electricity helps to run the business and factory regularly and contributes for efficient production.

3.5 Agriculture Development

Agriculture sector contributes more than one third to Nepal’s GDP. More than two thirds of its population depend on it for their employment. However, the government has failed to ensure smooth supply of fertilizer, seed, pesticides, provide agricultural loan, research and extension services, etc. to farmers. The agricultural research and extension programs have so far failed to reach the large majority of farmers. High cost of borrowing from financial institutions also affects agriculture. The agriculture sector has not been modernized. Irrigation facilities are provided in a very limited area to dampen agricultural production and productivity. Further, land reform has been made an agenda of political parties only in the time of election to reach in power.

3.6 Industrial Development

Industries play an important role in the economic development of a country. Nepal has low development of medium and large scale industries. The share of contribution of this sector in GDP is 14 percent only. Even small scale industries are not well developed due to lack of raw materials and insufficient financial resources. They are also facing market competition due to the liberal policy adopted by the government. This is the reason why more people are concentrated in agricultural sector though it is less productive.

Poor industrial relation between the industrialist and labor is the main hindrance for industrial development. Lack of clarity in legal provisions, unavailability of appropriate technology for quality product, weak linkage with market and lack of confidence of entrepreneurs are major problems faced by the industrial sector.

3.7 Monetary and Fiscal Policy

The monetary policy of a developing country also plays a crucial role in the development process by affecting the costs and availability of credit, by controlling for inflation and maintaining equilibrium in the balance of payment. Monetary policy is an important tool to maintain price stability by adjusting money demand and supply. An imbalance between the two will reflect in the price level-inflation or deflation of money supply. In the development process of an economy, the demand for money increases due to monetization and an increase in agricultural and industrial production.

Furthermore, monetary policy can help to narrow down the balance of payments deficit through high rate of interest. A higher interest rate may attract foreign investment and may help in bridging the balance the payment gaps. A high interest rate policy is also anti-inflationary by discouraging borrowing and investment for speculative motive and in foreign currencies. It also promotes an allocation of scarce resources in more productive channels.

Fiscal policy should be oriented towards the public spending in basic infrastructure to


generate more employment and income. However, the scenario of capital expenditure has not increased as desired. Some construction works are done by the end of the fiscal year only to comply the formality.

4. Non-economic Factors4.1 Human Resources

Manpower is an active source of production and development. But the pace of development depends on the quality, capacity and skills of existing manpower. Well educated and trained people have better skills and higher efficiencies required for production process. It is equally important to create qualified and trained manpower. For this, investment on social services such as health, education and training is needed. Due to lack of vocational education and training, Nepal’s human resource is not fully fit for the rapid economic development.

Present globalizing economy requires well educated workers who are able to adapt with changing environment and the evolving needs of the production system. Enhancing secondary and tertiary enrollment rates as well as the quality of education is an urgent need. The extent of staff training is also taken into consideration because of the importance of vocational and continuous training which is neglected in our country. Crude theoretical education alone cannot meet the contemporary needs.

Social attitude towards education seems to be unfriendly to economic development. Purely academic education provides knowledge only for non-clerical jobs. It is preferred to technical and vocational education in developing counties due to prejudice against manual work. This is also the reason why developing countries are technically backward and educational institution whether primary, secondary and tertiary are regarded as the factory to produce unskilled and unemployed manpower. Nepal is not an exception in this case.

4.2 Public Administration

Sound administrative system is another key requirement for the economic development of a country. The weak administrative structure is a severe bottleneck for development. Administrative procedure and excessive regulatory burdens hinder the investors to invest. Official delay, red-tapes and corruption, dishonesty in dealing with public contracts, lack of transparency and trust worthiness, and the political dependence of the judicial system impose significant economic costs to business and slow down the pace of development. Inefficient administration creates impediments to the sustainable socio-economic development. Lack of effective mechanism to discourage irregularities and the direct interference of political parties on administration are major problems prevailing in administration. Furthermore, official delay and corruption may hinder plan and project implementation dampening the pace of development in Nepal.

A stable, strong and efficient administrative mechanism is seemed equally important for the implementation of development planning. Economist Lewis thinks about a strong, competent and incorrupt administration as the first condition for the successful


planning. Most developing countries are facing difficulties in development due to a lack of efficient and reformed administration. The institutional environment is determined by the legal administrative framework within which individuals, firms and governments interact to generate income and wealth in the economy. The role of sound and fair institutional environment has become even more apparent during the period of economic crisis, given the increasing role played by the state in the economy.Improved public sectors delivery with good corporate governance will minimize costs and support development process.

4.3 Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship is another economic factor of development. An entrepreneur can organize and optimally allocate all other factors of production. He/she bears the risk and uncertainty and earns profit from production. They have to forecast demand and supply of products and other factors affecting price situation. Entrepreneurial ability in developing countries is not much strong due to outdated technology, small size of market, capital deficiency, lack of skilled and trained manpower and lack of sufficient and quality transportation.

The growth of advanced economy such as Japan, United Kingdom and United States of America is the result of entrepreneurial ability of producers in the respected countries. Entrepreneurs could combine all other factors of production from domestic and international markets and forward the production process in optimum scale and also calculate demand more precisely. As a result, their economy was rapidly developed.

Nepal has low development in entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs are not interested to bear high risk, seek short run projects, invest mostly in less productive portfolios and have low level of confidence due to prolonged political transition. To develop entrepreneurial ability in Nepal, government must facilitate entrepreneurs through several ways. There should be created an appropriate environment to encourage entrepreneur to participate in economic activities. To improve existing institutions, market imperfection should be removed. Similarly, monopolistic institutions should be controlled and must create competitive environment. Rules and regulations are introduced to run entrepreneurial activities without disturbances. Similarly, skilled and qualified manpower such as technicians, managers and administrators should be developed. Financial institutions should be established to facilitate entrepreneurs.

4.4 Technology

Technology is another element for competition. The economy should adopt modern technology available in the global market. The average cost of production will be higher due to the technological backwardness. It also results low productivity of capital and labor. Nepal is also facing problems of low productivity. Nepal is still using outdated and orthodox technology especially in rural area which has made the development process too slow and more costly. Even in urban areas, the producers use highly labor-intensive technology due to lack of financial resources. So, the adaption of modern technology in production is absolutely necessary for the betterment of the


economy. Foreign direct investment (FDI) plays an important role could be a major source of foreign technology.

4.5 Geographical and Climatic Condition

Geographical and climatic condition is another economic factor of development. Every country cannot produce all the required commodities due to geographical and climatic conditions. For instance, Brazil has a suitable climatic and geographical condition for the production of coffee while Bangladesh does so for jute. Due to spatial variation, Nepal can specialize sheep farming in the Mountain region, horticulture and fruit farming in the Hill region and food crops production in the Terai region.

4.6 Social Values and Attitudes

The development process largely depends on attitudes, norms, values and institutions existing in the society. Such values and attitudes motivate the social behavior. Changes in social attitudes, values and institutions depend on the perception of the society. On the one hand, the dynamic society seeks new discoveries and inventions and ultimately changes are witnessed. For this, economic freedom is equally important. Such freedom provides people to involve and seek new economic activities. Industrial revolution is an example of the dynamism of European society. On the other hand, rigid religious attitudes do not support modern economic development. Religious beliefs hinder the process of discoveries and inventions. Such attitudes and beliefs have no incentive to work hard and get more return. Such a social system doesn’t seek higher living standard and future security. Furthermore, such society has a deep belief on traditional customs and pays a lot of time, energy and money during festivals and ceremonies. Nepalese culture is also rooted in discriminations based on caste and gender. Gender issues are interwoven systematically into the basic social structure of Nepalese society, as are other cultural values.

The traditional religion and culture which are not supportable for development should be modified accordingly. For this, education and training should be provided for favorable environment of development. Therefore, social values, attitudes and institutions should be motivated to create an environment and to prepare a base for economic development. Better education and training help to increase knowledge which further helps self-discipline, power to think rationally, to know new techniques of production and to save and invest for the future. Such environment helps to create and promote business activities. We have to provide technical and vocational education to Nepalese youths to get better and technical jobs and high remuneration in international market.

4.7 Political Factors

Political factor is another key element for development. Political stability creates a favourable condition for the implementation of plans and projects. The rapid economic growth rate of the developed countries is one of the examples of political stability. Foreign investors in developing countries do not feel security and at the same time lose their confidence in the absence of investment friendly environment due to political


instability created by unstable government. Frequent changes in the policies and programs due to unstable government adversely affect investment friendly climate. Due to lack of sufficient capital for investment in the domestic market, most of our resources are either unutilized or underutilized.

Therefore, a stable political environment is an important requirement for strong and stable government. Such a government can provide an appropriate direction to the development process by ensuring stable and sustainable economic policies and programs. Such an environment can built up confidence and security of their investment to the investors. This is the urgent need of the developing country like Nepal where we have to use our natural resources properly.

5. ConclusionVarious factors are responsible for the rapid growth of an economy. Both economic and non-economic factors directly and indirectly affect development process of a country. If we optimally utilize our natural, human, financial and physical resources, double digit growth rate is also plausible. For this, political commitment is equally important. Policy makers must be confronted with management challenges. There should be well-established democratic institutions and promotion of transparent, responsive, participatory, inclusive and accountable governance system and systematic plan. A mechanism should be in place to operationalize political consensus, policy consistency and continuity in major national strategic issues among political parties. Furthermore, investment friendly environment should be fostered in the priority sectors. The high inflation should be controlled to stop the further deterioration of welfare. The unemployment problem should be solved by increasing employment opportunities. There should provide sufficient and reliable energy supply to tackle electricity crisis.

Furthermore, the development process must have a domestic base. People should be conscious and committed for development. Foreign aid should not be accepted as a major source of finance and should only be used as a supportive source. Both internal motivation and resource utilization pattern should be made as the basic source for sustainable economic development. Japan had developed its economy without sufficient natural resources while Sri Lanka has developed the economy even in the most conflict situation. Similarly, strong and competent administration and committed government are considered as the basic requirements of rapid economic development of Nepal.

ReferencesJhingan, M.L. (1986). International Economics. India: Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.Ministry of Finance (2012). Economic Survey Fiscal Year (2011/2012), Government of Nepal.National Planning Commission (2010) Three Year Plan Approach Paper (2010/11-2012/2013) Government of Nepal.Raj, H .(1988). Fundamentals of Demography. India: Surjeet Publications.Subedi, B.K. (2006). An Introduction to Economic Development and Planning. Kathmandu: Vidyarthi Pustak Bhandar.World Economic Forum (2010). The Global Competitiveness Report 2010-2011: Geneva.


Export promotion in NepalDr. Suman Kumar Regmi*

Abstract: Government has implemented different ranges of export promotion programmes to encourage firms to promote their exports of goods and services. It is important to evaluate how effectively government budgets are spent and limited resources are utilized in such programmes. Such evaluation studies will enable policymakers to expand those programmes that are more effective. For sustainable export growth, however, we need to develop new criteria for the evaluation of export promotion programmes. It should also focus more on manufacturing and services industries to increase the export volumes and obtain higher return of government spending in export promotion programmes. So, this paper aims to determine the return on trade sector Investment (RoTSI) of these programmes. Even relatively small increase in export sales can have measurable economic impacts on the Nepalese economy. Some economic sectors in Nepal have greater potential than others to impact the economy through given levels of increase in export sales.

Key words: Export promotion programmes, Return on trade investment, Spill over, Foreign direct investment.

1. Introduction Export promotion programmes are initiatives of government to promote private sector. These programmes are thus funded by public funds, which mean the taxpayer’s money. So, Government of Nepal, through Ministry of Commerce and Supplies (MoCS), has been assessing the efficiency and effectiveness of its export promotion programmes with great concern. Millions of Rupees of annual government budget is allocated for these programmes for promoting exports, but the question arises - how efficiently these funds are spent?

Trade and Export Promotion Center (TEPC) is having significant measurable impact on the Nepalese economy through its export programmes and assistance programs. TEPC likely can increase its overall impact on the Nepalese economy by working more closely with those firms whose products have the greatest potential economic impacts to create new jobs, increase labor income and add value of export sales, as shown in the NTIS 2010.

The export trend indicates that export marketing involvement of firms and firms’ usage of government export assistance programs are important for export success but it has not been made successful. However, the relevance of export assistance programs and the role they play vary depending on the dimension of export performance being considered.* Deputy Executive Director, Trade and Export Promotion Center Email: [email protected]


Currently there is a need by MoCS officials to evaluate the Return on trade sector investment (RoTSI) of these export promotion programmes. RoTSI can be termed as a performance measure used to evaluate the efficiency of trade sector investment. To calculate RoTSI, the benefit (return) of such investment is divided by the cost of the investment and the result is expressed as a percentage or a ratio.

Economic growth is caused by productivity growth, as well as increases in the amount of capital and the population. Productivity growth arises due to growth in knowledge and better ways of doing things.

Thorough empirical tests have not been performed on this normative logic and the effect that export promotion usage has on diverse categories of performance outcomes has been given even less consideration.

The aim of this study is to determine the effect of export promotion programmes through data provided by the MoCS and bodies under it. The evaluation measures or criteria used by a selection of top exporting countries will also be examined in order to make practical recommendations to the Nepalese government on how to implement relevant criteria for evaluation of these export promotion programmes.The RoTSI will be determined by evaluating the relationship between the total cost of export assistance and the actual export sales. As a result, government officials will have more clarity on the consequential benefits for companies and the country through the assessment of the RoTSI of expenditure on export promotion programmes.

2. The Need of Export Promotion Each country has its own set of export incentives. Export promotion is a development distinctive to the country concerned. Therefore, each government’s advances towards investment in, and provision of, export promotion services is not only based on apparent economic need but also influenced by the nation’s history and its economic and social structure.

Export promotion programmes are focused at two different levels: country/markets and companies. Firstly, the objective is to secure that the financial incentives are targeted at the countries that present the best prospects for domestic products and services or that have the most potential for penetration. Secondly, the objective is to provide financial support to those firms that have the best export potential and require assistance in order to enhance their exports. Accordingly, the benefits of export promotion can be classified at both a country and a company level.

International trade and competition contribute for productivity growth by encouraging firms to find better and more efficient ways of doing things. However, the exact contribution of trade (and specifically exports) to knowledge growth may not be easily measured. Very few empirical works have been done in this area, despite it being the main rationale for a scheme such as the EMAP. Nonetheless, from what is known about the various sources of productivity growth, it is possible, through a process of elimination, to define a plausible range about the potential size of export in general.


2.1 Country level benefits of export promotion

2.1.1 Income and foreign exchange

The positive effects of exports can be seen from a macro perspective. Exports enhance the flow of foreign currency and consequently strengthen a country’s currency. Therefore exports can influence currency values as well as the fiscal and monetary policies of governments. Exports are also responsible for shaping public perception of competitiveness and determining the level of imports that a country is able to purchase.

Export competition is also a source of knowledge and multifactor productivity growth in the economy. Once growth is attributed to other sources, only a fraction is likely to be attributable to export competition. The immediate factors of knowledge growth include education, research and development (R and D), competition and trade.

2.1.2 Economic development

Export promotion and technical assistance programmes, as part of export-led growth strategy, are generally developed to deal with both internal and external barriers of export and to encourage economic growth. China can be seen as an example of export-led growth since 1990s and the country’s subsequent economic growth record attests to this.

Parham (2004) attributes about 50 per cent of the increase in productivity to openness and competition, suggesting that openness and competition are as important as sources of growth as are R and D and education. The benefits of openness and competition come through three mechanisms: domestic competition and trade, imports and exports. To isolate the impact of exports, it is necessary to remove the contribution of domestic competition and imports to productivity growth. However, the marginal benefit from increased exports will be lower than the average benefit, because there is a decreasing marginal knowledge benefit from an increase in exports. This is because some industries are already fully engaged with international markets and further exports will not increase the competitive pressures that they face. It is only when new exports open up new competitive pressures that they will provide a marginal increase in knowledge spillovers.

2.2 Company level benefits of export promotion

2.2.1 Economies of scale

At a micro level, through the mechanism of exporting, companies can benefit from economies of scale. A company can produce more, and by doing so more efficiently, broaden its market reach and serving customers abroad. When interacting and dealing with international customers, it can lead to the improvement of existing products and the development of new ones.

2.2.2 International capabilities

Market diversification, taking advantage of different growth rates in different markets


and gaining strength by not being excessively reliant on one particular market are other examples of the benefits that accompany exporting. Exporting activities enable a company to be sensitive to various demand structures and cultural diversities, to learn from the competition and demonstrate its ability to endure in a less familiar environment in spite of higher transaction costs.

It needs to be remembered that all market activities can contribute to spillover benefits, including those industries taxed to pay for the EMAP scheme. While the spillover benefits from exports may be higher than the spillover benefits from alternative business activities, they are not in our context.

2.2.3 Export performance

Through its interaction with the companies’ export involvement behaviour, it is suggested that the use of government export promotion programmes is an imperative determinant of companies’ export performance in a direct manner. The government export promotion programmes are an essential resource for constructing knowledge and experience needed for successful international market involvement.

For example, a typical economic relationship between the level of investment in export promotion and the value of private benefits and public spillover benefits expected from it. At low levels of export promotion investment little or no benefit (private or spillover) is gained — there is a certain minimum investment required to achieve the critical mass necessary to get any benefits from export promotion. Once the point of critical mass is reached, additional export promotion spending produces increasing marginal benefits.

Whereas profit is the main driver of business activity, it could be argued that the profit opportunities for exporters should be enough reason to motivate companies to export. Export promotion programmes are also used as a tool to motivate companies to engage in export activities, and if profit seems to be the main driver for exports, export incentives play an important part in supporting such motivations and activities.

The evaluation of export promotion programmes is difficult to implement and therefore to measure and to effectively reach the target. Consequently, the opinions of the adversaries to export promotion programmes are raised.

2.3 Arguments against export promotion programmes

Opponents of export promotion argue that the competitive position and export performance of companies are attributed to the private market forces and not to government promotion programmes. Eventually, additional funding of export promotion will provide no additional private benefits, although it may provide small additional spillover benefits.

Two general weaknesses of export promotion programmes: a lack of information about what services are needed by specific groups, and • insufficient financial resources.•


2.4 Government involvement and awareness of export promotion programmes

Companies need help and support from the government to identify potential export markets, try to find customers and promote their goods and services abroad. The relevance of awareness, training and guidance support programs for companies in export success in Nepal should be evaluated by looking at the rationale and, more specifically, the existence of needs and the timeliness of the responses to the established objectives. To overcome this challenge, it is vital for policy makers to understand the requirements of exporting companies and to meet those requirements effectively with promotional programmes. It is viewed that the role of government in export assistance should not go beyond fostering awareness of foreign market opportunities and involvement. Fostering awareness means providing the right information (assistance) to the right companies at the right time. More companies may use of export assistance programmes if these support programmes assist the companies to develop or obtain new markets. The requirement of government intervention to promote export depends on the performance of companies in export, activities and services offered.

Export promotion policies are virtually ubiquitous (see Rauch, 1996). Over the last some decades, the number of export promotion agencies has increased by three fold (see Lederman et al, 2006). These kinds of public interventions have been economically justified on the basis of market failures, primarily in the form of externalities. The traditional rationale for such interventions is the existence of information externalities. Information requirements associated with exporting are important. Firms must learn about the alternative ways to ship their merchandises and their corresponding costs, the demand profiles of potential markets abroad, the conditions to enter these markets, and the channels to generate awareness of their products and those through which these products can be marketed. Specifically, firms pursuing cross-border economic opportunities must engage in a costly process of identifying potential trading partners and assessing their reliability, trust worthiness, timeliness, and capabilities (see Rangan and Lawrence, 1999).

Market failure arises due to free riding problem in successful searches of firms for foreign buyers (see Rauch, 1996). In other words, these searches and the associated transactions reveal information that may be used by other firms, who might eventually follow the pioneering ones without incurring into these costs (see Álvarez, 2007).In doing this, the former obtain important benefits from the latter’s initial investments and devaluate the potential benefits to be derived from their searches (see, e.g., Rauch, 1996; and Álvarez 2007).

3. Export Promotion in Nepal International trade allows a country to increase its productivity by doing away with the need to produce all goods and services itself. The industries and sectors that are relatively more productive allows for specialization while products and services where companies are less productive than foreign rivals can be imported. This, in turn, increases average productivity.


This is particularly true when companies attempt to enter a new export market or to trade a new product (see Hausman and Rodrik, 2003; Álvarez et al., 2007). Private returns from these export activities would accordingly be lower than the corresponding social returns and investment in their development would then be sub-optimally low (see Westphal, 1990).

Nepal needs to identify and utilitize its export opportunities to improve the balance of payments. Therefore exports are an important tool for the Nepalese economy, characterized by its continuous balance of payment correction. Actions executed by publicly funded-export promotion agencies can be viewed as a means of subsidizing searches, which counter the disincentives originated in potential free-riding (see Rauch, 1996). These actions help to attenuate information problems, thereby reducing transaction costs and fostering trade (see, Álvarez and Crespi, 2000; Volpe Martincus and Carballo, 2008a). In particular, they might affect exports along both the extensive and intensive margins. More precisely, trade promotion activities may encourage new firms to enter international markets and may also help the exporting firms to enter new countries and product markets and expand sales in current markets as well.

Companies that are exposed to a greater level of international competition are likely to be more efficient in their use of resources. Consequently, it is found that exporting companies work for the informal inflow of foreign technology and thus could generate higher productivity. Along with higher productivity comes a greater need for employment. In the exporting sectors, employment is likely to increase, whereas employment decreases in sectors where the country imports. Export assistance programmes designed by government are intended to provide companies with the resources and capabilities necessary to facilitate success in exporting.

The effects of trade support might be heterogeneous along several dimensions. In general, the strength of these effects is likely to be related to the severity of the information problems involved in the specific trading operations. Thus, informational obstacles tend to be more important when firms attempt to sell new products abroad or to enter new export markets than when they pursue expanding exports of goods they have already been trading and/or to countries that are already among their destination markets. The effect of export promotion programs will accordingly be larger on the extensive margin of exports, i.e., the number of products exported and the number of countries the firms export to, than on the intensive margin, i.e., average trade flows (see Volpe Martincus and Carballo, 2008a).

Nepal is no different, and the MoCS has taken many initiatives to assist exporters in the process and providing them with the necessary resources.

Externalities may also originate from managerial practices, training activities, technological change, and production linkages. Thus, exporters have been said to be likely to adopt efficient and competitive management styles and to provide employees with higher quality training, which may potentially benefit non-exporting firms, for instance, via turnover of managers and employees (see Kessing, 1967; Feder, 1983; and Edwards, 1993). In addition, externalities related to technological development


may be extensive due to the imperfect trade ability of technology (see West Phal, 1990).

3.1 The Structure of Export Promotion Programmes in Nepal

Since the MoCS started redesigning export promotion sector in Nepal after NTIS 2010, they have been dedicating a substantial effort to dismantling what has been argued to be ineffective export sector. In particular, exporters may transfer knowledge and provide suppliers with technical assistance and facilitate access to new and improved inputs by firms in downstream industries (see Álvarez and Lopez, 2006). Export promotion might not only contribute to addressing these externalities but also other market failures, such as coordination failures between complementary industries, i.e., activities related through backward and forward linkages (see Trindade, 2005); imperfect-information driven barriers to entry when products have different attributes (see Grossman, 1989); imperfect information and higher uncertainty associated with trading with countries where different legislations are in place (see Lederman et al., 2006).

The MoCS focuses on the development of certain sectors in the economy that lend themselves to domestic mobilization. The focus is now on the upstream identification of competitive strengths through the MoCS’s sector studies and the actions required overcoming identified weaknesses. Therefore, the priority lies with the industries that have been identified as potentially competitive. More precisely, MNE activity is positively related to export propensity of local firms. In Hausman and Rodrik’s (2003) model, investment in developing new export activities is too low ex-ante and entry is too high ex-post.

The MoCS runs on the notion of sector specialists supplying strategic support to a business process, rather than once-off export market support. The sectors of the economy deemed to show the greatest growth potential are the focus of sector support. The MoCS is able to provide market intelligence and identify export opportunities in Nepalese diplomatic missions worldwide through the support provided by Foreign Embassies located in Nepal. Exporters, as well as potential exporters, are provided a range of incentive schemes managed by MoCS.

Over the past decades, considerable attention has been paid to the export performance of the firm. The present trend, however, reveals that research on the measurement of export performance still remains underdeveloped, since no consensus exists about its conceptual and operational definitions.

The following product are available to Nepalese exporters through the NTIS 2010: Market intelligence and advice, e.g. identify new products and new markets,• Trade-lead facilitation,• Facilitating exports by matching potential exporters with foreign buyers,• In-market support,• Financial assistance.•


Although each of these export promotion incentives can be found in NTIS 2010 and Trade Policy 2009, the effective implementation of these activities is questionable.

3.1.1 Export Marketing and Assistance Program (EMAP)

The purpose of assistance under the EMAP is to partially compensate exporters for the costs incurred in respect of activities aimed at developing export markets for Nepalese products and services, and to attract new foreign direct investment in Nepal.

To assist exporters, the EMAP offers the following programmes: National pavilions,• Individual exhibitions,• Primary export marketing research (PEMR),• Foreign direct investment research(FDIR),• Sector specific assistance,• Outward selling trade missions.•

Some progress has been made in developing theory and knowledge of the measures of export performance. There is still a long way to go ahead through delineatly the domain of this construct and identifing its dimensions. Indeed, the export marketing literature has been criticized for providing only fragmented results and for not being able to develop a widely accepted Nepalese model of export performance.

4. Evaluation of Export Promotion Programmes In the past, export promotion expenditure has been justified by giving participation report. A firm in trade is successful if it uses promotional tools for market promotion and the targets set are met or exceeded. But what were the targets in the first? Were they even obtainable? Therefore, when managers are asked to assess the export performance of the firm, they have a serious problem because it is not always evidence which performance goals they should use and how the degree of achievement of these goals should be measured. This demonstrates the complexity of assessing export performance and may explain Bonoma and Clark’s (1988: 1) comment that: “perhaps no other concept in marketing’s short history has proven as stubbornly resistant to conceptualization, definition or application.

Despite the reasons mentioned above favoring the use of subjective over objective measures to assess export performance, both are equally important and should be consider the advantages of each of the two approaches and their complementary nature (Shoham 1998; Shoham, Evangelista and Albaum 2002).

The use of multiple measures of export performance is necessary to fully realize the strengths of each indicator and minimize the effect of their shortcomings (Evangelista 1994). Accordingly, the use of multiple measures of export performance has been more typical, as it allows the capture of different facets of the construct. For instance, a firm may place a limit on its export intensity to reduce foreign exposure and risk.


The use of additional measures would provide a more accurate evaluation of the firm performance that would not be possible otherwise (Shoham, 1998). Furthermore, the advantage of using a combination measures overcoming the systematic or random fluctuations of any given item (Shoham 1998). Thus, export performance research would benefit from studies using both objective and subjective measures. Export performance should also be measured in a dynamic way. In the majority of studies reviewed here, mostly past and current export performance was measured.

To evaluate the export promotion programmes, the progress reports on trade sector were examined and analyzed. This stresses the importance of future orientation in export performance measurement. Robertson and Chetty (2000), as indicated previously, deliberately projected one such measure into the future. However, more effort requires for predicting future performance.

The size of the firm, for example, may influence whether the focus is on the short-term or long-term export performance to managers of small firms may emphasize short-term over long-term performance due to the lack of financial resources to operate with low margins in foreign markets. In this case, the use of objective over subjective measures would be more appropriate since they are considered to be more reliable in measuring short-term performance. The degree of the firm’s involvement in export operations should also be accounted. Firms in early stages of export development may emphasize on measures such as export sales and profits, while a more experienced firm may find market-share related measures to be more relevant.

Evaluation should be carried not only for national pavilions and trade missions, but also for the other programmes in the EMAP programme. The MoCs has made some progress in evaluating these programmes, the lessons from these efforts may be applied to other programmes in the EMAP programme.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations The evaluation of export promotion programmes requires continuous information gathering. To gather the relevant information, evaluation forms must be created that are in line with the strategic objectives.

We must recognize that export performance is a multifaceted concept and that the use of multiple indicators is necessary for a reliable assessment of the construct. In relation to the mode of assessment, as indicated above, researchers are encouraged to combine objective with subjective export performance indicators. The difficulty, however, consists in the selection of appropriate measures to assess the construct. This is consistent with Griffin and Page’s (1993) argument that nowadays the multidimensionality of performance is not under discussion, but rather which performance measures to use.

Export performance, however, is a complex phenomenon and the choice of individual export performance measures depends on contextual factors that are research method specific, export business-specific, and target audience-specific (Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan 2000). For instance, the unit of analysis has a significant influence on


the measurement selection. In the case of export intensity, which is probably the most widely used export performance measure in the literature (Diamantopoulos and Schlegelmilch, 1994; Katsikeas, Leonidou, and Morgan (2000), it is argued that this indicator should not be used when the analysis is performed at the export venture level (Matthyssens and Pauwels, 1996). Similarly, the application of measures such as export profitability, overall export sales and overall export performance at the firm level, when the export venture level was adopted, ignores the difference between the venture and the firm level. The characteristics of the firm also needs to be considered when selecting which performance measures to use.

It is recommended that the MoCS should investigate the establishment of a permanent evaluation unit to gather information on export promotion activities and export sales on a continual basis and as part of everyday business. Further, the benefits of such evaluation should be leveraged in order to justify the need for more resources being allocated to incentives and to identify areas to attain a higher growth in RoTSI.

The RoTSI from export promotion programmes should be part of the MoCS’s export growth strategy. Export growth should not only be measured by the number of exporters that have made use of the MoCS’s assistance but also RoTSI should be considered as a measurement of growth. Consequently, the evaluation exercise should be aligned with the MoCS’s strategic objectives. If the results of these export promotion programmes can be accurately measured, they can be managed more effectively.

This leads to set out to explore the different consequences of FDI from various countries of origin for economic growth in host countries. Existing studies on the effect of FDI on growth have already recognized the role of host country factors, such as the quality of institutions and openness to trade in determining whether FDI is beneficial for development. In contrast, a distinction between different types of FDI is hardly ever made in assessing its development impact, partly due to the fact that the majority of contributions to the debate on FDI and development came from the field of Economics, where FDI is generally treated as homogeneous flows of capital. In the field of International Business, however, it has long been established that TNCs and their investments are not homogenous at all and differ in many aspects.

ReferencesAhmed, Z.U.,Mohamed, O., Johnson, J.P. and Meng, L.Y. (2002). Export promotion programs of Malaysian firms: An international marketing perspective. Journal of Business Research, 55: 831 – 843.

Aw, B.Y. and Hwang, A.R. (1995). Productivity in the Export Market: A Firm Level Analysis. Journal of Development Economics, 47: 131 – 332.

Bendow, B. (1992). Evaluating trade promotions. International Trade Forum, Jul – Sep, 3: 12 – 20.

Cavusgil, S.T. (1982). “Some Observations on the Relevance of Critical Variables for Internationalization Stages”, in Export Management: An International Context. M.R.


Czinkota and G. Tesar, (eds). Praeger, New York: 276 – 285.

Czinkota, M.R. and Ricks, D.A. (1981). Export assistance: Are we supporting the best programs? Columbia Journal of World Business, 16(2): 5 – 12, 73 – 78.

Czinkota, M.R. (1996). Why national export promotion? International Trade Forum (00208957), 2: 10 (5p.). [In EBSCO Host: Business Surce Premier, Full display: http://www-sa.ebsco.com] [Date of access: 18 Oct. 2005].

Pointon, T. (2001). Measuring the Gains from Government Export Promotion. European Journal of Marketing, 12(6): 451 – 462.

Seringhaus, F.H.R. (1986a). The impact of government export marketing assistance. International Marketing Review, 3(2): 55 – 66.

Spence, M.M. (1997). Critical Considerations for Government Programmes Evaluation. [Web:] http://mubs.mdx.ac.uk/Research/Discussion_Papers/Marketing [Date of access: 14 April 2005].


Book Review

Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty. New York: Profile Books, 2012. Pp. 529.

Dhruba Nepal*

When a Scottish scholar Adam Smith, honored as the Father of Economics, wrote his famous book An Inquiry into the Causes and Nature of Wealth of Nations (1776 AD), as per his findings on the level of income between the poorest and richest countries of the world was not more than four times (about two and half centuries ago), at present it has reached up to 44 times. The reasons behind such large differences among the nations used to be ascribed to many factors like resources availability, geography, culture or value systems with development in previous researches. In the book Why Nations Fails: The Origins of Power, Prosperity and Poverty (2012), the authors Daron Acemoglu (Professor of Economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology - MIT) and James Robinson (Professor of Government at Harvard University) argue that economic institutions, which are influenced heavily by political institutions, are major factors behind such differences. To reach this conclusion, the writers have looked into the past of different parts of the world – South America, Africa, Europe and North America. As we argue many times that instead of generalization, country specific explanation would serve more realistic understanding of such matters. However, the reasons of differences among the states that these two writers argue in this particular book cannot just be ignored for Nepal’s case. Instead, in my opinion, their argument is highly relevance for Nepal as well.

Fig 1: Economic development in different regions of the world

(Source: http://www.lse.ac.uk/assets/richmedia/channels/publicLecturesAndEvents/slides/20110608_1830_whyNationsFail_sl.pdf)

* Public Administration Reform Specialist, Project to Prepare the Public Administration for State Reform (PREPARE), Ministry of General Administration. Email: [email protected]


The authors define inclusive economic institutions as the institutions that include secure property rights, law and order, markets and state support (public services and regulation) for markets, open to relatively free entry of new businesses, uphold contracts, access to education and opportunity for the majority of citizens, i.e., create incentives for investment and innovation and a level playing field. The writers argue that most societies throughout history and today ruled by extractive economic institutions − designed by the politically powerful elites to extract resources from the rest of society. Both the inclusive and extractive economic institutions do not exist in vacuum, but are supported by certain political institutions. Extractive political institutions concentrate power in the hands of a few, without constraints, checks and balances or rule of law. In the opposite, inclusive political institutions allow broad participation, pluralism and placing constraints and checks on politicians, and rule of law (closely related to pluralism), have made good strides in economic prosperity.

The authors describe sustained growth is possible only under inclusive institutions. Growth and inclusive institutions support and create both winners and losers. Thus there is a logic supporting extractive institutions and stagnation. Economic losers are those who lose their incomes, for example their monopolies, because of changes in institutions or introduction of new technologies. Political losers are those who lose their politically privileged position, their unconstrained monopoly of power, because of growth and its supporting institutions. Thus, potential economic losers support political institutions that could help to sustain their exploitative institutions. It is obvious, political losers are a major barrier against the emergence of inclusive institutions and economic growth.

If we make an effort to induct the writers’ findings and arguments, I think it comes almost true in our case. The figure given below shows highest income difference is in Nepal among the countries of Asia and Pacific Region. Even worse scenario is that the inequality is expanding, instead of squeezing in Nepal. It is a clear indication that exploitative institutions are flourishing because elites have better chances to capture resources by undue means and the state is weak to curb it and distribute resources to its people in just manner.


Fig 1: Gini Index, Asia and Pacific region

Source: Adapted from Statistical Yearbook 2011, UNESCAP

The book is highly acclaimed by scholarly community on account of its importance iThe writers' argument is based on evidences that institutional change, i.e. transition to democracy is the best wayout to make political institutions more inclusive. Elites control non-democracy, but citizens can sporadically solve their collective action problem, exercise de facto power and threaten a revolution or social unrest. Elites can respond with repression, concessions with unchanged political institutions and eventually they become bound to accept democracy. Democracy arises when repression is too costly and concessions are non-credible. Democracy gives a commitment to future pro-citizen policies, turning temporary de facto power into more durable de jure power.

The authors suggest three approaches of transformation of political institutions from exploitative into inclusive in nature. The first approach is raising awareness and understanding of the best way to overcome inequality is possible through democratization by people. Second approach is to upgrade empowerment civil society to put pressure on repressive regime and institutions. The third approach is to make repressive activities costly.

The authors have explained why African country Botswana prospered, whereas a number of Sub-Saharan countries are languishing in poverty. Botswana, formerly


known as Bechuanaland as the British colony, came along unwavering inclusive political institutions (democracy with checks and balance) that eventually contributed in the establishment and continuation of inclusive economic institutions), and secure property rights, stable macroeconomic policies, investment in education and infrastructures. The case of Botswana could be a good example for Nepal and many other countries struggling for economic progress.

The evidences and explanation of writers’ duo, I think, are quite appropriate for inductive understanding of Nepal. Political and economic institutions have helped concentration of power and resources in the hands of small groups of people, not all citizens. So, income disparity has been in increasing trend, which is evidenced by the figure given above. To come out from this situation, we have to work for the establishing and deepening of inclusive political institutions. In the face of some political parties desperately waging political activism to take the country towards non-inclusive or extractive institutions, it is a need of time to make people aware of that kind of political institutions would not be favorable for the success of the nation in economic terms.

The book is organized in 15 chapters – beginning from So Close and Yet So Different to ending with Understanding Prosperity and Poverty. The book is highly acclaimed by scholarly community on account of its importance to understand the factors of development. This is evidenced from seeing the words of acclamation of renowned personalities like Gary Becker, Michael Spence, Robert Solow (all Nobel laureates) and other scholars like Francis Fukuyama, Dani Rodrik, Simon Johnson and so on.


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@#& ldlt @)^*.!.!$ sf] kqaf6 n]vL cfPsf] / ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{{ nuftf/ () -gAa]_ lbgeGbf a9L cfkm\gf] sfof{nodf lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( -;+zf]wg ;lxt_ sf] bkmf ̂ ! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] b]xfo -5_ adf]lhd cg'kl:yt ePsf]], cg'kl:yt x'gfsf] plrt / kof{Kt sf/0f eP ;f]sf] k|df0f ;lxt of] ;"rgf k|sflzt ePsf] ldltn] !% lbgleq lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^^-!_ adf]lhd cfkm\gf] ;kmfO k]; ug'{ x'g dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf] ldlt @)^*.@.(sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ hfgsf/L u/fOG5 eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] ldlt @)^*.@.!) df lgh k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{{ ;kmfO k]; ug]{ af/]sf] uf]/vfkqdf k|sflzt ;"rgf .

dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.&.!) sf] sfh ;DaGwsf] kq cg';f/ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofdf # dlxg] sfh ;¿jf ePsf] / pQm kqadf]lhd ldlt @)^&.*.^ ut]af6 /dfgf nfu" x'g] u/L alb{of xflh/ x'g lxF8]sf], af6fsf] Dofb / tof/L Dofbdf a;]sf a]nf ljefusf] k=;+= )^&.)* r= g+ (@( ldlt @)^&.*.!% ut]sf] a/a'emf/y ug]{ af/]sf] kq dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{of / d lgj]lbsfnfO{{ JolQmut lbg] kq klg alb{of sfof{no k7fPsf] hfgsf/L alb{ofs} ;fyLx¿af6 kmf]g dfkm{t\ kfPkl5 pQm kqdf a/a'emf/y ;DkGg ePkl5 ljefudf hfgsf/L u/fpg x'g egL afh'/fnfO{{ af]wfy{ n]lvPsf] / alb{of sfof{nonfO{{ a/a'emf/ysf] k|df0fkq k]; gu/L sfof{nodf xflh/ gu/fpg x'g egL pQm kq k7fPsf] hfgsf/L k|fKt ePkl5 pQm ;d:of / a/a'emf/y af/]df dxflgb]{zsHo" ;dIf cfkm"n] lnlvt ¿kn] sfof{nosf lhG;L gubL / cGo >]:tf ga'em]sf], clgtf a'9fP]/n] klg cfkm"nfO{ s'g} s'/f gu/L lxF8]sf] / lnlvt ga'emfPsf] x'Fbf / cfkm" lgldQ e} /xFbf dfukmf/d e/L lnlvt ¿kaf6 ga'em]sf] x'Fbf OdfGbf/Lsf ;fy cfkm"n] k|of]u u/]sf efF8fs'8f / ;fdfGo n'ufkmf6f :6f]/ lsk/nfO{{ lhDdf lbO{ cfPsf]n] pQm a/a'emf/ysf] ;TotYosf af/]df atfpg sf7df8f}+ uPsf], ljefusf] a/a'emf/ysf] kq / /dfgf kq alb{of k'Ug' cl3 g} dlxnf ljsf; clws[t ef/tL zfxn] k'gd xflh/ x'g cfP xflh/ ug{ glbg' egL af/Daf/ bafa ;=n]=kf= / zfGtf zfxnfO{ elg/x]sf] hfgsf/L k|fKt ePsf]n] ef/tL zfxn] u/]sf] k"jf{u|xsf] lj8Djgf ;'g]kl5 dxflgb]{zs ;'b"/klZrdsf] e|d0fdf lg:sg} nfu]sf] a]nf cfkm" ljefudf k'u]sf] x'Fbf cfkm\gf a/a'emf/ysf af/]df s'/f /fVg gkfPkl5 pxfF kmsL{ gcfpGh]n;Dd ;d:of oyfjt\ pNemgdf g} /xg] b]vL pQm ;dodf cfkm\gf] d'6' b'Vg] /f]un] kLl8t e}/xg] x'Fbf s]xL ;do u+ufnfn x[bo s]Gb|df pkrf/ u/fpg] ;f]r /fvL xflh/ x'g kfpFm egL ;fdfGo lgj]bg k]; u/]sf], !* jif{ ;]jf u/]sf] / a/a'emf/ysf] sf/0f xflh/ x'g} glbg] cj:yf >[hgf ePsf] cj:yfdf / ljs6 afh'/f lhNnfdf sfd u/]sf] x'Fbf s]xL ;dosf nflu ljefudf xflh/ x'g kfpmF egL lgj]bgdf cf}ifwL pkrf/ u/fpg] s'/fdfq pNn]v u/]sf] sd{rf/Ln] cfkm\gf] / sfof{nosf] ;d:of cfkm\g} tfn's lgsfodf /fVg kfpg] P]g sfg'gdf g} pNn]v ul/Psf sd{rf/Lsf clwsf/ x'g\, To;}n] ljbf, sfh, xflh/L ug{ lbg'÷glbg' ljefusf] clwsf/leqsf] s'/f xf], t/ lgj]bgsf] dd{ / ljifoj:t' cWoog gu/L lgj]bg n]v]sf] / xflh/ x'g kfpFFm eg]sf] sf/0fn] cGo s'/f ;lxt hf]8L k|ltzf]wsf] efjgfn] r]tfjgL kq lbg' cGofo u/]sf], ldlt @)^&.!).!) df dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefudf ldlt @)^&.*.^ b]lv ldlt @)^&.!).@% ;Ddsf] ;+lrt 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf] nflu lgj]bg k7fOPsf] / ljefun] pQm ;Ssn} lgj]bg alb{of dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{nodf k7fPsf] ljifodf n]lvPsf] kqaf6 klg d}n] () lbgeGbf cl3 g} ljefudf ljbfsf] lgj]bg k]; u/]sfn] cfkm" ;Dks{df ePsf] ljefus} kqaf6 klg 5n{Ë b]lvG5 . ljefun] k7fPsf]


ljbfsf] ;Ssn} lgj]bg alb{ofn] btf{ ;d]t gu/]sf], d ldlt @)^&.!!.$ ut] sf7df8f}+af6 alb{of xflh/ x'g egL lx8]+ / ldlt @)^&.!!.% ut] sfof{nodf k'Ubf ljefusf] k=;+= )^&.^* r=g+ (@( ldlt @)^&.*.!% a/a'emf/y ug]{ af/]sf] d]/f] gfdsf] lrÝL b]vfpFb} a/a'emf/ysf] lrÝL gNofP xflh/ x'g glbg] hgfPkl5 cfkm"n] xflh/ x'g kfpFm egL n]lvPsf] lgj]bg / af6f] Dofb, tof/L Dofbsf] lgj]bg k]; u/]sL / pQm lgj]bg tf]s / btf{ ;d]t gu/L k'gM xflh/ ug{ glbPkl5 ldlt @)^&.!!.& ut] wgu9L kmls{Psf], ldlt @)^&.!!.^ ut] af6fsf] Dofb, tof/L Dofbsf] lgj]bg lrÝL x/fPsf] egL ef/tL zfx dlxnf ljsf; clws[tn] a]jf:tf u/L ufoa ug'[{df lghn] xflh/ x'g uPsf] k|df0f n'sfpgsf ;DaGwdf lghn] hjfkm lbg' kg]{, lghdfly ljefun] lgj]bg btf{ gug'{sf] sf/0f ;lxt :ki6Ls/0f ;f]Wg' kg]{ b]lvG5 . lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL, @)%) sf] kl/R5]b !) ljljwsf] bkmf &$ n] s'g} klg lghfdtL sd{rf/L cfkm"n] a'emfpg' kg]{ gubL, lhG;L jf sfuhft tf]lsPsf] Dofbleq ;DalGwt sd{rf/LnfO{ a'emfO{ lbg'kg]{, a'e\mg' kg]{n] klg ;f]xL Dofbleq a'lemlng' kg]{ 5 egL pNn]v u/]sf], sd{rf/Ln] gub eP c;'n pk/ ug{ u/fpg ;lsg], lhG;L ;fdfg eP ljj/0f / k|df0f ;lxt dfu kmf/dsf cfwf/df a'emfpg nufpg ;lsg] / cGo sfuh s] xf] Tof] klg k|df0fsf cfwf/df a'emfpg ;lsg] sfg'gL k|fjwfg x'Fbfx'Fb} a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] cfwf/df & dlxgf;Dd xflh/ ug{ glbg] eGg] s'/f lghfdtL ;]jf P]g lgoddf pNn]v gePsf]n] cfkm"dfly c3f]/ cGofo k/]sf sf/0f xflh/ x'g g;s]sf], ldlt @)^&.!!.!% df klxnf] k6s / ldlt @)^&.!@.& ut] k'gM ! dlxgfkl5 xflh/ x'g egL alb{of uPsf] / xflh/ x'g k6sk6s cg'/f]w ubf{ ;d]t a/a'emf/y gu/] xflh/ gu/fpg], ceb|, cdfgjLo Jojxf/af6 If'Aw eO{, k|d'v lhNnf clwsf/L ;dIf ;d:of /fvL ;Dk"0f{ ljefuLo kl/kq tyf Pp6f hfgsf/Lsf] lgj]bg ;d]t k]; u/L ;Dks{df cfO/x]sf], cfkm"n] a'emfpg' kg]{ a/a'emf/y ;DaGwL lhG;L, gubL / sfuhft s] s] x'g\ < :ki6 ljj/0f lbPdf a'emfpg] 5' . d lgDg:t/sf] sd{rf/LnfO{{ o; k|sf/sf] Jojxf/ / kqx¿af6 dfgjLo oftgf pTkGg u/fO{{ afnaRrf / kl/af/ ;dfhdf ;d]t gsf/fTds c;/ kg{ uPsf]n] oyfzL3| cfkm"dfly nufOPsf] cf/f]ksf] 5fgljg u/L ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ ;d]t kxnsf nflu cg'/f]w ub{5' eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/f pNn]v u/L ;kmfO k]; u/]sf] eGg] lgh k'g/fj]lbsfsf] :ki6Ls/0f .

ldlt @)^&.&.( sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no afh'/fdf kbflwsf/ /fvL ;f]xL sfof{noaf6 tna eQf kfpg] u/L dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofdf # -tLg_ dlxgfsf] nflu sfh v6fOPsf] tyf ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.!@.@$ sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no afh'/faf6 dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofdf ;¿jf ePsf] cjut g} xf]nf . o;} ljifodf ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] lgj]bgaf6 ldlt @)^&.*.^ b]lv @)^&.(.#) ;Dd hDdf %$ lbg dfu ug'{ePsf] 3/ ljbf :jLs[t ePsf] / To;kl5 klg cyf{t\ @)^&.!).@ b]lv tkfO{+ sfh tyf ;¿jf ul/Psf] sfof{nodf xflh/ gePsf] Joxf]/f dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofsf] k=;+= )^&.^* r= g+ @*^ ldlt @)^*.#.!^ sf] kqaf6 n]vL cfPsf] / ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{{ nuftf/ () -gJj]_ lbgeGbf a9L cfkm\gf] sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt /xL lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( -;+zf]wg ;lxt_ sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] b]xfo -5_ adf]lhd cg'kl:yt ePsf]], cg'kl:yt x'gfsf] plrt / kof{Kt sf/0f eP ;f]sf] k|df0f ;lxt of] ;"rgf k|sflzt ePsf] ldltn] !% lbgleq o; ljefudf lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^^-!_ adf]lhd cfkm\gf] ;kmfO k]; ug'{ x'g ljefusf] ldlt @)^*.#.!& sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ hfgsf/L u/fOG5 eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] ldlt @)^*.#.@) df lgh k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{{ ;kmfO k]; ug]{ af/]sf] bf];|f] k6s uf]/vfkqdf k|sflzt ;"rgf .


k|yd k6s k|sflzt ;"rgf cg';f/ cfkm"n] k]; u/]sf] ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] ;Ssn} 3/ ljbfsf] lgj]bgsf] kmf]6f]skL / ljefun] ldlt @)^&.!).@% df ljbf ;DaGwL ;Ssn} lgj]bg r= g+ !%@) sf] kqsf] kmf]6f]skL, dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofn] k=;+= @)^&.^* r= g+ @!@ ldlt @)^&.!@.!# ut] xflh/ x'g hfFbf xflh/ x'g glbPsf] kq tyf k|d'v lhNnf clwsf/L ;dIf lbPsf] lgj]bg / xflh/ x'g hfFbfsf] a; l6s6 nufotsf ;Dk"0f{ sfuhftx¿ ;kmfO k]; ul/;s]sf] / pQm k|yd k6s k|sflzt ;"rgfsf] plrt / kof{Kt sf/0f / k|df0f ;lxt ;kmfO k]; ul/;s]kl5 k'gM ldlt @)^*.#.@) ut]sf] uf]/vfkqdf ljbf :jLs[lt eP/ klg xflh/ x'g guPsf] egL e|fds / rl/q xTof ug]{ p2]Zo /fvL d lgDg:t/sf] sd{rf/L k|lt k|ltzf]wsf] efjgf /fvL xflh/ x'g guPsf] egL r]tfjgL kq lbPsf] / xflh/ x'g hfFbf a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] egL kq tyf kmf]g dfkm{t\ xflh/ x'g glbO{ b'O{ k6s kmsf{Pkl5 ;]jfdf cnu /flvPsf] Joxf]/f ljefu / dlxnf ljsf; sfof{nos} kqx¿af6 :ki6 b]lvG5 . ldlt @)^&.!).!! ut] dxflgb]{zsnfO{{ ;+af]wg u/L ldlt @)^*.*.^ ut]b]lv ldlt @)^*.!).#) ;Dd 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf nflu k]; u/]sf] d]/f] ;Ssn} lgj]bg ljefun] l6k]S; nufO{ (.#) ;Dd ;RofO{ d]6fO ljbf sd n]v]sf] ;Ssn k|df0fn] ljefun] d lgDg:t/sf] sd{rf/Lsf] hflu/ vfg] lgot /fvL ljbfsf] lgj]bgdf l6k]S; nufO{ d]6fpg / ;f]xL kqsf] sd ljbf :jLs[ltsf nflu k= ;+= @)^&.^* r= g+= !%@) ldlt @)^&.!).@% ut] ljefun] ;dod} ljbf k7fPsf] s'/f kqaf6 5n{Ë b]lvG5 . pQm kqnfO{{ sfof{non] ;dodf btf{ gu/L n'sfO{ alb{of sfof{nos} kq ;ª\Vof )^&.)^* r= g+= @*! ldlt @)^*.@.# ut] aNNf ljefudf ljbf :jLs[lt ePsf] hfgsf/L k7fPsf] b]lvG5 . k|yd / bf];|f] k6s k|sflzt ;"rgfdf ljbf glnO{ () lbg eGbf a9L ljgf ;"rgf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] eGg] / bf]>f] k6s ;"rgfdf ljbf :jLs[t u/]/ klg xflh/ x'g guPsf] egL ;kmfO k]; ug]{ ;DaGwL ;"rgf cfkm}Fdf aflemPsf] b]lvG5 . ldlt @)^*.@.!) ut] k|yd k6s k|sflzt ;"rgf cg';f/ cfkm"nfO{{ nufOPsf] ;Dk"0f{ cf/f]k / cfkm";Fu ePsf ;Dk"0f{ sfuhkqx¿ ljefudf ldlt @)^*.@.@$ ut] btf{ g+ #()@ cg';f/ k]; u/L ;s]sf] x'Fbf bf]>f] k6ssf] ;kmfO s]xL 5'6 ePsf] sfuhftx¿ ;d]t ;+nUg u/L k]; u/]sf] 5' . d}n] k]; u/]sf ;TotYo sfuhkq / k|df0fsf cfwf/df unt efjgf, k|ltzf]wsf] efjgf / unt lg0f{o gu/L Gofof]lrt lg0f{osf nflu xflb{s cg'/f]w ub{5' eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] lgh k'g/fj]lbsfn] ldlt @)^*.$.@ sf] kqdf dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefudf bf];|f] k6s ;kmfO k]; u/]sf] kq .

lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^^-!_ cg';f/ tkfO{+ pk/ nfu]sf] ljefuLo ;hfo ;DaGwL s;'/sf] cf/f]kaf/] ;kmfO k]; ug{ tkfO{+nfO{{ plrt Dofb lbO{ df}sf lbPsf]df tkfO+{n] ldlt @)^*.$.@ df ljefudf k]; u/]sf] ;kmfO ;Gtf]ifhgs gePsf]n] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( -;+zf]wg ;lxt_ sf] bkmf ^!-!_ sf] b]xfo -5_ sf] s;'/df P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ -!_ adf]lhd eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] lgldQ cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] ;DaGwL ljefuLo ;hfo lsg glbg' < ;f] ;hfo lbg' gkg]{ :ki6 cfwf/ jf yk ;a'b k|df0f s]xL eP ;f] ;d]t ;+nUg u/L of] ;"rgf k|sflzt ePsf] ldltn] kGw|||-!%_ lbgleq ljefudf P]gsf] bkmf ̂ & adf]lhd :ki6Ls/0f k]; ug'{ x'g ljefusf] ldlt @)^*.$.!# sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ hfgsf/L u/fOG5 . Dofbleq :ki6Ls/0f k]; gug'{ ePdf jf k]; ePsf] :ki6Ls/0f ;Gtf]ifhgs gePdf tkfO+nfO{{ pQm k|:tfljt ljefuLo ;hfo lbg]tkm{ sf/jfxL cufl8 a9fOg] Joxf]/f ;d]t ;"lrt ul/G5 . ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] ljbf ;DaGwL ljefudf lbPsf] ldlt @)^&.!).!( b=g+ @*#$ df btf{ ul/Psf] lgj]bgdf :ki6¿kdf ldlt @)^&.*.^ b]lv ldlt @)^&.(.#) ;Dd %$ lbg 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf] nflu cg'/f]w u/]sf] t/ tkfO{+n]


ldlt @)^*.$.@ df ljefudf k]; u/]sf] ;kmfO;fy ;+nUg ljbfsf] ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] lgj]bgsf] 5fFofk|ltdf s]/d]6 u/L k|df0f n'sfO{ ldlt @)^*.*.^ b]lv @)^*.!).#) ;Dd 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf] nflu lbPsf] lgj]bgdf ljefun] l6k]S; nufO{ (.#) ;Dd 3/ ljbf ;RofO{ d]6fO{ ljbf sd n]v]sf] pNn]v u/L tkfO{+n] klxn] cfkmF}n] k]; u/]sf] k|df0f n'sfpg' x'Fb} gePsf] s'/f pNn]v u/L em'6f ljj/0f k]; u/L ljgf ;"rgf cg'kl:yt x'g kgf{sf] plrt / kof{Kt sf/0f k]; ug{ g;s]sf], lzi6 / ;+oldt efiffdf ;kmfO k]; ug'{kg]{df tYonfO{{ aª\UofPsf], cfwf/xLg Pjd\ skf]nslNkt / wDsLk"0f{ efiff k|of]u ul/Psf] eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] lgh k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{{ :ki6Ls/0f k]; ug]{ af/]sf] ldlt @)^*.$.!$ t];|f] k6s uf]/vfkqdf k|sflzt ;"rgf .

k6s k6s d}n] lgj]bg ;kmfO dfkm{t\ ;d]t ljgd|tfsf ;fy cfkm"n] gu/]sf] s'/f hfx]/ ul/;s]sf] lyPF, k|ltzf]wsf] efjgfn] cfkm"nfO{{ r]tfjgL lbO{ sf/jfxL cufl8 a9fpFb} # k6s kqklqsfdf cjsfz lbg] k|lqmof cl3 a9fO{ b'Mv lb+b} cfPsf] Joxf]/f cg'/f]w 5 . cfkm"n] ljefusf] lj¿4df s'g} unt sbd p7fpFb} gp7fPsf] t/ ;f]xL s'/fnfO{{ ;dflxt ub}{ k|ltzf]wn] cf]tk|f]t eO{ sfg'g / kbLo x}l;ots} cf8df cfkm"dfly cGofo ul//x]sf] Joxf]/f cg'/f]w 5 . d}n] g]kfn ;/sf/df @)$^ ;fndf ;]jf k|j]z u/L cfk\mgf] sfd, st{Jo / lhDd]jf/L af]w eO{ OdfGbf/Lk"j{s sfd ub}{ cfPsf] / ldlt @)$(.!).!! ut] dlxnf ljsf; dxfzfvfaf6 dlxnf ljsf; ljefu;Ddsf] !* jif{sf] dlxnf ljsf; sfof{no / sfo{qmdsf] nfdf] Oltxf;df of]ubfg lbO{ OdfGbf/L st{Jolgi7 eO{ clt b'u{d / ljs6 lhNnfdf sfd u/]sf] lgDg:t/sf] sd{rf/LnfO{{ nfdf] ;dob]lv cdfgjLo oftgf lbO{ kqklqsf dfkm{t\ rl/q xTof u/L u/fO{{ ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] lg0f{o ug{ nfu]sf] eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] lgh k'g/fj]lbsfn] ldlt @)^*.$.@& df dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefudf t];|f] k6s k]; u/]sf] :ki6Ls/0f .

dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofsf ;'k/efOh/ k'gd /]UdLnfO{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ sf] s;'/df ;f]xL P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] lgldQ cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fpg ljefuLo ;hfo ug{ k/fdz{ dfu eO{ cfPsf]df dfu adf]lhd k/fdz{ k7fpg] egL cfof]uaf6 ldlt @)^(.!.& df lg0f{o ePsf] x'Fbf lg0f{ofg';f/ ;Ssn kmfOn o;} kq ;fy lkmtf{ k7fOPsf] 5 . lghnfO{ sf/jfxL eO;s]kl5 ;f]sf] hfgsf/L o; cof]unfO{ ;d]t lbg' x'g cg'/f]w 5 eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] ldlt @)^(.!.!) df nf]s;]jf cfof]usf] k/fdz{ ;lxt kmfOn lkmtf{ k7fPsf] kq .

dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofdf ;'k/efOh/ -/f=k=cg= k|yd, ljljw kbdf sfo{/t k['gd /]UdL -sd{rf/L ;Í]t g+= !($!##_n] ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{{ nuftf/ () lbg ;Dd cfkm\gf] sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] b]lvg cfPsf]n] lgh k'gd /]UdL;+u lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^^ sf] pkbkmf -!_ adf]lhd !% lbgsf] Dofb lbO{ ;kmfO dfu ul/Psf]df lghn] k]; u/]sf] ;kmfOsf] Joxf]/fdf lghn] ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] ljbf ;DaGwL ljefudf lbPsf] ldlt @)^&.!).!( b=g+= @*#$ df btf{ ul/Psf] lgj]bgdf :ki6 ¿kdf ldlt @)^&.*.^ b]lv @)^&.(.#) ;Dd %$ lbg 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf] nflu cg'/f]w u/]sf] t/ lghn] ldlt @)^*.$.@ df ljefudf k]; u/]sf] ;kmfO;fy ;+nUg ljbfsf] ldlt @)^&.!).!! sf] lgj]bgsf] 5fofFk|ltdf s]/d]6 u/L k|df0f n'sfO{ ldlt @)^*.*.^ b]lv @)^*.!).#) ;Dd 3/ ljbf :jLs[ltsf] nflu lbPsf] lgj]bgdf ljefun] l6k]S; nufO{


ldlt @)^&.(.#) ;Dd 3/ ljbf ;RofO{ d]6fO{ ljbf sd n]v]sf] pNn]v u/L lghn] klxn] cfkm}n] k]; u/]sf] k|df0f n'sfpg x'Fb} gePsf] s'/f pNn]v u/L em'6f ljj/0f k]; u/]sf], ldlt @)^*.@.@$ df k]; u/]sf] ;kmfOsf] lgj]bg kqdf ljgf ;"rgf cg'kl:yt x'g' kgf{sf] plrt / kof{Kt sf/0f k]; ug{ g;s]sf], lzi6 / ;+oldt efiffdf ;kmfO k]; ug'{kg]{df tYonfO{ aª\UofOPsf], cfwf/xLg Pjd\ skf]nslNkt / wDsLk"0f{ efiff k|of]u ul/Psf] sf/0faf6 ;Gtf]ifhgs b]lvPg . t;y{ P]gsf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ adf]lhdsf] s;'/df P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhdsf] ljefuLo ;hfo lghnfO{ lsg gug]{ < ;f] gug'{ kg]{ s'g} ;a't k|df0f jf sf/0f s]xL eP !% lbgleq :ki6Ls/0f k]; ug"{ egL P]gsf] bkmf ̂ & adf]lhd :ki6Ls/0f dfu ul/Psf]df lghn] ldlt @)^*.@.@$ ut] btf{ g+=#()@ df k]; u/]sf] ;kmfOdf cfkm"nfO{ nufOPsf] ;Dk"0f{ cf/f]k / cfkm";Fu ePsf ;Dk"0f{ sfuhkq / k|df0f k]; u/L ;s]sf] egL :ki6Ls/0f k]; u/]sf] b]lvof] . o; ;DaGwdf ;+sng ePsf sfuhft, a'lemPsf ;a't k|df0f / k]; ePsf] :ki6Ls/0f pk/ ;d]t ljrf/ ubf{ k|fKt ;a't k|df0faf6 lghn] P]gsf] bkmf ̂ ! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ adf]lhdsf] s;'/ u/]sf] b]lvPsf]n] lgh pk/ P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ sf] ;hfo k|:tfj u/L ;f] ;hfo ug{sf] lgldQ nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] k/fdz{sf nflu k7fOPsf]df cfof]usf] ldlt @)^(.!.& sf] lg0f{oaf6 k/fdz{ k|fKt eP cg'¿k lghnfO{ ldlt @)^&.!).! b]lv @)^*.!.! ;Dd gJa] lbg lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL, @)%) sf] lgod ^* adf]lhd uon / tna s§L u/L P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] lgldQ cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ldlt @)^*.!.@ b]lv ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] ;hfo lbg] lg0f{o cfb]z ul/Psf] 5 . of] cfb]zdf lrQ ga'em]df lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL, @)%) -;+zf]wg ;lxt_ sf] lgod !!$ sf] v08 -3_ sf] Dofbleq k|zf;sLo cbfnt ;dIf k'g/fj]bg lbg ;lsg]5 eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf dxflgb]{zsn] ldlt @)^(.@.% df lgh k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ u/]sf] ljefuLo ;hfosf] cfb]z lg0f{o .

ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{{ nuftf/ () lbgeGbf a9L cfkm\gf] sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] b]lvPsf]n] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08-5_ adf]lhdsf] s;'/df ;f]xL P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ sf] ;hfo k|:tfj u/L ;f] ;hfo ug{sf] lgldQ nf]s ;]jf cfof]usf] k/fdz{sf] nflu k7fOPsf]df cfof]usf] lg0f{oaf6 k/fdz{ k|fKt eP cg'¿k P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] lgldQ cfof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ldlt @)^*.!.@ b]lv ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] ;hfo lbg] ldlt @)^(.@.%sf] lg0f{o cfb]z cg';f/ hfgsf/L u/fOPsf] 5 eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] ldlt @)^(.@.@* df lgh k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ ljefuLo ;hfo ;DaGwL kq .

d k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] lglDt cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] lg0f{o ubf{ d'Vo ¿kdf lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^!-!_ sf] v08 -5_ adf]lhd () lbgeGbf a9L ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{{ sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] eGg] cf/f]k /x]sf] 5 . ;j{k|yd ldlt @)^&.*.^ ut] dlxnf ljsf; sfof{no afh'/faf6 ;¿jf eO{ ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{no dlxnf ljsf; sfof{no alb{ofdf xflh/ x'g hfg' cufj} cyf{t\ ldlt @)^&.*.!% ut] a/a'emf/y ug]{ af/]sf] ljefusf] r=g+= (@( k=;+= )^&.^* df kq n]vL dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofnfO{ af]wfy{ lbO{ a/a'emf/ysf] k|df0f k]; gu/L sfof{nodf xflh/ gu/fpg' x'g egL n]Vg] sfo{ ePsf] /x]5 . h'g kq ldlt @)^&.!!.^ ut] k|fKt u/]sL 5' . d k'g/fj]lbsf ldlt @)^&.!!.^ ut] cyf{t\ () lbg


cufj} sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g uPsf] tYo pQm ldltdf kq a'em]af6 ;d]t :ki6 5 . o;/L dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g hfFbf ;f]xL kqsf] cf8df xflh/ x'g lbOPg . o;/L dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefun] cfkm\gf] clwsf/ If]qeGbf aflx/ uO{ a/a'emf/y gu/L sfof{nodf xflh/ gu/fpg" eGg] 7f8f] cfb]zsf] e/df xflh/ x'g hfFbf sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g glbPkl5 dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefun] ldlt @)^&.(.@& ut] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf %%-s_ adf]lhd clen]v /xg] u/L r]tfjgL lbPsf] egL kq n]Vg] sfo{ ePsf] /x]5 . pQm kq dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{non] @)^&.!).% df k|fKt u/]sf] /x]5 o;/L a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] eGg] cfwf/df k'g/fj]bsnfO{ xflh/ ug{ glbO{ k"jf{u|fxL 9Ëaf6 d pk/ sf/jfxL k|lqmof cufl8 a9fPsf] 5 . a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] cj:yfdf lghfdtL ;]jf P]gsf] bkmf ̂ )-s_ adf]lhd ;hfo ug'{kg]{df dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no afh'/fsf] ldlt @)^&.*.!@ sf] kqsf] cfwf/df ;TotYo a'em\b} ga'emL a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] cfwf/df xflh/ gu/fpg" eGg] ldlt @)^&.*.!% sf] kq g} u}x|sfg'gL, q'l6k"0f{ / ablgotk"0f{ /x]sf] k|:6 5 . o;/L @)^&.*.!% sf] kqsf] cfwf/df sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g glbPkl5 ljleGg ^ j6f a'Fbfx¿df cf/f]k nufO{ r]tfjgL lbg] sfo{ ePsf] 5 . /dfgf cfkm}n] agfPsf], nfvf}F /sd a]¿h' km5\of}{6 gu/]sf], a/a'emf/y gu/]sf], ljefudf xflh/ x'g kfpmF egL lgj]bg lbPsf], sfof{nosf] sfddf ljjfb >[hgf ub}{ lx8]sf] eGg] h:Tff cf/f]kx¿ nufOPsf 5g\ . h'g cf/f]ksf] k'li6 / k|dfl0ft x'g] s'g} 7f]; cfwf/ :yflkt x'g ;Sg] Go"gtd cfwf/ ;d]t ljBdfg 5}g . dlxnf ljsf; sfof{no alb{of / ljefun] ;d]t xflh/ x'g glbP kZrft\ ldlt @)^&.!).!! ut] ljefusf dxflgb]{zs ;dIf ldlt @)^&.*.^ ut]b]lv @)^&.!).!! ut];Dd ljbf :jLs[t u/L kfpFF egL lgj]bg lbPsf]df d]/f] ljbfsf] lgj]bg :jLs[t c:jLs[t ePsf] ;DaGwdf dnfO{ s'g} hfgsf/L glbO{ cgf}krfl/s ¿kdf d]/f] ljbf lgj]bg dfu adf]lhd ldlt @)^&.(.#) ;Ddsf] ljbf :jLs[t ePsf] 5 eGg] yfxf kfO{ ldlt @)^&.!!.% ut] dlxnf ljsf; sfof{no alb{ofdf 3/ ljbf, af6f] Dofb / SofjL ;d]t u/L @)^&.!!.% ;Dd ljbf :jLs[t u/L xflh/ u/fO{{ kfpg lgj]bg u/]sf]df d]/f] ;f] lgj]bg btf{ ;d]t ug{ OGsf/ ul/of] / dnfO{ xflh/ u/fOPg, d k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ xflh/ gu/fPkl5 k'gM ldlt @)^&.!@.!# df xflh/ x'g kfpmF egL dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofdf uPsf]df ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.*.!% sf] kq cg';f/ xflh/ x'gnfO{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no afh'/faf6 a/a'emf/y u/]sf] cg';"rL–! lgod %^ sf] ! ;+u ;DalGwt a/a'emf/y u/]sf] k|df0f k]; ug{ ;"lrt ub}{ pQm k|df0f k]; ePkl5 xflh/ x'g] Joxf]/f cg'/f]w ul/G5 egL kq lbOof] . dnfO{ kq lbPsf] ldlt @)^&.!@.!# ut] d]/f] ljbf :jLs[t ePsf] ldlt @)^&.(.#) af6 () lbg cufj} xflh/ x'g uPsf] l:yltdf a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] sf/0f b]vfO{ xflh/ x'g glbPsf] x'Fbf dnfO{ () lbgeGbf a9L ljgf ;"rgf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] egL eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] nflu cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] u/L ePsf] ;hfo q'l6k"0f{ x'Fbf ab/ u/L Gofo u/L kfpmF . ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.*.!% / ldlt @)^&.(.@& sf] u}x|sfg'gL kqsf] cfwf/df ljbf lng afWo ul/Psf] tyf d]/f] ldlt @)^&.(.#) ;Ddsf] ljbf :jLs[t eP kZrft\ klg a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] eGg] cfwf/df xflh/ x'g glbO{ ;"rgf ljgf sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt /x]sf] eGg] cfwf/df ;hfo ug{ sbflk ldNb}g . To;df klg lgj]bg dfu adf]lhd ljbf :jLs[t e};s]kl5 klg () lbg cufj} sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g uPsf] tYo sfof{nosf] ldlt @)^&.!@.!# sf] kqaf6} k'li6 eO/x]sf] x'Fbf d dfly nufPsf] cf/f]k / ;hfo k"jf{u|xL dgf]ut x'g'sf ;fy} sfg'g k|lts"n ;d]t /x]sf] x'Fbf pQm q'l6k"0f{ lg0f{o ab/ u/L ;fljs kbdf k'gj{xfnL u/L Gofo kfpFFm . d k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ eljiodf ;/sf/L ;]jfsf] nflu cof]Uo g7xl/g] u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] lg0f{o ldlt @)^(.@.% ut] ePsf] 5 . t/ dnfO{ ;]jfaf6 x6fPsf] ldlt @)^*.!.@ af6 sfod


ul/Psf] 5 . sfg'g / Gofosf] ;j{dfGo l;4fGt adf]lhd JolQmsf] xs lxtdf k|lts"n c;/ kg]{ u/L s'g} klg lg0f{o ubf{ e"tnIfL jf kZrft\bzL{ c;/ kg]{ u/L lg0f{o ug{ ldNb}g . o; ;DaGwdf ljkIfL ljefun] dnfO{ ;hfo ubf{ lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL, @)%) sf] ;ftf}+ ;+zf]wg @)^$ sf] lgod !@ sf] pklgod -#_ df ;+zf]wg u/L P]gsf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ adf]lhdsf] s;'/df ;hfo ubf{ () lbg k'u]sf] ef]lnkN6b]lv nfu" x'g] u/L lg0f{o ug{ ;lsg]5 egL ePsf] Joj:yfnfO{ cfwf/ lnPsf] 5 . pQm pklgoddf æ;lsg]5Æ egL ePsf] Joj:yfsf] b'¿kof]u u/L lg0f{o ug{ sbflk ldNg] xf]Og, e"tnIfL c;/ x'g] u/L ePsf] lg0f{o q'l6k"0f{ /x]sf] 5 . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ adf]lhdsf] s;'/df bkmf %( g+ sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd ul/Psf] ;hfo cToGt cGofoLs / q'l6k"0f{ /x]sf] x'Fbf ljefusf] ldlt @)^(.@.% sf] lg0f{o ab/ u/L xflh/ x'g glbPsf] cjlw ;d]tsf] tna eQf / ;'ljwf ;d]t k|bfg u/L ;fljs kbdf jxfnL u/L Gofo kfpFFm eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] lgh k'g/fj]lbsfn] ldlt @)^(.#.@% ut] o; cbfntdf bfo/ u/]s]f k'g/fj]bg kq .

ldlt @)^&.*.^ b]lv ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{ sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt ePsf] cf/f]kdf k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08-5_ sf] s;'/df ;f]xL P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd ldlt @)^*.!.@ b]lv ;]jfaf6 x6fpg egL ldlt @)^(.@.% df dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf dxflgb]{zsn] lg0f{o u/]sf]df () lbgleq g} sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g hfFbf xflh/ gu/fPsf], k"jf{u|x /fvL sf/jfxL u/]sf], To;df klg e"tnIfL lg0f{o u/L ;]jfaf6 x6fPsf] lg0f{o sfg'g / Gofosf] dfGo l;4fGt k|lts"n /x]sf] eGg] k'g/fj]lbsfsf] lhls/ ljrf/0fLo ePsf]n] c=j=@)@ g+ adf]lhd ljkIfLnfO{ dxfGofoflwjQmfsf] sfof{no dfkm{t\ ;"rgf lbO{ lgodfg';f/ k]; ug"{ eGg] ;d]t Joxf]/fsf] ldlt @)^(.$.@( ut] o; cbfntaf6 ePsf] cfb]z .

lgod adf]lhd b}lgs k];L ;"rLdf r9L o; Ohnf; ;dIf k]; x'g cfPsf] k|:t't d'2fdf k'g/fj]lbsfsf] tkm{af6 /xg' ePsf jl/i7 clwjQmf >L xl/x/ bfxfnn] oL k'g/fj]lbsf nuftf/ () lbg;Dd sfof{nodf xflh/ geO{ ljefuLo sf/jfxL ul/Psf] egL ljefuLo ;hfosf] lg0f{odf pNn]v ePklg lgh ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf gAa] lbgleq} uPsf] eGg] s'/f ldl;n ;+nUg ;DalGwt sfof{nosf] kqaf6 klg b]lvPsf] cj:yfdf oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ k"jf{u|x /fvL ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] u/L lg0f{o ul/Psf] 5, To;df klg $) jif{ pd]/ k'uL ;s]sL oL dlxnf cGoq ;/sf/L ;]jfdf hfg sfg'gtM klg cof]Uo eO;s]sf] cj:yfdf n}lÍs ;+j]bgzLntftkm{ slt klg Wofg glbO{ clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Ln] b"/fzo lsl;dn] s7f]/ lg0f{o u/]sf] b]lv+bf ;f] lg0f{o ab/ x'g'k5{ egL ug'{ePsf] ax; / k'g/fj]lbsfs} tkm{af6 /xg' ePsf csf{ clwjQmf >L OGb|axfb'/ clwsf/Ln] a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] cf/f]kdf ;]jfaf6 avf{:t ug'{ uDeL/ sfg'gL q'l6 xf], To;df klg e"tnIfL lg0f{o u/L ;]jfaf6 avf{:t ug'{ sfg'g / Gofosf] dfGo l;4fGt k|lts"n ePsfn] ljefuLo ;hfosf] lg0f{o ab/ x'g'k5{ egL ug'{ ePsf] ax; tyf oL k'g/fj]lbsfn] ljleGg ldltdf k]; u/]sf :ki6Ls/0fdf ljefuaf6 ablgot / b"/fu|x /fvL ljefuLo ;hfosf] sf/jfxL ul/Psf], v6fOPsf] sfof{nodf ;doleq} xflh/ x'g hfFbf ljefusf] cfb]z geO{ xflh/ u/fpg glbg] / ljefudf ;Dks{ ubf{ s'g} lgsf;f glbg], ljefu dlxnfk|lt ;Dj]bgzLn geO{ sf/jfxL u/]sf], dlxnf ePsf] gftfn] ljefu / sfof{noaf6 h] hlt oftgf / kL8fx¿ lbOof], To;af6 lj/lQmP/ /flhgfdf lbg'kg]{ cj:yf ;d]t >[hgf eof], Gofo dfUg dGqfno, ljefu ;d]t wfpFbf klg st}af6 Gofo gkfPkl5 ;Ddflgt cbfntsf] z/0fdf Gofo dfUg cfPsf] eGg] Joxf]/f ;d]tsf] k'g/fj]bg lhls/


/x]sf] / ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g hfg'k"j{ cfkm\gf] lhDdfdf /x]sf] gub tyf lhG;L ;d]tsf] a/a'emf/y u/L /dfgf lng'kg]{df To;f] gu/L cfkm}n] /dfgf tof/ u/L lxF8]sf] sf/0f P]g sfg'gåf/f tf]lsPsf] lhDd]jf/L jxg gu/]sf], s;"/hGo sfo{ dlxnf ePs} sf/0f ;hfodf 5'6 x'g g;Sg], To;df klg oL k'g/fj]lbsf gAa] lbg;Dd ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{ sfof{nodf xflh/ gePsf] sf/0f ;]jfaf6 x6fOPsf] eGg] k|ToyL{ ljefu ;d]tsf] egfO{ /x]sf] ;DalGwt ldl;n sfuhft cWoog u/L x]bf{ b]lvPsf] ;Gbe{df o; cbfntaf6 b]xfosf k|Zgx¿df lg0f{o lbg'kg]{ b]lvg cfof] .

!= dlxnf ePs} sf/0f s'g} klg s;'/hGo ljifosf] sf/jfxL, sfg'gL bfloTj / lhDd]jf/Laf6 sfg'gtM pGd'lQm / 5'6 x'g ;S5, ;Sb}g <

@= oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf dxflgb]{zsn] ldlt @)^(.@.% df ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] u/L u/]sf] ljefuLo ;hfosf] lg0f{o sfg'g;Ddt 5, 5}g < / ;f] lg0f{o ab/ x'g'kg]{ xf], xf]Og <

!= dlxnf ePs} sf/0f s'g} klg s;'/hGo ljifosf] sf/jfxL, sfg'gL bfloTj / lhDd]jf/Laf6 sfg'gtM pGd'lQm / 5'6 x'g ;S5, ;Sb}g < eGg] k|Zgtkm{ ljrf/ ubf{ tT;DaGwdf cfw'lgs n}lËs ljlwZff:qn] cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] l;4fGt / To;sf] /fli6«o sfg'gdf ¿kfGt/0fsf] l:yltsf] cWoog u/L lg0f{o ug'{kg]{ b]lvg cfof] . n}lËs ljlwzf:q (Gender Jurisprudence) n] Oltxf;sf] ljleGg qmddf k'¿if x}sdjfb (Male Chauvinism) sf sf/0f lkt[;QfnfO{ k|fs[lts lgodsf] ¿kdf :jLsf/ ugf{n] dlxnfx¿ k'¿if ;/x sfg'gsf ;dfg xsbf/ x'gaf6 jl~rt ePsf sf/0f dlxnfjfbL cfGbf]ngsf] (Feminist Movement) kl/0ffd ;dGofo (Equity) sf] dfWod ckgfP/ eP klg kl/0ffddf k'¿if ;/x ;dfg clwsf/sf xsbf/ dlxnf x'g] l;4fGtnfO{ nfdf] ;ª\3if{kl5 :yflkt u/]sf] 5 (Sandra Kemp & Judith Squires (Ed.) Feminisms, Oxford University Press, 1997, p.3) . n}lËs ljlwzf:qn] lnË (Sex) / n}lËs (Gender) aLrsf] leGgtfnfO{ :ki6 ub}{ ælnËÆ hGdgf;fy 5'l§g] h}ljs klxrfg (Biological Identity) xf] eg] æn}lËsÆ (Gender) dlxnf / k'¿ifsf aLr ;fdflhs / ;fF:s[lts jgf]6 / kl/j]zn] ;[hgf u/]sf] lje]bsf/L b[li6sf]0f xf], h;n] zlQm / txsf] ;DaGwdf k'¿if / dlxnfsf] aLr e]befjsf] cg'e"lt u/fpF5 egL lnË / n}lËsaLr leGgtf 5'6\ofOPsf] b]lvG5 -æGender is understood as a constitutive element of social relations based upon perceived (socially constructed and culturally variable) differences between women and men, and as a primary way of signifying (and naturalizing) relationships of power and hierarchy. Gender, therefore, not only operates at the level of the subjective/interpersonal (through which humans identify themselves and organize their relations with others); but is also a feature of institutions and social structures, and a part of the symbolic realm of meaning-making, within which individual actors are ‘nested’.” _ M Hawkesworth, 2005, Engendering political Science: an immodest proposal. Politics & Gender 1(1): 141-156; JW Socott, 1986, Gender: a useful category of historical analysis. American Historical Review 91: 1053-1075; Rhoda Unger & Mary Crawford, Women and Gender, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1992, pp.66, 186) .


hGdb]lv g} 5f]/f / 5f]/LnfO{ km/s km/s ¿kdf Jojxf/ ug]{ / lghx¿sf] aLr km/s km/s e"ldsf lgwf{/0f ug]{ ;fdflhs ;f+:s[lts k|lqmofnfO{ æn}lËsLs/0fÆ -Genderisation_ klg eGg] ul/G5 . ;dfhdf hltklg lnËe]b -Gender Discrimination_ 5, Tof] k|s[ltn] ;[hgf u/]sf] geO{ ;dfhn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] xf], ha;Dd ;dfhdf dlxnf / k'¿ifsf aLrdf zlQm / txsf] cGt/;DaGw lje]bsf/L ¿kdf /lx/xG5, ta;Dd ;Eo / ljj]sk"0f{ ;dfhsf] lgdf{0f x'g;Sb}g eGg] b[li6sf]0f ;dfhzf:qL x]j/df; -Jurgen Habermas_ ;d]tsf] /x]sf] b]lvG5 -æAlthough we cannot know a priori what the good society will be, we know more than enough about what it will not be to provide a current agenda. It will not be a society with wide gender disparities in status, power and economic security. Nor will it be a society that limits women’s reproductive freedom, tolerates substantial poverty, violence, and racial injustice, or structures its workplace without regard to family needs. Finally, and most fundamentally, it will not be a society that denies many of its members substantial power over the terms of their daily existence. To realize its full potential, feminism must sustain a vision concerned not only with relations between men and women but also with relations among them. The commitment to sexual equality that gave birth to the women’s movement is necessary but not sufficient to express the values underlying that movement.”_ Rhode, Justice and Gender, p. 317; Quoted in Jurgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms, 1997, Polity Press, UK, p. 427) . o;/L k|s[ltsf] >[li6k|lt ;dfhsf] unt b[li6n] c;dfgtfsf] >[hgf ePsf] eGg] JofVof ljZn]if0f b]lvG5 . sfg'gsf] ;dfgtf, cj;/sf] ;dfgtf / clwsf/sf] pkef]uaf6 kl/0ffddf ;f/e"t ;dfgtf -Equality of results_ åf/f g} k'¿if / dlxnfsf aLrsf] lje]b / zf]if0fsf] cGTo ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] dfGotfnfO{ cfw'lgs dlxnf clwsf/;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o sfg'gn] cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] 5 -World Bank, Engedering Development, Through Gender Equality in Rights, Resources, and Voice, 2001, Oxford University Press, p.2 & 35) . o; ;DaGwdf ef/tLo ;jf]{Rr cbfntn] jf]lw;Q uf}tdsf] d'2f -!((^_ df ul/Psf] b]xfosf] JoVofn] dlxnf clwsf/sf] ljifodf cem :ki6 u5{ M–

“Unfortunately, a woman, belongs to a class or group of society who are in a disadvantageous position on account of several social barriers and impediments and have, therefore, been the victim of tyranny at the hands of men with whom they, fortunately, under the Constitution enjoy equal rights. Women also have the right to life and liberty, they also have the right to be respected and treated as equal citizens. Their honour and dignity cannot be touched or violated. They also have the right to lead as honourable and peaceful women in them, have many personalities combined. They are Mother, Daughter, Sister and Wife... . They must have the liberty, freedom and of course, independence to live the roles assigned to them by Nature so that society may flourish as they alone have the talents, and capacity to shape the destiny and character of men anywhere and every part of the world”_ Bodhisatta Gautam v. Subhra Chakraborty, AIR 1996 SC 922 at 926.


cfw'lgs n}lËs ljlwzf:qn] k'¿if ;/x dlxnfnfO{ ;dfg clwsf/sf] k|Tofe"lt, dlxnf lj¿4 x'g] e]befj, ;a} k|sf/sf zf]if0f / cTofrf/sf] cGTosf ;fy} dlxnf dof{bfk|ltsf] ;Ddfgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ -Equality, Dignity and Non-Exploitation_ :jLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . o; l;4fGtnfO{ ;fsf/ t'Nofpg ljz]if ;+/If0f -Special Protection_ / ;dGofo -Equity_ sf] ljz]if k|lqmof ckgfpg ;d]t /fHonfO{ lglb{i6 u/]sf] 5 . k'¿ifsf] k|e'Tj /x]sf] ;dfhaf6 -Male-dominated society_ n}lËs ;dfgtfsf] ;fem]bf/Ld"ns ;dfh -Co-Equals Society_ ¿kfGt/0f ug]{tkm{ cfw'lgs /fHon] pknlAwd"ns >[hgzLn JofVof u/]sf] 5 . h;cg';f/ x}l;ot -Status_ / cj;/df ;dfgtfsf] ;'lglZrttfsf] ;fy} ;'ljwfdf ;dfgtfsf] lgod -Equality rule for benefit_ nfu" ug'{kg]{ dfGotfnfO{ :jLsf/ u/]sf] 5 . o;/L dlxnfnfO{ k'¿if ;/x ;dfgtfsf] ;'lglZrttfsf lglDt cfw'lgs ljlwzf:qn] clje]b -Non-Discrimination_, ;dfj]zLs/0f -Inclusion_, ljz]if Jojxf/ -Preferential treatment_, ljz]if ;+/If0f -Special Protection_, ;sf/fTds lje]b -Positive Discrimination_ / cf/If0f -Reservation_ h:tf ljleGg l;4fGtx¿nfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o; ;Gbe{df ;+o'Qm/fi6« ;ª\3n] lnËsf] cfwf/df clje]bsf] l;4fGtsf] cg';/0f ub}{ dlxnf / k'¿ifaLr ;dfg clwsf/sf] Joj:yf Pjd\ n}lËs cfwf/df lagf e]befj ;a}sf] ;dfg clwsf/ tyf cfwf/e"t :jtGqtfsf] pkof]u / ;Ddfgsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ Go"gtd dfkb08x¿ lgwf{/0f u/]sf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(&( sf] dlxnf lj¿4 x'g] ;a} k|sf/sf e]befj pGd"ng ;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o dxf;GwL -CEDAW_ n] n}lËs lje]b cGTosf nflu /fli6«o sfg'gdf dlxnf clwsf/sf] ;'lglZrttf ug{, sfg'gdf /x]sf lje]bsf/L Joj:yfx¿ vf/]h ug{, dlxnf clwsf/sf] ;+/If0f / ;Djw{gdf gofF sfg'gx¿sf] lgdf{0f ug{ tyf dlxnf clwsf/sf] k|efjsf/L ;+/If0fsf nflu /fli6«o ;+oGqsf] :yfkgf ug{ /fHokIfsf] bfloTj lgwf{/0f u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;}u/L ;g\ !((# df ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;ª\3Lo dxf;efaf6 hf/L ul/Psf] dlxnf lj¿4 x'g] lx+;f cGTo ug]{;DaGwL 3f]if0ffkqn] dlxnf lj¿4 lghL jf ;fj{hlgs hLjgdf x'g] zf/Ll/s, of}ghGo jf dfgl;s ;a} k|sf/sf lx+;fsf] cGTo ug{ /fHonfO{ lglb{i6 u/]sf] 5 . ;g\ !((% df ePsf] rf}yf] ljZj dlxnf ;Dd]ngn] n}lËs ;dfgtf / ;zQmLs/0fdf ljz]if hf]8 lbPsf] b]lvG5 . ;+o'Qm /fi6« ;+3 cGt/utsf dlxnf cfof]usf] ;lqmotf, ;'/Iff kl/ifb\sf] !#@% sf] k|:tfj ;d]tn] dlxnf ;xeflutfsf If]qdf dxTTjk"0f{ dfu{bz{g k|:t't u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L dfgj clwsf/ / dlxnf clwsf/ ;DaGwL ljleGg cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGw / 3f]if0ffx¿n] dlxnf clwsf/sf ¿kdf d"ntM lzIffsf] clwsf/, :jf:Yo ;DaGwL clwsf/, ul/aL lj¿4sf] clwsf/, lx+;f lj¿4sf] clwsf/, zflGt ;DaGwL clwsf/, ;fdflhs clwsf/, ;DklQ, e"ld tyf pTkfbgd"ns ;fwg ;|f]tdf kxF'rsf] clwsf/, ;dfg sfdsf] nflu ;dfg kfl/>ldssf] clwsf/, k|hgg :jf:Yo ;DaGwL clwsf/, uf]kgLotfsf] clwsf/, cfTd;Ddfgsf] clwsf/, x/]s k|sf/sf zf]if0f lj¿4sf] clwsf/, hj/h:tL ue{wf/0f lj¿4sf] clwsf/ h:tf ljleGg clwsf/ k|bfg u/]sf] b]lvG5 .

dfgj clwsf/sf] Jofks bfo/fleq dlxnf clwsf/sf] cfkm\g} :yfg 5 . ;+o'Qm /fi6«;+3sf] kxndf hf/L ePsf dfgj clwsf/ / dlxnf clwsf/ ;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGwn] dlxnf clwsf/sf ¿kdf d"ntM ;dfgtf, :jtGqtf, ;Ddfg,


;dGofo, zf]if0f / e]befjsf] cGTo h:tf ljifonfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub}{ ljz]if ;+/If0fsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;d]t :jLsf/ u/]sf] b]lvG5 . dlxnf clwsf/nfO{ /fHon] ;+/If0f / k|rng u/fpg' kg]{ sfg'gL lhDd]jf/L ;d]t /x]sf] 5 . g]kfnsf] ;Gbe{df n}lËs ;dfgtfnfO{ ;fsf/ agfpg]tkm{ g]kfn clw/fHosf] ;+ljwfg, @)$& hf/L ePkl5 To; If]qdf s]xL dxTTjk"0f{ k|of;x¿ ePsf] b]lvG5 . dfgj clwsf/ / dlxnf clwsf/ ;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGwsf Joj:yf cg'¿k /fli6«o sfg'gdf ;'wf/ ug{, dlxnfk|lt ;Ddfghgs Jojxf/ ug{, dlxnfsf lj¿4sf] lx+;f / zf]if0fsf] lgoGq0f ug{ tyf dlxnf clwsf/ k|rng u/fpg Gofokflnsfsf] ;lqmotf Tolts} pNn]Vo /x]sf] b]lvG5 -dL/f 9'Ëfgf ;d]t lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\;d]t g]=sf=k= @)%@, cÍ ^ k[= $^@, 8f=rGbf jh|frfo{ lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ ;lrjfno;d]t g]=sf=k=@)%@, cÍ & k[=%#&, cGgk"0f{ /f0ff lj¿4 uf]/v zdz]/ g]=sf=k=@)%% cÍ * k[=$&^, l/gf jh|frfo{ lj¿4 g]kfn jfo' ;]jf lgud g]=sf=k=@)%&, cÍ % k[=#&^, rGb|sfGt 1jfnL lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ g]=sf=k=@)^!, cÍ !!, k[=!$!*, l8naxfb'/ ljZjsdf{ lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ l/=g+= ##)#, @)^!, lg0f{o ldlt @)^@.!.!(, /]Zdf yfkf lj¿4 g]kfn ;/sf/ dlGqkl/ifb\ g]=sf=k=@)^@, cÍ @ k[= @)%, lnnL yfkf lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ g]=sf=k= @)^@, cÍ ( k[=!)%$, ld/f 9'Ëfgf lj¿4 sfg'g tyf Gofo dGqfno g]=sf=k=@)^$, lg=g+= &*%$, ;kgf k|wfg dNn lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ g]=sf=k=@)^%, cÍ * k[=(!&, k|sfzdl0f zdf{ lj¿4 dlxnf afnaflnsf tyf ;dfhsNof0f dGqfno, l/=g+= #$, @)^!; g]=sf=k= @)^%, cÍ *, k[= (%^; g]=sf=k= @)^%, cÍ * k[=(((, sljtf kfF8] ;d]t lj¿4 dlGqkl/ifb\ , g]=sf=k=,@)^&,cÍ &, k[=!!@* cflb _ .

n}lËs ;d:ofx¿nfO{ ;dfwfg ug]{ p2]Zo ;d]t /fvL hf/L ePsf] g]kfnsf] cGtl/d ;+ljwfg, @)^# n] ;dfgtfsf] xsnfO{ df}lns xssf] ¿kdf ;+/lIft u/L dlxnf ju{sf] ;+/If0f, ;zQmLs/0f jf ljsf;sf nflu sfg'gåf/f ljz]if Joj:yf ug{ ;lsg] l;4fGtnfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] cfwf/df /fHon] lghfdtL ;]jf nufot ljleGg If]qdf ljz]if ;+/If0fsf] Joj:yf u/]sf] b]lvG5 . dlxnf ju{sf] lzIff, :jf:Yo / /f]huf/Lsf] nflu /fHon] ljz]if gLlt lng'kg]{ s'/f ;d]tsf] ;+j}wflgs Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . /fHosf ;j} cËx¿df dlxnfsf] ;dfg'kflts ;xeflutfsf] ;+j}wflgs ;'lglZrttf u/]sf] 5 . g]kfn ;/sf/n] dlxnf pk/ x'g] ;a} k|sf/sf e]befjsf] pGd"ng ug]{ dxf;lGw, !(&( / j]lhË sfo{d~r nufot n}lËs ;dfgtf sfod ug{ / dlxnf lj¿4 x'g] lje]bsf] cGTosf nflu cGt//fli6«o k|lta4tf ;d]t hgfPsf] b]lvG5 . /fHo ;+oGqdf sDtLdf ## k|ltzt dlxnfsf] k|ltlglwTjsf nflu /fli6«o ;ÍNksf ;fy} sfg'gL clwsf/ k|Tofe"t u/]sf] 5 . dlxnf clwsf/;DaGwL ljleGg cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGwn] k|Tofe"t u/]sf] clwsf/ nfu" ug]{ /fli6«o c7f]6 /fHon] JoQm u/]sf] eP klg ;dfhdf lkt[;QfTds ;f]r cem} sfod /xg', dlxnfx¿sf] /fhgLlts, cfly{s, ;fdflhs, sfg'gL ;zQmLs/0fsf k|of;x¿ km}nfj6 / u'0f:t/sf b'li6n] ckof{Kt x'g', ;z:q åGå, n}lËs lx+;f, dfgj a]rlavg, Pr=cfO=le=÷P8\; tyf ul/aLsf] k|efj dlxnfx¿df a9\g', ;+:yfut Joj:yfsf] ;'b[9Ls/0f ug{ kof{Kt dfqfdf ef}lts, ljQLo Pjd\ dfgjLo ;|f]t kl/rfng ug{ g;lsg' h:tf ;d:ofx¿ cf}FNofpFb} ;|f]t, ;fwg / k|ltkmndf dlxnfx¿sf] kx'Fr / lgoGq0f :yfkgf ug]{, ljleGg k|sf/sf lje]b, ;]jf If]qdf >d tyf of}g


zf]if0fsf] cGTo ug]{, u}/s[lif If]qdf /f]huf/Lsf cj;/x¿ j[l4 ug]{, lg0f{o lg¿k0f k|lqmofdf dlxnfsf] ;xeflutfnfO{ ;fy{s agfpg], j}b]lzs /f]huf/df hfg] dlxnfx¿sf] nflu ;Lk / Jofj;flos bIftf clej[l4 ug]{, dlxnfsf] nflu cfly{s cj;/ j[l4 ug]{, dlxnf ;d'bfoleq ;dfgtf sfod ug{] / dlxnfsf] of]ubfgnfO{ /fli6«o n]vf k|0ffnLdf ;dfj]z ug]{ sfo{ r'gf}tLk"0f{ /x]sf] tYonfO{ ;/sf/L gLltdf g} pNn]v u/L To;nfO{ ;Daf]wg ug]{ /0fgLlt / sfo{gLlt ;d]t th'{df u/]sf] b]lvG5 -lqjifL{o of]hgf, /fli6«o of]hgf cfof]u, @)^*, k[= @^%_ .

dlxnf clwsf/nfO{ kl/0ffdd'vL agfpg] /fHosf ;dIf ljleGg ;d:of / r'gf}tLx¿ eP klg To;nfO{ hLjGt agfpg] bfloTj / lhDd]jf/L eg]sf] cGtt /fHosf] g} xf] . /fHon] cfw'lgs n}lËs ljlwzf:qn] cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] l;4fGtnfO{ nfu" ug'{kg]{ bfloTj /x]sf] 5 . o;af6 /fHo klG5g ldNg] b]lvGg . dlxnfx¿nO{ k'¿if ;/x clwsf/sf] ;dfg pkef]udf ;Ifd agfpg cf}krfl/s ;dfgtf (Formal Equality) n] dfq cy{k"0f{ gx'g] ePsfn] ;f/e"t ;dfgtf -Substantive Equality_ k|bfg ug]{ pkfo cjnDag ug'{k5{ eGg] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cfw'lgs n}lËs ljlwzf:qn] dfGotf k|bfg u/]sf] b]lvG5 . /fHon] ;dfg clwsf/sf] ;'lglZrt ug{ dlxnfsf] ;+/If0f, ;zQmLs/0f, ;sf/fTds lje]b ;lxtsf] ;f/e"t ;dfgtfsf] xssf] k|Tofe"lt ug'{ cfjZos 5 . dlxnf, k'¿if / t];|f] lnËLaLrsf] ;a} k|sf/sf] n}lËs lje]b, cGofo, zf]if0f, jlxis/0f cGTo ug{ / dlxnf dfly ;a} k|sf/sf lx+;fhGo sfo{ x'g glbg /fHo ;Da]bgzLn / ;+j]bLs/0f x'g h¿/L 5 . dlxnf clwsf/nfO{ oyfy{df ;fy{s t'Nofpg /fHo uDeL/ x'g}k5{ . z/L/, ;DklQ, >d / ;Qfdf dlxnfsf] clwsf/nfO{ ;'lglZrtf ug]{tkm{ dlxnf clwsf/ ;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGwn] u/]sf] Joj:yfnfO{ nfu" ug{ /fhgLlts OR5fzlQm ;lxtsf] k|lta4tfsf] cfjZostf 5 .

dfgj clwsf/ / dlxnf clwsf/ ;DaGwL cGt//fli6«o dxf;lGw ;d]tsf] Joj:yfn] clwsf/sf] k|of]u / k|rng tyf kl/0ffddf ;dfg l:yltdf k'¥ofpg] p2]Zon] ljz]if Joj:yfx¿ ug{ ;lsg] dfGotfnfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] eP klg s;'/hGo sfg'gL bfloTjsf lglDt dlxnf ePs} gftfn] sf/jfxLsf] eflubf/ gx'g] u/L dxf;lGwn] s'g} pGd'lQm / 5'6 lbPsf] eGg] b]lvGg . To;f] ug'{ ljj]s;Ët klg x'g ;Sb}g . k'¿if ;/x dlxnfnfO{ ;dfg l:yltdf k'¥ofpg] k|of]hgsf lglDt dlxnfnfO{ lzIff, :jf:Yo, /f]huf/L, ;fdflhs ;'/Iff h:tf If]qdf ;sf/fTds lje]bsf cfwf/df ljz]if cj;/ k|bfg ug{ ;lsg] x'G5 . t/ s;'/hGo sfo{sf lglDt sf/jfxLaf6 5'6 x'g;Sg] x'Gg . o;/L dlxnfsf] pTyfg / ljsf;sf lglDt tyf dlxnf clwsf/sf] k|rng / kl/0ffdnfO{ cy{k"0f{ agfpg ljz]if sfg'gL Joj:yf ug{ ;lsg] ePklg sfg'gn] 5'6 glbPsf] cj:yfdf To:tf] sfg'gL bfloTj k"/f ug'{ gkg]{ egL pGd'lQm kfpg] b]lvGg . n}lËs ljlwzf:qsf] ;du| cWoogn] dlxnfnfO{ dlxnf ePsf] gftfn] ;xfg'e"lt -Sympathy_ /fVg] geO{ dlxnfsf] ;d:of / ;+j]bgzLntfsf] cg'e"lt -Empathy_ ug'{kg]{ l;4fGt :yflkt u/]sf] b]lvFbf sfg'gn] :ki6 bfloTjaf6 5'6 glbPsf] cj:yfdf dlxnf ePs} sf/0f sfg'gL bfloTjaf6 pGd'lQm kfpg] eGg ldNg] b]lvGg .


Nofl6g l;4fGt “Justitia non-norits Patrem nec matrem, Solam Veritatem Spectat Justitia” (Justice Knows neither father nor mother, but regards truth alone) cyf{t æGofon] lnË x]g]{ geO{ ;To x]g]{ xf]Æ eGg] /x]sf] b]lvFbf ljjfb lg¿k0fdf n}lËs ;+j]bgzLntf -Gender Sensitivity_ / n}lËs ;r]tLs/0f -Gender Sensitisation_ x'g'kg]{ ePklg sfg'gn] ljz]if 5'6 glbPsf] cj:yfdf k'¿if ;/x dlxnfn] klg sfg'gL lhDd]jf/L k"/f ug'{kg]{ g} x'G5 . hflt, j0f{, lnË, wd{ h:tf s'g} klg cfwf/df s;'/af6 5'6 x'Fb}g . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( n] lgwf{/0f u/]sf] lghfdtL ;]jfsf sd{rf/Ln] kfngf ug'{kg]{ cg'zf;g ;DaGwL Joj:yf dlxnf k'¿if hf] ;'s} sd{rf/L eP klg To:tf] sd{rf/Ln] kfngf ug'{kg]{ g} x'G5 . lghfdtL ;]jfnfO{ a9L ;Ifd, ;'b[9, ;]jfd"ns / pQ/bfoL agfpg] clek|fon] hf/L ePsf] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( cGt/utsf] dlxnf jf k'¿if h'g;'s} lsl;dsf] sd{rf/L eP klg To:tf] sd{rf/Ln] ;f] P]gsf] kl/R5]b–& df lgwf{/0f u/]sf] cfr/0fx¿ kfngf ug'{ kg]{ g} x'G5 . To:tf] cfr/0fsf] kfngf gug]{ u/L n}lËs cfwf/af6 5'6 x'g;Sg] b]lvGg . To;}u/L lghfdtL ;]jfsf] Jofj;flos dfGotfsf] k|lts"nsf] cfr/0f ug]{ sd{rf/LnfO{ ul/g] ljefuLo sf/jfxL klg n}lËs cfwf/df 5'§ofpg ldNg] b]lvGg . lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( / lghfdtL ;]jf lgodfjnL, @)%) sf] cwLgdf /xL clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Ln] u/]sf] ;¿jf sfh h:tf s'/fx¿sf] kfngf ug'{ ;DalGwt sd{rf/Lsf] sfg'gL st{Jo xf] . o;/L ;¿jf x'Fbf cfkm\gf] lhDdfdf /x]sf] gub, lhG;L nufotsf sfuhft >]:tf ;d]tsf] a/a'emf/y ug'{ ;DalGwt sd{rf/Lsf] sfg'gL bfloTj xf] . ;¿jf x'Fbf a/a'emf/y gu/L lxF8\g] jf To;k|lt pbf;Lg / nfk/jfxL ug]{ ;DalGwt sd{rf/LnfO{ ljefuLo ;hfo x'g] s'/f ;f] P]gsf] bkmf ^) sf] v08 -v_ n] :ki6 u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o; ;Gbe{df k|:t't d'2fdf oL k'g/fj]lbsfn] sfg'g adf]lhd k"/f ug'{kg]{ a/a'emf/y nufotsf] bfloTj jxg ug'{kg]{ s'/fdf dlxnf ePs} sf/0f 5'6 kfpg] eGg] gx'Fbf ;f] bfloTj k"/f ug'{kg]{ / a/a'emf/y ug'{kg]{ bfloTj ePsf] sd{rf/Ln] To:tf] bfloTj k"/f gu/]sf] /x]5 eg] To:tf] cj:yfdf clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Ln] k|rlnt sfg'g adf]lhd ;hfo ug{ ;Sg] g} b]lvG5 .

@= oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf dxflgb]{zsn] ldlt @)^(.@.% df ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] u/L u/]sf] ljefuLo ;hfosf] lg0f{o sfg'g;Ddt 5, 5}g < / ;f] lg0f{o ab/ x'g'kg]{ xf], xf]Og < eGg] k|Zgtkm{ ljrf/ ubf{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf] @)^&.&.( sf] lg0f{ofg';f/ oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsfsf] sfof{no afh'/faf6 dlxnf tyf afnaflnsfsf] sfof{no alb{ofdf ;¿jf sfh ePsf]df lghn] @)^&.*.^ ut]af6 nfu" x'g] u/L ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf hfg /dfgf kq a'em]sf] b]lvG5 . cfkm\gf] lhDdfdf /x]sf] gub, lhG;L nufotsf >]:tfx¿ a/a'emf/y ug'{kg]{ bfloTj k"/f gu/L /dfgf lnO{ ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g lxF8]sf] eGg] sf/0faf6 dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.*.!% sf] kqåf/f oL k'g/fj]lbsfn] a/a'emf/y gu/];Dd ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ gu/fpg" eGg] Joxf]/fsf] lnlvt kq ;DalGwt sfof{no alb{of;d]tnfO{ k7fPsf] b]lvG5 . oL k'g/fj]lbsf ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g hfFbf ljefusf] kq adf]lhd ;DalGwt sfof{nosf] k|d'vn] xflh/ gu/fPsf] sf/0f ljefudf ;Dks{ u/L ljbf dfu u/]sf] eGg]


k'/fj]lbsfsf] :ki6Ls/0f /x]sf] 5 . ldl;n ;+nUg sfuhftsf] cWoogaf6 oL k'g/fj]lbsfsf] @)^&.*.^ b]lv @)^&.(.#) ;Dd hDdf %$ lbg ljbf clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Laf6 :jLs[t ePsf] eGg] b]lvPsf] 5 . oL k'g/fj]lbsfn] a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] eGg] cf/f]ksf] ;DaGwdf dlxnf tyf jfnjflnsf ljefusf] ldlt @)^&.(.@& sf] kqfg';f/ oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf %% s adf]lhd r]tfjgL lbg] lg0f{o u/L ;r]t u/fPsf] hfgsf/L ldl;n ;+nUg ;DalGwt kqaf6 b]lvPsf] 5 . a/a'emf/y ug'{kg]{ bfloTj ePsf] sd{rf/Ln] a/a'emf/y gu/]af6 lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^) sf] v08 -v_ adf]lhd clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Ln] @ jif{;Dd a9'jf /f]Ssfsf] ;hfo ug{ ;Sg] sfg'gL clwsf/ eP /x]s} b]lvG5 . r]tfjgL lbg] lg0f{o / ljefuLo ;hfo eGg] s'/f cnu cnu ePsfn] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] kl/R5]b–( sf] bkmf ^), ^) s / ^! adf]lhdsf] s;'/df ;hfo ug{ r]tfjgL lbPs} sf/0f gldNg] eGg] klg xf]Og . o;/L oL k'g/fj]lbsf ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf ljbf :jLs[t ePsf] cjlw kl5 xflh/ x'g ;DalGwt sfof{no alb{ofdf hfFbf To; sfof{nosf] @)^&.!@.!# sf] kqdf lgh k'g/fj]lbsf To; sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g cfPsf] eGg] s'/fnfO{ :jLsf/ ub}{ ljefusf] kqfg';f/ a/a'emf/y u/]sf] kq k]; u/]kl5 dfq xflh/ u/fpg] eGg] pNn]v ePsf] b]lvFbf lgh k'g/fj]lbsf ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g hfFbf a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] eGg] sf/0f b]vfO{ xflh/ gu/fPsf] eGg] s'/f ldl;n ;+nUg sfuhftaf6 b]lvPsf] 5 . ;f] s'/fnfO{ k|ToyL{ ljefu tyf sfof{non] o; Ohnf; ;dIf v08g ug{ g;sL :jLsf/ u/]sf] cj:yf 5 . dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf sfof{no alb{ofsf] @)^&.!@.!# sf] kqfg';f/ oL k'g/fj]lbsf ;¿jf ePsf] sfof{nodf xflh/ x'g uPsf] eGg] s'/f b]lvO/x]sf] cj:yfdf ljbf :jLs[t cjlw s6fO{ To;kl5 @)^&.!@.!# sf] ldltaf6 u0fgf ubf{ lgh () lbg;Dd sfof{nodf xflh/ g} x'g gcfO{ a;]sf] eGg] b]lvPg . a/a'emf/y g} gu/]sf] eGg] cf/f]kdf xflh/ x'g glbO{ () lbg;Dd ljbf :jLs[t gu/fO{ sfof{nodf cg'kl:yt ePsf] eGg] cf/f]k nufO{ ;hfo ug'{ Gofo;ª\ut x'g] b]lvGg . sfg'gL /fHodf clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Lsf] sfdsf/jfxL b"/fu|x / k"jf{u|xaf6 d'Qm eO{ :jR5 / lgikIf ¿kdf ljj]sk"0f{ lsl;daf6 ePsf] 5 eGg] s'/f b]lvg' k5{ . s'g} klg sd{rf/Lsf nflu ;]jfaf6 avf{:t ug]{ h:tf] ;hfo ubf{ clwsf/k|fKt clwsf/Lsf] sfdsf/jfxL sk6k"0f{ lsl;daf6 ePsf] eGg] b]lvg' x'Gg . k|l;4 ljlwzf:qL hf]g /fjN; -John Rawls_ sf cg';f/ cg'lrt / 5n5fdk"0f{ lsl;daf6 ul/g] sfo{n] -Unjust Action_ sfg'gL zf;gsf] dfGotfnfO{ IfL0f agfO{ :j]R5frfl/tfsf] >[hgf eO{ gful/ssf] sfg'g Joj:yfk|lt g} cljZjf; pTkGg x'g;Sg] eGg] ePsfn] s;}sf] xs clwsf/ xgg ubf{ tT;DaGwL sf/jfxL :jR5 x'g' g} Gofosf] dd{ xf] -Justice as Fairness_ eGg] b]lvG5 -John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, 2000, pp.3, 11,17 & 237-339_ . o:t} k|l;4 bfz{lgs Odfg'on sfG6 -Immanuel Kant_ sf cg';f/ ;fj{hlgs ljj]s / ts{ - Rationalism_ ljgfsf] lg0f{on] j}wtf k|fKt ug{ ;Sb}g eGg] /x]sf] 5 -Paul Guyer, Kant, London: Routledtge, 2006, pp.19-20_ . ;fj{hlgs ljj]sdf cfwfl/t lg0f{on] dfq sfg'g / Gofok|lt ljZjf; hufpg ;S5 . cfw'lgs sfg'g / Gofosf] l;4fGtn] ;d]t s;}sf] xs clwsf/df c;/ ug]{ lg0f{o ubf{ To:tf] lg0f{o ljj]s;ª\ut / ts{k"0f{


x'g'kg]{ cGoyf To:tf] lg0f{o sfg'g / Gofosf] l;4fGt cg';f/ dfGo gx'g] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cfTd;ft\ u/]sf] 5 -e"kaxfb'/ jf]u6L lj¿4 clVtof/ b'¿kof]u cg';Gwfg cfof]u ;d]t, k|zf;sLo cbfnt j'n]l6g, cÍ !!, @)^*, /hthoGtL jif{ km};nf ljz]iffÍ, k[=!^$_ . o; l;4fGt ;d]tsf] k[i7e"lddf oL k'g/fj]lbsfn] a/a'emf/y gu/]sf] eGg] cf/f]kdf ;DalGwt ljefuLo k|d'vn] lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^) sf] v08 -v_ adf]lhdsf] ljefuLo ;hfo ug]{ clwsf/ ePsf]df To;tkm{ sf/jfxL gu/L ;f] P]g sf] bkmf %% s adf]lhd r]tfjgL lbg] lg0f{o u/L ;s]kl5 klg xflh/ x'g hfFbf xflh/ gu/fO{ () lbg gf3]sf] egL ;f] cjlw ;d]t u0fgf u/L u/]sf] sf/jfxL / ;hfo :jR5 Jojxf/af6 ePsf] gb]lvFbf oL k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ dlxnf tyf afnaflnsf ljefusf dxflgb]{zsn] ldlt @)^(.@.% df ldlt @)^*.!.@ b]lv nfu" x'g] u/L lghfdtL ;]jf P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf ^! sf] pkbkmf -!_ sf] v08 -5_ sf] cf/f]k nufO{ ;f] P]gsf] bkmf %( sf] v08 -v_ sf] b]xfo -!_ adf]lhd ;]jfaf6 x6fpg] u/L u/]sf] ljefuLo ;hfosf] lg0f{o sfg'g tyf Gofosf] dfGo l;4fGt;Ddt gx'Fbf ab/ x'g] 7x5{ . of] km};nfsf] k|dfl0ft k|ltlnlk hfgsf/Lsf nflu k|wfgdGqL tyf dlGqkl/ifb\sf] sfof{no, dlxnf afnaflnsf tyf ;dfh sNof0f dGqfno, ;DalGwt sfof{no / dxfGofoflwjQmfsf] sfof{nodf k7fO{ km};nfsf] hfgsf/L k'g/fj]lbsfnfO{ lbO{ ldl;n lgodfg';f/ a'emfOlbg" .

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