Monotheism - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

8/13/2019 Monotheism - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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12/24/13 Monotheism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotheism 1

MonotheismFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Monotheismis defined by the Encyclopdia Britannicaas belief in the existence of one god or in the oneness of God. [1]The OxfordDictionary of the Christian Churchgive s a more restricted definition: "belief in one personal and transcendent God", as opposed topolytheism and pantheism.[2]A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, and both inclusive monotheism and pluriformmonotheism which, while recognising many distinct gods, postulate some underlying unity.[3]Monotheism characterizes the traditionsof Atenism, the Bah' Faith, Cao Dai (Caodaiism), Cheondoism (Cheondogyo), Christianity, Deism, Eckankar, Islam, Judaism,

Rastafarianism, Sikhism, Vaishnavism, Tenrikyo (Tenriism) and Zoroastrianism and elements of the belief are discernible in numerousother religions.[4]

Contents

1 Origin and development2 More detailed definitions3 Atenism4 Indigenous African religion5 Indo-European religions

5.1 Proto-Indo-European religion

5.2 Indo-Iranian religions5.2.1 Hinduism5.2.2 Sikhism5.2.3 Zoroastrianism

5.3 European religions5.3.1 Hellenistic religion

6 Abrahamic religions6.1 Judaism

6.1.1 The Shema6.2 Christianity6.3 Islam6.4 Sabianism6.5 Bah' Faith

7 Chinese view8 Tengriism9 New religious movements10 See also11 Notes12 Further reading13 External links

Origin and development

The word monotheismis derived from the Greek ( monos)[5]meaning "single" and ( theos)[6]meaning "god". [7]The

English term was first used by Henry More (16141687).[8]

According to Christian tradition, monotheism was the original religion of humanity but was generally lost after the fall of man. Thistheory was largely abandoned in the 19th century in favour of an evolutionary progression from animism via polytheism to monotheismbut by 1974 this theory was less widely held.[2]Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt had postulated an Urmonotheismus,"original" or "primitive monotheism." in the 1910s.[9]It was objected that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam had grown up in oppositionto polytheism as had Greek philosophical monotheism.[2]Furthermore, while belief in a "high god" is not universal, it is found in manyparts of Africa and numerous other areas of the world.[10]

Three examples of monolatrism developing from polytheism are the Aten cult in the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten, the riseof Marduk from the tutelary of Babylon to the claim of universal supremacy, and the rise of Yahweh from among the Israelite gods tothe sole God of later Judaism.[11]
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Indo-European religion

In Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda appears as a supreme and transcendental deity. Depending on the date of Zoroaster (usually placed inthe early Iron Age), this may be one of the earliest documented instances of the emergence of monism in an Indo-European religion.

In the cities of the Ancient Near East, each city had a local patron deity, such as Shamash atLarsa or Sin at Ur. The first claims of global supremacy of a specific god date to the LateBronze Age, with Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten (speculatively connected to Judaism bySigmund Freud in hisMoses and Monotheism). However the historicity of the Exodus isdisputed. Furthermore it is not clear to what extent Akhenaten's Atenism was monotheisticrather than henotheistic with Akhenaten himself identified with the god Aten.

Currents of monism or monotheism emerge in Vedic India earlier, chiefly with worship of LordKrishna, which is full-fledged monotheism, but also with e.g. the Nasadiya Sukta. In the Indo-Iranian tradition, the Rigveda exhibits notions of monism, in particular in the comparatively late tenth book, also dated to the early IronAge, e.g. in the Nasadiya sukta.

Ethical monotheism and the associated concept of absolute good and evil emerge in Zoroastrianism and Judaism, later culminating in thdoctrines of Christology in early Christianity and later (by the 7th century) in the tawhidin Islam. In Islamic theology, a person whospontaneously "discovers" monotheism is called a anf, the original anfbeing Abraham.

More detailed definitions

Further information: Comparative religion, Conceptions of God, and Theism

Deism posits the existence of a single creator god, who has little or no continued involvement with the world.[12]Samuel Clarkedistinguished four types of deist: those who believed in a creator with no further interest in the world; those who also saw a certaprovidential ordering of the material universe but not in the moral and spiritual spheres; those who in addition, believed God hadsome moral attributes but did not believe in a future life; and those who, while rejecting revelation, accepted all the truths ofNatural religion.[13]

The term Henotheism has two distinct uses. In the context of biblical studies it normally means the exclusive worship of a tribal-national deity which does not deny the reality of patron deities of other peoples, while elsewhere it often becomes a synonym fomonolatry, that is belief in or the worship of one god without denying the existence of others.[14]Hinduism is sometimesovergeneralized to as henotheistic.[15]

Monism is the philosophical opinion that explains all that is in terms of a single reality and thus conflicts with any belief whichdistinguishes radically between different grades of being (e.g. Christianity).[16]The type of monotheism found in Hinduism,

encompassing pantheism and panentheism is monistic.Panentheism is a form of monistic monotheism which holds that the being of God includes and penetrates all the Universe butunlike pantheism (see below) the universe is not identical with God.[17]

Pantheism holds that the universe and God are identical.[18]Philosophically, it maintains that there is only one substance which iabsolute, eternal and infinite so all things, including human beings, are not independent substances but only modes ormanifestations of the Absolute.[19]The existence of a transcendent being extraneous to nature is denied.Substance monotheism, found in some indigenous African religions, holds that the many gods are different forms of a singleunderlying substance.Trinitarian monotheism is the Christian doctrine of belief in one God who is three distinct "persons": God the Father, God the So(Jesus) and God the Holy Spirit. When used in this context, the word "person" is a technical term and means "something verydifferent from what it does in common speech".[20]In particular, the idea of self-consciousness found in contemporary usage wanot at all prominent.[21]

Anterogradecism

Atenism

Main article: Atenism

Amenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of his reign (1348/1346 BCE), raising Aten to the status of Supreme God, afterinitially permitting the continued worship of the traditional gods. [22]To emphasise the change, Aten's name was written in the cartouchform normally reserved for Pharaohs, an innovation of Atenism. This religious reformation appears to coincide with the proclamation oa Sed festival, a sort of royal jubilee intended to reinforce the Pharaoh's divine powers of kingship. Traditionally held in the thirtieth yeof the Pharaoh's reign, this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III, whom some Egyptologists think had a coregency withhis son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years.
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Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep IV's construction of a new capital, Akhetaten (Horizon of the Aten), at the siteknown today as Amarna. Evidence of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to mark the boundaries of this new capital. Atthis time, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten (Agreeable to Aten) as evidence of his new worship. The date givefor the event has been estimated to fall around January 2 of that year. In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344 BCE) the capital was movedfrom Thebes to Akhetaten (near modern Amarna), though construction of the city seems to have continued for two more years. Inshifting his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhenaten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus of religiousand political power.

The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the influence of the priesthood and from the traditional centres of worship, but hisdecree had deeper religious significance tootaken in conjunction with his name change, it is possible that the move to Amarna was

also meant as a signal of Akhenaten's symbolic death and rebirth. It may also have coincided with the death of his father and the end ofthe coregency. In addition to constructing a new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw the construction of some of the momassive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun.

In Year 9 (1344/1342 BCE), Akhenaten strengthened the Atenist regime, declaring the Aten to be not merely the supreme god, but theonlygod, a universal deity, and forbidding worship of all others, including the veneration of idols, even privately in people's homesanarena the Egyptian state had previously not touched in religious terms. Aten was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, such as the GreaHymn to the Aten: "O Sole God beside whom there is none". The Egyptian people were to worship Akhenaten; only Akhenaten andNefertiti could worship Aten.[23]

Indigenous African religion

The Himba people of Namibia are monotheistic[citation needed]and worship the god Mukuru. [24]

The Igbo people are monotheistic[25]and worship the god Chukwu.

Indo-European religions

Proto-Indo-European religion

Main article: Proto-Indo-European religion

In the Proto-Indo-European religion, the supreme god is Dyeus, as the word "Dyeus" is literally used in many Indo-European languag

cognates to denote a supreme god.In western Eurasia, the ancient traditions of the Slavic religion had elements of monotheism, of a supreme deity known by many nameworshiped by some tribes. The most common name of the supreme deity is Perun and was identified with the Christian God afterChristianization.

In speaking of Henotheism, Indo-European religions have had shifting tendencies regarding their supreme god. Consider the ruler oflightning: the supreme god Zeus, Perun, Jupiter controlled lightning himself; while in Norse mythology Odin delegated the power oflightning to his son Thor. In this vein, phenomena controlled by any single henotheistic god differ widely among various Indo-Europereligions.

Indo-Iranian religions

Main articles: Proto-Indo-Iranian religion, Indian religions, and Iranian religions

Hinduism

Main articles: Hindu views on monotheism and God in Hinduism

See also: Hindu denominations

As an old religion, Hinduism inherits religious concepts spanning monotheism, polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, andatheism among others;[26][27][28][29] and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition andphilosophy followed.
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Krishna displays his

Vishvarupa (universal form)to Arjuna on the battlefieldof Kurukshetra.

Hindu views are broad and range from monism, through pantheism and panentheism (alternatively called monistic theism by somescholars) to monotheism and even atheism. Hinduism cannot be said to be purely polytheistic. Hindu religious leaders have repeatedlystressed that while God's forms are many and the ways to communicate with him are many, God is one.[citation needed]The pujaof themurtiis a way to communicate with the abstract one god (Brahman) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation.[30]

Rig Veda 1.164.46,

Indra mitra varuamaghnimhuratho divya sa suparo gharutmn,eka sad vipr bahudh vadantyaghni yama mtarivnamhu"They call him Indra, Mitra, Varua, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garuda.

To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Mtarivan."(trans. Griffith)

Traditions of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Nimbarka Sampradaya and followers of Swaminarayan andVallabha consider Krishna to be the source of all avatars,[31]and the source of Vishnu himself, or to bethe same as Narayana. As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.[32][33][34]

When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan, it can be understood that this is the belief ofGaudiya Vaishnavism,[35]the Vallabha Sampradaya, [36]and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, whereKrishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief isdrawn primarily "from the famous statement of the Bhagavatam" [37](1.3.28). [38]A different viewpointdiffering from this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an avatarof Narayana or Vishnu. Itshould be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is

only one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva andKrishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure with attributed supremacy inVaishnavism.[39]

The Rig Veda discusses monotheistic thought, as do the Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda: "Devas are always looking to the supremeabode of Vishnu" (tad vio parama pada sad payanti sraya Rig Veda 1.22.20)

"The One Truth, sages know by many names" (Rig Veda 1.164.46)[40]

"When at first the unborn sprung into being, He won His own dominion beyond which nothing higher has been in existence" (AtharvVeda 10.7.31)[41]

"There is none to compare with Him. There is no parallel to Him, whose glory, verily, is great." (Yajur Veda 32.3)[42]

The number of auspicious qualities of God are countless, with the following six qualities (bhaga) being the most important:

Jna (omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneouslyAishvarya(sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over allShakti(energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possibleBala(strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigueVrya (vigor), which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause ofmutable creationsTejas(splendor), which expresses His self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by His spiritual effulgence [43]

In the Shaivite tradition, the Shri Rudram (Sanskrit ), to which the Chamakam () is added by scriptural tradition, is a

Hindu stotradedicated to Rudra (an epithet of Shiva), taken from the Yajurveda (TS 4.5, 4.7).[44][45]

Shri Rudram is also known as SRudraprasna, atarudrya, andRudradhyaya. The text is important in Vedanta where Shiva is equated to the Universal supreme GodThe hymn is an early example of enumerating the names of a deity, [46]a tradition developed extensively in the sahasranama literature oHinduism.

The Nyaya school of Hinduism has made several arguments regarding a monotheistic view. The Naiyanikas have given an argumentthat such a god can only be one. In theNyaya Kusumanjali, this is discussed against the proposition of theMimamsaschool that let usassume there were many demigods (devas) and sages (rishis) in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world. Nyaya saythat:

[If they assume such] omniscient beings, those endowed with the various superhuman faculties of assuming infinitesimalsize, and so on, and capable of creating everything, then we reply that the law of parsimonybids us assume only one such,namely Him, the adorable Lord. There can be no confidence in a non-eternal and non-omniscient being, and hence it
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A Sikh temple, known asNanaksarGurudwara, in Alberta, Canada.

Ik Onkr, a Sikhsymbol representing"the One SupremeReality"

follows that according to the system which rejects God, the tradition of the Veda is simultaneously overthrown; there is noother way open.[citation needed]

In other words, Nyaya says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the existence and origin of his several celestialspirits, none of which would be logical, and that it is more logical to assume one eternal, omniscient god. [citation needed]

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism

Sikhi is a monotheistic[47][48]and a revealed religion. [49]God in Sikhiis called Vhigur, and is shapeless, timeless, and sightless: nirakr,akaal, and alakh. God is present (sarav vipak) in all of creation. Godmust be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart". Sikhi devotees mustmeditate to progress towards enlightenment, as its rigorous applicationpermits the existence of communication between God and humanbeings.[50]

Sikhism is a monotheistic faith[51][52]that arose in northern India duringthe 16th and 17th centuries. Sikhs believe in one, timeless, omnipresent,

supreme creator. The opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib, known as the Mul Mantra,signifies this:

Punjabi: Transliteration: ikk ankr sat(i)-nm(u) karat purakh(u) nirabha'u niravair(u) akla mrat(i) ajn saibhan (g)gur(a) prasd(i).One Universal creator God, The supreme Unchangeable Truth, The Creator of the Universe, Beyond Fear, Beyond Hatred,Beyond Death, Beyond Birth, Self-Existent, by Guru's Grace.

The word "" ("Ik akr") has two components. The first is , the digit "1" in Gurmukhi signifying the singularity of the creator.Together the word means: "One Universal creator God".

It is often said that the 1430 pages of the Guru Granth Sahib are all expansions on the Mul Mantra. Although the Sikhs have manynames for God, some derived from Islam and Hinduism, they all refer to the same Supreme Being.

The Sikh holy scriptures refer to the One God who pervades the whole of space and is the creator of all beings in the universe. Thefollowing quotation from the Guru Granth Sahib highlights this point:

"Chant, and meditate on the One God, who permeates and pervades the many beings of the whole Universe. God createdit, and God spreads through it everywhere. Everywhere I look, I see God. The Perfect Lord is perfectly pervading andpermeating the water, the land and the sky; there is no place without Him."

Guru Granth Sahib, Page 782

However there is a strong case for arguing that the Guru Granth Sahib teaches monism due to its non-dualistic tendencies:

Punjabi:

"You have thousands of Lotus Feet, and yet You do not have even one foot. You have no nose, but you have thousands ofnoses. This Play of Yours entrances me."Guru Granth Sahib, Page 13

Sikhs believe that God has been given many names, but they all refer to the One God, VhiGur. Sikhs believe that members of otherreligions such as Islam, Hinduism and Christianity all worship the same God, and the names Allah, Rahim, Karim, Hari, Raam andPaarbrahm are frequently mentioned in the Sikh holy scriptures. Although there is no set reference to God in Sikhism, the mostcommonly used Sikh reference to God is Akal Purakh (which means "the true immortal") or Waheguru, the Primal Being.

Zoroastrianism

Main article: Zoroastrianism
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Faravahar (or Ferohar), one of theprimary symbols of Zoroastrianism,

believed to be the depiction of aFravashi (guardian spirit)

Remains of the Temple of Apollo atDelphi, Greece.

Zoroastrianism combines cosmogonic dualism and escathological monotheism which makes itunique among the religions of the world. Zoroastrianism proclaims an evolution through timefrom dualism to monotheism.[53]

Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion[54](although early Zoroastrianism is often regarded asdualistic, duotheistic, bitheistic) which was once one of the largest religions on Earth.Zoroastrianism is generally believed to have been founded around the 1st millennium BCE. [55]

By some scholars, the Zoroastrians ("Parsis" or "Zartoshtis") are credited with being the firstmonotheists and having had significant influence in the formation of currently larger world

religions. Figures put the number of adherents at up to 3.5 million,[56]

ranging from regions inSouth Asia and spread across the globe.

European religions

Hellenistic religion

Main article: Hellenistic religion

"The One" ( ) is a concept that arises in Platonism, although the writings of Plato himselfare polytheistic. The Euthyphro dilemma, for example, is formulated as "Is the pious loved bythe gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?"

The development of pure (philosophical) monotheism is a product of the Late Antiquity. Duringthe 2nd to 3rd centuries, early Christianity was just one of several competing religiousmovements advocating monotheism.

A number of oracles of Apollo from Didyma and Clarus, the so-called "theological oracles",dated to the 2nd and 3rd century CE, proclaim that there is only one highest god, of whom thegods of polytheistic religions are mere manifestations or servants.[57]Similarly, the cult ofDionysus as practiced in Cyprus seems to have developed into strict monotheism by the 4thcentury; together with Mithraism and other sects the cult formed an instance of "paganmonotheism" in direct competition with Early Christianity during Late Antiquity. [58]

Aristotle's concept of the "Uncaused Cause"never incorporated into the polytheistic ancient Greek religionhas been used by many

exponents of Abrahamic religions to justify their arguments for the existence of the Judeo-Christian-Islamic God of the Abrahamicreligions.

The Hypsistarians were a religious group who believed in a most high god, according to Greek documents. Later revisions of thisHellenic religion were adjusted towards Monotheism as it gained consideration among a wider populace. The worship of Zeus as thehead-god signaled a trend in the direction of monotheism, with less honour paid to the fragmented powers of the lesser gods.

Abrahamic religions

Further information: Abrahamic religions

Abrahamic religions are Monotheistic faiths of Middle Eastern origin, emphasizing and tracing their origins to Abraham[59]or

recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him.[60][61][62] As of the early twentieth century, the majority of the World's population(54% or 3.8 billion people) consider themself as monotheists and adherents of the Abrahamic religions.[63][64]

The major scriptures of monotheism in the World are the narratives of the New Testament, the Quran, and the Torah. These are thereligious scriptures of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism respectively - the three largest Abrahamic religions. While adherents ofAbrahamic religions consider themselves to be monotheists, Judaism and Islam only recognize each other as being monotheistic. Sincethey share a common theology, their differences are in that Judaism sees Islam as a closely related gentile monotheistic faith, and Islamsees Judaism as closely related, but incomplete religion due to the lack of recognition of Jesus as the messiah and the prophethood ofMuhammad.[65]

Judaism
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Main articles: God in Judaism and Names of God in Judaism

The text of the Bible states that Judaism began with divine revelations from "God most high" to Abraham [Gen. 14-15] and to theIsraelites at biblical Mount Sinai [Exodus 20]. The understanding of the transmitters of the biblical text was that the Bible uniformlypresents one God as creator of the world and the only power controlling history. In their understanding, references to other "gods" are non-existent entities or angelic servants of God, to whom humans mistakenly ascribe reality and power. e.g. Babylonian Talmud,Megilla 7b-17a.

God in religious Judaism today is strictly monotheistic.[66]This God of Israel is regarded as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, andis believed to be the ultimate cause of all existence. YHWH (Hebrew: ) is the proper Name of God in Judaism. Another name ofGod is Elohim. God is an indivisible one God; as the Shema Yisrael states, its first, pivotal, words are:

- Sh'ma Yisra'el YHWH Eloheinu YHWH Ead- "Hear O Israel, Yahweh is our God,Yahweh alone".

The Hebrew Bible commands the Israelites not to worship other gods, but only the God of Israel who brought them out of Egypt (Ex.20:1-4; Deut. 5:6-7).

The concept of Yahweh enlarged through the exile of Babylon and Yahweh was responsible for what happened to Israel. All the evenand enemies around Israel were instruments in the divine hand because Yahweh is the only God and no other gods existed.

One of the best-known statements of Rabbinical Judaism on monotheism occurs in Maimonides' 13 Principles of faith, Second Princip

God, the Cause of all, is one. This does not mean one as in one of a pair, nor one like a species (which encompasses manyindividuals), nor one as in an object that is made up of many elements, nor as a single simple object that is infinitelydivisible. Rather, God is a unity unlike any other possible unity. This is referred to in the Torah (Deuteronomy 6:4): "HearIsrael, the Lord is our God, the Lord is one."

The ancient roots of monotheistic Judaism lie in the Bronze Age polytheistic Ancient Semitic religions, specifically Canaanite religionsyncretization with elements of Zoroastrianism and of the worship of Yahweh reflected in the early prophetic books of the HebrewBible. Both archaeological evidence and the Biblical texts document tensions between groups comfortable with the worship of Yahwealongside local deities such as Asherah and Baal and those insistent on the worship of Yahweh alone during the monarchalperiod.[67][68]

According to the Hebrew Bible, Jerusalem was a Jebusite fortress, conquered by the Israelites and made into their capital around 1000BCE (Edwin R. Thiele dates David's conquest of Jerusalem to 1003 BCE). As a result, the Jebusite cult exerted considerable influencon Israelite religion. The Jebusites observed an astral cult involving Shalem, an astral deity identified with the Evening star in Ugariticmythology, besides Tzedek "righteousness" and El Elyon, the "most high God".

During the 8th century BCE, worship of Yahweh in Israel was in competition with many other cults, described by the Yahwist factioncollectively as Baals. The oldest books of the Hebrew Bible, written in the 8th century BCE reflect this competition, as in the books ofHosea and Nahum, whose authors lament the "apostasy" of the people of Israel, threatening them with the wrath of God if they do notgive up their polytheistic cults. Worship of a pantheon or a form of duality may have lasted up until the Babylonian captivity. [69]

The oldest writings of Judaism that survive directly date from the Hellenistic period. This includes Hebrew and Aramaic papyri withbiblical fragments such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Greek documents such as the Septuagint. Scholars contend that the development oa strict monotheism was the result of cultural diffusion between Persians and Hebrews, or as a result of the contact of Israelite and Greecultures.

As they traditionally profess a concept of monotheism with a singular person as God, Judaism[70]and Islam reject the Christian idea ofmonotheism. Judaism uses the term Shituf to refer to ways of worshiping God not believed to be monotheistic. Muslims deny theChristian doctrine of the Trinity and divinity of Jesus, considering it to be polytheism. [71]

The Shema

Main article: Shema

Judaism's earliest history, beliefs, laws, and practices are preserved and taught in the Torah (the first part of the Hebrew Bible). Itprovides a clear textual source for the rise and development of what is named Judaism's ethical monotheism which means that:

(1) There is one God from whom emanates one morality for all humanity. (2) God's primary demand of people is that they act
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The first paragraph of the Shema seein a Torah scroll

decently toward one another...The God of ethical monotheism is the God first revealed to the world according to the JewishBible. Through it, we can establish God's four primary characteristics:

1. God is supernatural.2. God is personal.3. God is good.4. God is holy.

...in the study of Hebrew history: Israel's monotheism was an ethical monotheism. DennisPrager (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/mono.html)

When Moses returned with the Ten Commandments, the second of those stated that "you shallhave no other gods before me" (Exodus 20:3), right after the first, which affirmed the existenceof God. Furthermore, Israelites recite the Shema Yisrael ("Hear, O Israel") which partly says,"Hear, O Israel: YHWH is our God, YHWH is one," meaning that Israel was to worship noneof the gods of other peoples. Monotheism was and is the central tenet of the Israelite and the Jewish religion.

The Shema

Hebrew Common transliteration Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai EchadEnglish Hear, O Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!

The literal word meanings are roughly as follows:

Shema 'listen' or 'hear.' The word also implies comprehension.Yisrael 'Israel', in the sense of the people or congregation of IsraelAdonai often translated as 'Lord', it is used in place of the TetragrammatonEloheinu 'our God', a plural noun (said to imply majesty rather than plural number) with a pronominal suffix ('our')Echad 'one'

In this case,Elohimis used in the plural as a form of respect and not polytheism.

Gen.1:26And Elohim said, Let usmake man in ourimage, after ourlikeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, andover the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.

Elohim is morphologically plural in form in Hebrew, but generally takes singular agreement when it refers to the God of Israel (so the

verb meaning "said" in this verse is vayyomer with singular inflection, and not vayyomru with plural inflection), and yetin this case the "our" and "us" seems to create a presumption of plurality, though it may just be God talking to angels and not anothergod.

Judaism, however, insists that the "Lord is One," as in the Shema, and at least two interpretations exist to explain the Torah's use of theplural form. The first is that the plural form "Elohim" is analogous to the royal plural as used in English. The second is that, in order toset an example for human kings, Elohim consulted with his court (the angels, just created) before making a major decision (creatingman). An alternative explanation by Mark S. Smith is that the notion of divinity underwent radical changes throughout the period ofearly Israelite identity. Smith has said that the ambiguity of the termElohimis the result of such changes, cast in terms of "verticaltranslatability" by Smith (2008); i.e. the re-interpretation of the gods of the earliest recalled period as the national god of the monolatrismas it emerged in the 7th to 6th century BCE in the Kingdom of Judah and during the Babylonian captivity, and further in terms ofmonotheism by the emergence of Rabbinical Judaism in the 2nd century CE.[72]

Christianity

Main article: God in Christianity

Early Christianity, originally one of many sects within Judaism, emerged as a distinctive faith around the beginning of the secondcentury when some believe followers of Christ refused to join the Bar Kokhba revolt. Christianity's form of monotheism was distinctivfrom that of Judaism in that there was a concept that the Godhead was revealed to be three "persons" known today as the Holy Trinity

From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed, 325 CE, Christianity advocated [73]the triune mystery-nature of God as a normativeprofession of faith. Christians have held that in scriptural references to 'God the Father' (Philippians 1:2(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20Phil&verse=1:2&src=NASB), 1 Peter 1:2(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%201Peter&verse=1:2&src=NASB)) 'God the Son' (John1:1
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(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20John&verse=1:1&src=NASB), 1:14(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20John&verse=1:14&src=NASB), Hebrews 1:8(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20Hebrews&verse=1:8&src=NASB), Colossians Col 2:9(http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20Col&verse=2:9&src=NASB)) and 'God the Holy Spirit' (A5:3-4 (http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=%20Acts&verse=5:3-4&src=NASB)) are referring to ordescribing the different divine persons. But they also still believe that passages of the New Testament, such as 1 Corinthians 8:4 "... anthat [there is] none other God but one.", and the Old Testament, such as Isaiah 45:5 "I [am] the LORD, and [there is] none else, [there ino God beside me", reveal God as being 'one'.[74]A 2012 article in Free Inquirymagazine revealed how ancient Hebrews attempted toremove polytheistic notions from the original Hebrew scriptures, yet many remain in the Christian Bible.[75]

The Christian notion of a triune Godhead and the doctrine of a man-god Christ Jesus as God incarnate is rejected by adherents ofJudaism and Islam. Modern Christians, though, believe their God is triune meaning that the three persons of the Trinity are in one unioin which each person is also wholly God. Christians also do not believe that one of the three divine figures is God alone and the othertwo are not but that all three are mysteriously God and one. Thus all three are in union as one God of one essence, and different frommany gods just as God may materialized himself in water, 'one in element' but may be ice, water, or gas without changing its element.This analogy itself however is not descriptive of the Holy Trinity but of Sabellianism which is one God with different modes or"masks."[citation needed]Other sects like Jehovah's Witnesses and Mormonism do not share those views on the Trinity.

Historically, most Christian churches have taught that the nature of God is a mystery, in the original, technical meaning; something thatmust be revealed by special revelation rather than deduced through general revelation. Among early Christians there was considerabledebate over the nature of Godhead, with some denying the incarnation but not the deity of Jesus (Docetism) and others later calling foran Arian conception of God. Despite at least one earlier local synod rejecting the claim of Arius, this Christological issue was to be on

of the items addressed at the First Council of Nicaea.

However, some Christian faiths such as Mormonism argue that the Godhead is in fact three separate individuals which include; God thFather, God the Son (Jesus Christ), and God the Holy Ghost. Each individual having a distinct purpose in the grand existence of humakind. Furthermore, Mormons believe that before the "Council of Nicaea," the predominant belief among many early Christians was thathe Godhead was three separate individuals. Mormons look to the New Testament for proof of this doctrinal belief such as in John 17:3"And this is life eternal, that they might know Thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent." Later on Christ prays iJohn 17:21, "That they all may be one; as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also may be one in us: that the world maybelieve that thou hast sent me." Clarifying that Jesus Christ is not in God physically but that they are one in purpose; which purpose is tbring to pass the immortality and eternal life of man. Finally, in the last moments of Jesus Christ's mortal existence, Jesus prays to theFather, "Father, why hast Thou forsaken me?" This statement reflecting the supposed reality that Christ is a distinct separate individualwho sought for help from His Father in Heaven in Christ greatest hour of need.

The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea (in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was thefirst ecumenical[76]council of bishops of the Roman Empire, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine,called the Nicene Creed. With the creation of the creed, a precedent was established for subsequent 'general (ecumenical) councils ofbishops' (synods) to create statements of belief and canons of doctrinal orthodoxy the intent being to define a common creed for theChurch and address heretical ideas.

One purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements in Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; inparticular, whether Jesus was of the same substance as God the Father or merely of similar substance. All but two bishops took the firsposition; while Arius' argument failed.

Christian orthodox traditions (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestants) follow this decision, whichwas reaffirmed in 381 at the First Council of Constantinople and reached its full development through the work of the Cappadocian

Fathers. They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising the three "persons" God the Father, God the Son, andGod the Holy Spirit, the three of this unity are described as being "of the same substance" (). Christians overwhelminglyassert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the Nicene Creed (and others), which gives the orthodox Christian definition the Trinity, begins: "I believe in one God".

Deism is a philosophy of religion which arises in the Christian tradition during the Early Modern period. It postulates that there is a Godwho however does not intervene in human affairs.

Unitarianism is a Christological doctrine in contrast with Trinitarian Christianity, postulating that Jesus was completely humanmessiah.[77]

Islam
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Quran manuscript from the7th century CE, written onvellum in the Hijazi script.

Bah' House of Worship,Langenhain, Germany

Main articles: God in Islam, Tawhid, and Hanif

Islam emerged in the 7th century CE as a reaction to both Christianity and Judaism, with thematicelements similar to Gnosticism.[78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85] Islamic belief states that Muhammad did notbring a new religion from God, but is rather the same religion as practiced by Abraham, Moses, David,Jesus and all the other prophets of God.[86]The assertion of Islam is that the message of God had beencorrupted, distorted or lost over time and the Quran was sent to Muhammad in order to correct the lostmessage of the Torah, New Testament and prior scriptures from God.[87]

In Islam, Allh (God) is all-powerful and all-knowing, the creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of theuniverse.[88][89]God in Islam is strictly singular ( tawhid)[90]unique ( wahid) and inherently One (ahad),all-merciful and omnipotent.[91]Allh exists without place [92]and the Qur'an states that "No vision cangrasp Him, but His grasp is over all vision. God is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with allthings" (Qur'an 6:103)[89]Allh is the only God and the same God worshiped in Christianity andJudaism. (29:46 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/029-qmt.php#029.046)).[93]

The Qur'an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique andindivisible being who is independent of the creation.[94]The Qur'an rejects binary modes of thinking such as the idea of a duality ofGod by arguing that both good and evil generate from God's creative act. God is a universal god rather than a local, tribal or parochialone; an absolute who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.[95]

Tawhidconstitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of faith, "There is no god but God, Muhammad is the messenger ofGod.[96]To attribute divinity to a created entity is the only unpardonable sin mentioned in the Qur'an. [95]The entirety of the Islamicteaching rests on the principle of tawhid.[97]

As they traditionally profess a concept of monotheism with a singular person as God, Judaism[70]and Islam reject the Christian idea ofmonotheism. Judaism uses the term Shituf to refer to ways of worshiping God that Jews don't think is monotheistic. Though Muslimsbelieve in Jesus (Prophet Isa in Arabic), they do not affirm that he was a begotten son of God. Jesus is mentioned more times in theQur'an than Prophet Muhammad, but not in conjunction with the Christian doctrine of the Trinity (4:171(http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.171)) constituting this to be shirk, deviation from the trueAbrahamic religion (2:135 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.135)), and unrealistic excess inreligion (5:77 (http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/005-qmt.php#005.077)).

Sabianism

Main article: Sabians

According to the Qur'an, the Sabians were an Abrahamic religious group.[98]The Hadith accounts them as converts to Islam, [99]whiletheir identity in later Islamic literature became a matter of discussion and investigation.

Bah' Faith

Main article: God in the Bah' Faith

God in the Bah' Faith is too great for humans to fully comprehend and human primitiveunderstanding of God is achieved through his revelations via his divine intermediary

Manifestations.[100][101]In the Bah' faith, such Christian doctrines as the Trinity are seen ascompromising the Bah' view that God is single and has no equal.[102]And the very existenceof the Bah' Faith is a challenge to the Islamic doctrine of the finality of Muhammad'srevelation.[103]God in the Bah' Faith communicates to humanity through divineintermediaries, known as Manifestations of God.[104]These Manifestations establish religion inthe world.[101] It is through these divine intermediaries that humans can approach God, andthrough them God brings divine revelation and law.[105]

The Bah' view of God is monotheistic. God is the imperishable, uncreated being who is thesource of all existence.[106]He is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal,omniscient, omnipresent and almighty".[107][108]Although transcendent and inaccessible directly, his image is reflected in his creation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipotencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipresencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnisciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestations_of_Godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestation_of_Godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabianshttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/005-qmt.php#005.077http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/002-qmt.php#002.135http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.171http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shitufhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_the_fatherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27anhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodness_and_evilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualismhttp://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/029-qmt.php#029.046http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qur%27anhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnisciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnipotencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%C4%81hhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torahhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_view_of_Moseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_view_of_Abrahamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawhidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God_in_Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langenhainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:House_of_Worship_Germany_2007.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijazi_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Qur%27anic_Manuscript_-_3_-_Hijazi_script.jpg


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Shang Dynasty bronze scripcharacter for tian( ),which translates to Heavenand sky.

The purpose of creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator.[109]God communicates his will and purposto humanity through intermediaries, known as Manifestations of God, who are the prophets and messengers that have founded religionfrom prehistoric times up to the present day.[104]

The Oneness of God is one of the core teachings of the Bah' Faith. Bah's believe that there is one supernatural being, God, who hacreated all existence. God is described as "a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all revelation, eternal, omniscient,omnipresent and almighty."[110]

God is taught to be a personal god, too great for humans to fully understand him. The obligatory prayers in the Bah' Faith involve

explicit monotheistic testimony.[111][112]

Chinese view

Main articles: Shangdi, Tian, and Mohism

The orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang Dynasty(1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of Shangdi(literally "Above Sovereign",generally translated as "God") or Heaven as an omnipotent force.[113]This faith system pre-dated thedevelopment of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism and Christianity. It hasfeatures of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but nocorporeal form. From the writings of Confucius in theAnalects, we find that Confucius himself believed

that Heaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides people's lives and maintains a personal relationshipwith them, and that Heaven gives tasks for people to fulfill in order to teach them of virtues andmorality.[113]However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits,which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi. Still, variants such as Mohismapproached high monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely tocarry out the will of Shangdi, akin to angels in Western civilization. In Mozi's Will of Heaven ( ), hewrites:

Will of Heaven, Chapter 27, Paragraph 6, ca. 5th Century BCE

Worship of Shangdiand Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven inBeijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi,usually by slaughtering a completely healthy bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoismand Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated inlater religions in China, including terminology used by early Christians in China. Despite the rising of non-theistic and pantheistic

spirituality contributed by Taoism and Buddhism, Shangdi was still praised up until the end of the Qing Dynasty, surprisingly as the laruler of Qing declared himself son of heaven, literally son of God.

Islam and Christianity became the forerunners of Monotheism in China there on. The 100-word eulogy written by the founder of theMing dynasty states his comment on Islam.

Tengriism

See also: Tengriism and Tengri

"I know Heaven loves men dearly not without reason. Heaven ordered the sun, the moon, and the stars to enlighten and guide them. Heavenordained the four seasons, Spring, Autumn, Winter, and Summer, to regulate them. Heaven sent down snow, frost, rain, and dew to grow the fivegrains and flax and silk that so the people could use and enjoy them. Heaven established the hills and rivers, ravines and valleys, and arranged manythings to minister to man's good or bring him evil. He appointed the dukes and lords to reward the virtuous and punish the wicked, and to gather

metal and wood, birds and beasts, and to engage in cultivating the five grains and flax and silk to provide for the people's food and clothing. Thishas been so from antiquity to the present."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengriismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hongwu_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qing_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Heavenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confuciushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucianismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangdihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shangdihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligatory_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_prayershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifestations_of_Godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_scripthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shang_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A9-bronze.svg


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Originally shamanistic practices that have over time may once have been monotheistic later once since deification of an Earth Mother tthe Sky father as a Duality, also including ancestor worship and an addition for a "sun deity", polytheizing the religion and more deitiewere incorporated afterwards. Tengri may have been synonymous with Tianin Chinese traditions as well as a possible fore-runner topre-Buddhist Tibetan Bn, also having their tradition root from Siberia, once sect ranging from monotheism, again branches off intoanimism, causing an ill-defined complex systematized religion. At its monotheistic state, it was the major religion among the NomadicEmpires of Eurasia. Until the rise of Christianity, Islam and Tibetan Buddhism, the religion largely ceased, especially Buddhism whichthe rejection of a creator god, Tengri has been heavily diminished or clove in such communities. It is relatively unsure what sect ofTengriismwas practiced by the Nomadic Empires as some would worship a single sky god while others would worship partners withthe god such as the additional deities. It has been noted that Atilla the Hun of the Hunnic Empire was a pagan according to Romanrecords, however it is also thought that monotheistic Tengriism was practiced by the Mongolian Empire before the advent of Buddhismwhich explicitly rejected a creator god.

In Sino-Tibetan and Turco-Mongol traditions, the Supreme God is commonly referred to as the ruler of Heaven, or the Sky Lordgranted with omnipotent powers, but it has largely diminished in those regions due to ancestor worship, Taoism's pantheistic views andBuddhism's rejection of a creator God, although Mahayana Buddhism does seem to keep a sense of divinity. On some occasions in themythology, the Sky Lord as identified as a male has been associated to mate with an Earth Mother, while some traditions kept theomnipotence of the Sky Lord unshared.

New religious movements

Various New religious movements, such as Cao i, Tenrikyo, Filianism, Seicho no Ie, and Cheondoism, are monotheistic.

See also

Criticism of monotheismDeconstruction and religionI amthe Lord thy GodKashmir ShaivismPost-monotheismThePeople of MonotheismThou shalt have no other gods before meUnmoved mover

Notes1. ^ "Monotheism",Britannica, 15th ed. (1986), 8:266.2. ^ a b cCross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford

University Press.3. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica Online, art. "Monotheism" Accessed 23 January 2013,

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390101/monotheism4. ^ *Zoroastrian Studies: The Iranian Religion and Various Monographs, 1928 Page 31, A. V. Williams Jackson 2003

Global Institutions of Religion: Ancient Movers, Modern Shakers Page 88, Katherine Marshall 2013Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia Page 348, James B. Minahan 2012Introduction To Sikhism Page 15, Gobind Singh Mansukhani 1993The Popular Encyclopedia of World Religions Page 95, Richard Wolff 2007Focus: Arrogance and Greed, America's Cancer Page 102, Jim Gray 2012monotheism 2012. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Retrieved 12 January 2012, from

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390101/monotheism5. ^ Monos (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368642), Henry George

Liddell, Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus6. ^ Theos (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2348292), Henry George Lidde

Robert Scott,A Greek-English Lexicon, at Perseus7. ^ The compound is current only in Modern Greek. There is a single attestation of in a Byzantine hymn (Canones Ju

20.6.43; A. Acconcia Longo and G. Schir,Analecta hymnica graeca, vol. 11 e codicibus eruta Italiae inferioris. Rome: Istituto di StudiBizantini e Neoellenici. Universit di Roma, 1978)

8. ^ More, Henry (1660).An Explanation of the Grand Mystery of Godliness. London: Flesher & Morden. p. 62.9. ^ Armstrong, KarenA History of Godp. 3

10. ^ Nida, E.A. Customs, Culture and ChristianityTyndale Press: 1963, pp 141,211. ^ The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts|Mark S. Smith|Oxford University Press, 6 Nov

2003|pg 512. ^ Alister E. McGrath Christian Theology, An Introduction, Blackwell: 2003, p.582

^ " "
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Greekhttp://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2348292http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368642http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390101/monotheismhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/390101/monotheismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unmoved_moverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou_shalt_have_no_other_gods_before_mehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_People_of_Monotheismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-monotheismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_am_the_Lord_thy_Godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deconstruction_and_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism_of_monotheismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheondoismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seicho_no_Iehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filianism&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenrikyohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Daihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_religious_movementshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantheistichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestor_worshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology_of_the_Turkic_and_Mongolian_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengriismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paganhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunnic_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atilla_the_Hunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomadic_Empireshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengriismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creator_godhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nomadic_Empireshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Motherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shamanism


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. , . . , . ., . . . . .Press.

14. ^ Bright,John.A History of IsraelSCM Press (1964), p.129; Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Henotheism". The Oxford Dictionaoft he Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

15. ^ See Michaels 2004, p. xiv and Gill, N.S. "Henotheism" (http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm). About, Inc.Retrieved 2007-07-05.

16. ^ Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress.

17. ^ Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Panentheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

18. ^ Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Pantheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Universi

Press.19. ^ Brugger, Walter ed.Diccionario de Filosofa', Herder, Barcelona (1975) art Pantesmo20. ^ Litton, E.A.,Introduction to Dogmatic Theology(ed Philip E. Hughes), James Clarke (1960) p.10221. ^ Kelly, J.N.D.Early Christian DoctrinesAdam and Charles Black (1965), p.11522. ^ Rosalie David, op. cit., p.12523. ^ Hart, George (2nd ed. 2005). The Routledge dictionary of Egyptian gods and goddesses. Routledge. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-415-34495-1.24. ^ *Crandall, David P. (2000). The Place of Stunted Ironwood Trees: A Year in the Lives of the Cattle-Herding Himba of Namibia

(http://books.google.com/books?id=z-aow7Sb0JgC). New York: Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. pp. 47(http://books.google.com/books?id=z-aow7Sb0JgC&pg=PA47). ISBN 0-8264-1270-X.

25. ^Ikenga International Journal of African Studies(http://books.google.com/books?id=yAcOAQAAMAAJ). Institute of African Studies,University of Nigeria. 1972. p. 103. Retrieved 26 July 2013.

26. ^ Rogers, Peter (2009), Ultimate Truth, Book 1 (http://books.google.com/?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&pg=PA109), AuthorHouse, p. 109, ISBN 978-4389-7968-7

27. ^ Chakravarti, Sitansu (1991),Hinduism, a way of life(http://books.google.com/?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71), Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,

p. 71, ISBN 978-81-208-0899-728. ^ "Polytheism" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheism). Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 2007.Retrieved 2007-07-05.

29. ^ Pattanaik, Devdutt (2002), The man who was a woman and other queer tales of Hindu lore (http://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA38), Routledge, p. 38, ISBN 978-1-56023-181-3

30. ^ "Concept Of God In Hinduism By Dr Naik" (http://www.islam101.com/religions/hinduism/conceptOfGod.htm). Islam101.com. Retrieved2012-06-05.

31. ^Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Bothoft hem designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. KaladharBhatt in this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in VedantaPhilosophy - Page 154 (http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B), Sahajnanda,Vedanta (http://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22). 1981

32. ^ Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism" (http://books.google.com/?

id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheism). The Hare Krishna Movement: the Postcharismatic Fate of a ReligiousTransplant. ISBN 978-0-231-12256-6. Retrieved 2008-04-12.33. ^ Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986).Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the

Gaudiya Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.34. ^ Dimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal.

University Of Chicago Press. page 132 (http://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEY)

35. ^ Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.36. ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996).An introduction to Hinduism(http://books.google.com/?

id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+flood). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 341. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.Retrieved 2008-04-21. "Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala, and Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply, Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped bygroups generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the Pancaratra sect."

37. ^ Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-40548-3.

38. ^Essential HinduismS. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group p.124 (http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godhead) ISBN 0-275-99006-0

39. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presentedbythe Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X.

40. ^ "Rig Veda: A Metrically Restored Text with an Introduction and Notes, HOS, 1994" (http://www.vedavid.org/1sb/1.164c.html). Vedavid.oRetrieved 2012-06-05.

41. ^ Atharva Veda: Spiritual & Philosophical Hymns (http://www.vedah.com/org2/literature/atharva_veda/spritual_hymns.html)42. ^ Shukla Yajur Veda: The transcendental "That" (http://www.vedah.com/org2/literature/yajur_veda/the_transcendent.html)43. ^ Tapasyananda (1991). Bhakti Schools of Vednta(http://books.google.com/?id=Q_VtAAAACAAJ). Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Math.

ISBN 81-7120-226-8.44. ^ For an overview of the atarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.45. ^ For a full translation of the complete hymn see: Sivaramamurti (1976)46. ^ For the atarudrya as an early example of enumeration of divine names, see: Flood (1996), p. 152.47. ^ Mark Juergensmeyer, Gurinder Singh Mann (2006). The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions. US: Oxford University Press. p. 41.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513798-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7120-226-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=Q_VtAAAACAAJhttp://www.vedah.com/org2/literature/yajur_veda/the_transcendent.htmlhttp://www.vedah.com/org2/literature/atharva_veda/spritual_hymns.htmlhttp://www.vedavid.org/1sb/1.164c.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7007-1281-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0275990060http://books.google.com/books?id=VlhX1h135DMC&pg=PA124&dq=Krishna+is+the+original+Personality+of+Godheadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-40548-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-43878-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=gavin+floodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavin_Floodhttp://books.google.com/books?id=EAYa1BtUTm0C&pg=PA132&dq=Svayam+bhagavan&sig=jcyEA-4tyPoddQmWg-FnYKDBgEYhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12256-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC&pg=PA31&dq=Vaisnava+monotheismhttp://books.google.com/books?q=+subject:%22Vedanta%22http://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0YAAAAIAAJ&q=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3B&dq=Avatara+Swaminarayan+Krishna+origina%3Bhttp://www.islam101.com/religions/hinduism/conceptOfGod.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56023-181-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=Odsk9xfOp6oC&pg=PA38http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38143/polytheismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0899-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=J_-rASTgw8wC&pg=PA71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4389-7968-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/?id=e3kf6GtwaT0C&pg=PA109http://books.google.com/books?id=yAcOAQAAMAAJhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-1270-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=z-aow7Sb0JgC&pg=PA47http://books.google.com/books?id=z-aow7Sb0JgChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-34495-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About.comhttp://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/egyptmyth/g/henotheism.htm


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- - - - .48. ^ Ardinger, Barbara (2006). Pagan Every Day: Finding the Extraordinary in Our Ordinary Lives. Weisfer. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-57863-332-6.49. ^ Nesbitt, Eleanor M. (15 November 2005). Sikhi: a very short introduction (http://books.google.com/books?id=fvTK_CfkeasC&pg=PP6).

Oxford University Press. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-19-280601-7. Retrieved 19 July 2010.50. ^ Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions:From Ancient History to the Present. USA: Hamlyn Publishing Group. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-

87196-129-7.51. ^ "Sikh Beliefs and Doctrine" (http://www.religionfacts.com/sikhism/beliefs.htm). ReligionFacts. Retrieved 2012-06-05.52. ^ "AShort Introduction to Sikhism" (http://www.multifaithcentre.org/sikhism/71-a-short-introduction-to-sikhism-). Multifaithcentre.org.

Retrieved 2012-06-05.53. ^ "Buddhism in China: A Historical Sketch", The Journal of Religion.54. ^ Boyce, Mary (2007).Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge. pp. 1920. ISBN 978-0-415-23903-5

55. ^ Encyclopedia of Religion 2nd edition56. ^ "Major Religions Ranked by Size" (http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Zoroastrianism). Adherents.com. Retrieved2012-06-05.

57. ^ Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, s.v. "Apollo".58. ^ E.Kessler, Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus: "two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneousl

in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos[.. .] represents the culmination of a pagan iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; thispagan motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helto substantiate the existence of pagan monotheism." [ (Abstract(http://www.huss.ex.ac.uk/classics/conferences/pagan_monotheism/abstracts.html))

59. ^ "Philosophy of Religion" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion).Encyclopdia Britannica. 2010.Archived (http://web.archive.org/web/20100721151923/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion) from theoriginal on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2010.

60. ^ Massignon 1949, pp. 2023

61. ^ Smith 1998, p. 27662. ^ Derrida 2002, p. 363. ^ Hunter, Preston. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents"

(http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html). Adherents.com.64. ^ "Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2002" (http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911).

Encyclopdia Britannica. 2002. Retrieved 31 May 2006.65. ^ "The Jewish Approach to Islam" (http://www.godsholymountain.org/papers/islam.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 11 August 2012.66. ^ Maimonides, 13 principles of faith, Second Principle67. ^ 1Kings 18, Jeremiah 2; Othmar Keel, Christoph Uehlinger, Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel, Fortress Press (1998);

Mark S. Smith, The Origins of Biblical Monothe

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