Moose Presented by Lauren N. Watine. What is a moose? Introduction Ecology Management The Future

MoosePresented by Lauren N. Watine

What is a moose?• Introduction• Ecology• Management• The Future

Introduction• Origins

– Bering Land Bridge from Siberia• End of Pleistocene

– Great Plains– Eastern US

Introduction• Origins

– “Moose”• Algonquin “he strips off”• “Elk” in Europe

• Classification and Taxonomy– Order: Artiodactyla– Family: Cervidae– Genus: Alces– Species: alces

Introduction

• Classification and Taxonomy– 5 subspecies recognized globally, 4 in NA

• Alces americanus americanus– Eastern moose

• Alces americanus andersoni Peterson– Northwestern moose

• Alces americanus gigas Miller – Alaska moose

• Alces americanus shirasi Nelson – Shiras moose

Introduction

Introduction• Physical Characteristics

– Skull characteristics

• Upper jaw without incisors• Upper canines almost always absent• Short pedicels

– 1st antlers appear 4-6 months after birth


– General Appearance• Massive body• Long and slender legs• Shoulder hump• Long nose

• Large/flexible overhanging upper lip • Dewlap at throat


– General Appearance• Length

– 2.74 m

• Height – 1.83 m


– General Appearance• Front hoof widths

– Male» ~13 cm

– Female» ~10 cm

– Calf» ~8 cm


– Pelage• Newborn Moose

– Light red reddish brown– Shades of grey black on lower abdomen, chest,

legs, muzzle, hooves, eye rings, and ears– Replaced in 2-3 months by darker coat

» Shed in spring» Replaced by short, fine, nearly black, hair


– Pelage• Adult prime coats

– Nearly black

What is it?


– Male vs. Female• Females

– White hair around vulva – Brown face and dark body


– Male vs. Female• Males

– Black face– Antlers


– Male vs. Female• “Bells” skin flaps on neck

– Cow: looks like tuft of hair– Bull: larger, rounder


– Glands• Lachrymal glands • Tarsal glands


– Antlers• PALMICORN• Males


– Antlers• Velvet• Antler “sheds”


– Antlers• Size and spread

– 35 kg– 205 cm


– Antlers• Size and spread

– Spread rarely >16.51 cm » 13.97 cm = good


– Antlers• Calves

– Small buds by late September

Introduction


– Antlers• Maximum development

– 5 y/o– Declines in teens


– Weight (live)• Moose Research Center (MRC), Alaska

– Males» With antlers before the rut: 771 kg» Large bulls: >454 kg

– Females» 573 kg

Introduction• Distribution and Abundance

– Circumpolar• 72 °N latitude and south to about 40 °N

latitude• Europe, Asia, and North America


– North American range• Northern spruce and boreal forests

• Numbers (1978)– 0.8-1.2 million– Little change in 30+ years


– North American range• Alaska Colorado

– South through Rocky Mountains

• East Newfoundland • South to New Hampshire, northern Wisconsin, and northern North Dakota


– North American range• Limitations

– North– Western mountain ranges– South and West– Southeast


– North American range• Local limitations

– Successional vegetation stages

Introduction• Population trends

– Decreased as Europeans spread• Food value• Firearms!

– Current• Stable or increasing

– Local declines?

Introduction• Conservation and Legal Status

– Global Status: G5 (secure)• National Status: N5 (secure)

– Varies throughout US

– IUCN: Least Concern

Introduction• Value

– Historical• Food, clothes, tools, recreation

– Meat/organs



– Peak hunting periods: native Americans» The rut» Deep and crusting snow» Summer on open rivers and lakes



– Dung– Hide– Bone/antlers

• European immigrants: utilitarian value


– Current• Food • Traditional hunt

• Wildlife viewing/photography


– Current• More aesthetic

– “culturally evolved”

• Alaska: activities associated with hunting – $31million annually

Ecology: Natural History

• Survival and longevity– Late teens– Rarely past 20

• Cows = 8 years• Bulls = 7 years


• Survival and longevity– Female maximum reproductive potential

• 4-12 years


• Survival and longevity– Male data limited

• One MRC bull: 11.5 years• Another: 14 years• Peak reproductive age: 4-8 years


• Diet selection– Browsers with variable diet– Use early successional woody browse

regrowth• Following disturbances

– Fire, flood, logging


• Diet selection– Winter

• Twigs from shrubs

– Summer• Leaves from deciduous species


• Diet selection– Renecker and Schwartz

• Sampled 164 different plant species in NA– Only aspen, birch, and willow eaten in large

numbers throughout range


• Diet selection– Reproductive performance peaks when

preferred species are abundant and available

• Eastern range– Balsam fir

• Mid-continent– Maples and beaked hazel

• Aquatics wherever lakes occur


• Physiological Ecology – Continuous growth– 3 phases

1. Prenatal2. Suckling3. Maturity


• Physiological Ecology – Single calves are larger than twins at

birth• NO mass difference between sexes• 12-17 kg at birth

– Can walk/swim soon after


• Physiological Ecology – Calves gain ~1-3 kg/day until October

• 160-180 kg by Fall• October May,

– LOSE mass

• High natural mortality – Some areas: >75% die in first 6 months


• Physiological Ecology – Maximum mass

• Females – 4 years, 500 kg

• Males– 7-9 years, 700 kg


• Physiological Ecology – Gain/lose weight seasonally

• Abundance and quality of forage • Reproductive status



• Female minimum annual mass – Postpartum

» Lactating: need >66lbs of browse/day!– Males are gaining mass



• Male minimum annual mass– The rut

» Lose 12-18% of mass


• Reproductive strategy– The rut: early September late October

• Peaks late September and early October• Young males generally excluded from

breeding • Mean gestation: 231 days, 8 months

– Polyestrous


• Reproductive strategy– Calving: mid-May mid-June– Cows have first calf at 2 years, most by

3• Yearling females• Productivity in teens?• Maternal strategy?


• Reproductive strategy– Single calf vs. Twins

• Twinning – 5%: Jackson Hole, WY, 1960s

» Static – 72%: Kenai Peninsula, 1980s

» Expanding


• Reproductive strategy– Single calf vs. Twins

• Function of nutrition and population condition

– Rates can be used to asses population status

• Triplets rare


• Reproductive strategy– Tundra vs. Taiga Moose

• Harem vs. pair-breeding


• Reproductive strategy– Sex ratios

• 20-30 bulls per 100 cows– Synchronous breeding of all females during 1st

estrus

Ecology: Behavior• Social structure

– The rut: males• Mock battle• Low-stretch posture and flehmen to detect

pheromones– Approach cows

• Yield or fight• Victory?


– The rut: females• Aggressive towards other females• Tundra females• Taiga females


– Individualistic, or quasi-solitary • Def: large groups uncommon• Female with calves • Large aggregations?

– Yarding


– Cow-calf bond• Constant contact in first week• Within visual and vocal distance• “lying-out” vs. “hiding” • Cow highly protective/aggressive

Ecology: Behavior• Interspecific interactions/relationships

– Spatially and temporally• Caribou• Mule deer• White-tailed deer• Elk• Bison• Musk-oxen

• Rocky-Mountain/Dall’s sheep

Ecology: Behavior• Interspecific

interactions/relationships– Boer: 4 forms of interactions between

moose and other species1. Direct competition 2. Parasite-mediated competition3. Multi-prey systems4. Commensalism

Ecology: Behavior• Movements, migration, and home-

range– Move within seasonal ranges– Migrate between seasonal ranges– Remain year-round residents in an area– Disperse to new range


range– Move within seasonal ranges

• Home-ranges where normal activities occur• Patterns: food and cover

– Shelter from weather and predation» Thermal cover


range– Move within seasonal ranges

• Summer: low lying areas with stagnant water

– 25-30 kg aquatic plants/day – Cool down

• Winter: upland areas with dense habitat cover

– Twigs and shrubs– Less active

Ecology: Behavior• Communication

– Olfactory cues • Pheromones and vomerones

– Bubenik: visual discrimination of antler rank by females

– Excellent hearing and echolocation

Ecology: Behavior• Predator response

– Learned behaviors: Joel Berger, UMT, study

– Aggressive– Run away

Ecology: Behavior• Response to humans

– Aggressive if startled/frightened– North America: injure more people than

any other mammal• Worldwide: only hippos injure more

Ecology: Behavior• Response to humans

– During the rut– With calves

• Population trends and status– Fluctuations are the norm– Populations increase gradually

• NOT rapid, even with good conditions

Ecology: Population Biology

• Population trends and status– Naturally regulated by predation and K

• Food: ultimate K component!• Predation

– Increased K with limited-to-no predation– Habitat decline/loss with high predation– In between?


• Population trends and status– Causes of variation

• Reintroduction• Fire• Range expansion• Habitat changes• Snow• Conditions• Forestry practices


• Productivity and recruitment– Ideal conditions

• Exceed 1:1/year – Twinning rates– Yearling breeding– Conception rates


• Productivity and recruitment– Nelchina, AK

• Estimated calves per 100 cows in fall– 1972: 13:100

» Due to calf mortality» Would NOT sustain populations!

– 1953: 90:100



• Mortality factors– Predation– Severe winters– Hunting– Poaching– Disease– Old age– Accidents


• Mortality factors– Predation

• 3 notable direct factors1. Alternative prey2. Predator-prey ratios3. Multi-predator systems


• Mortality factors– Predation

• Boertje et al, 1996– 20 year effects of wolf control on wolf, moose,

and caribou abundance


• Mortality factors– Winter mortality factors

• Snow depth, density, hardness and persistence

– Mobility– Food availability– Resulting energy balance/reserves


• Mortality factors– Winter mortality factors

• Koenai Peninsula, AK– 100% calf mortality 1971-1972– 85% calf mortality 1989-1990 and 1994-1995


• Mortality factors– Harvest

• Unregulated vs. regulated hunting – Can benefit from culling as a population

regulation» Especially selective harvest!


• Mortality factors– Harvest

• Additive or unsustainable– Depends


• Mortality factors– Harvest: Michigan Case Study

• Unsustainable cow harvest• Additive bull harvest


• Mortality factors– Disease

• Meningeal/brainworm • Winter ticks• Arterial worm• Lung worm• Possibly brucella



• Meningeal/brainworm – eastern North America

– Parelaphostrongylus tenuis» Parasitic nematode/roundworm

– Fatal neurological disease– Weakness, circling, blindness, and paralysis– Often die




• Transmissible to humans/make moose inedible

– Toxoplasmosis and brucellosis– Hydadid cyst tapeworm

» Human risk» Moose = intermediate host



• Biggest threats: domestic and game farm animals

– Brucellosis and TB» Bacterial


• Mortality factors– Natural mortality in “adult” phase is low– Old age

• Lose weight• Decrease in antler size


• Mortality factors– Accidental mortality

• Moose annually from roadkills:– Vehicles: 3500– Trains: 1500

» 70% decline in local populations along a road/rail-road Alaskan corridor

• Combination of harvest and roadkills account for 2000-2500 deaths/year in Maine


Ecology: Habitat

Habitat is the ULTIMATE limiting factor for moose!

Ecology: Habitat• Habitat = ultimate limiting factor

– Food • Quantity AND quality

– Climate


– Need large quantities of forage to maintain rumen

– Intake varies seasonally • Sex and age• Availability, digestibility, and rate of passage


– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Year-round species

– Wood, aspen, birch, maple, pincherry, and mountain ash


– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Important winter species

– Balsam fir » Leaves absent from hardwoods in winter» Lower nutritive value


– Subsist on browse • Leaves and twigs of woody plants• Year-round species• Important winter species

Fire, wind throw, insects, and forest practices promote disturbance and regrowth of these important species!


– Aquatic plants • Sodium requirements

– Pondweed, water lily

Ecology: Habitat• Summer Requirements

– Male vs. Female• Males: cooler temperatures

– Higher elevation in mixed and hardwood stands– Less food– Shade

Ecology: Habitat• Summer Requirements

– Male vs. Female• Females: raising calves

– Lower elevations » Regenerating stands and adjacent softwoods

– Food more concentrated

Ecology: Habitat• Fire-dependent systems

– Successional stage of burned boreal forests

• 11-30 years post-fire• Peaks near 15 years

– Kelsall et al 1977, Schwartz et al 1989

Ecology: Habitat• Non or limited fire-influenced

habitats– Above timberline– River delta systems – Extreme northern shrub communities– Coastal forests– Riparian willow communities

Ecology: Habitat• Non or limited fire-influenced

habitats– Aquatic habitats

• Spring Fall• Highly digestible and nutritious forage

– High mineral content

• Escape insect pests• Cool themselves

Ecology: Habitat• Depth, density, and hardness of

snow– Habitat or vegetation availability

• Limited

– Activity regulated by snow conditions


snow – Activity regulated by snow conditions

• 71-97 cm limits travel• Metabolic demands for movement increase


snow – Activity regulated by snow conditions

• Winter in coldest regions when adequate shelter from wind is available

– High elevations» More hardwood browse» Feed on regenerating stands» Mature softwoods = cover when snow depth >

3 ft

Ecology: Habitat• Temperature limitations

– >27 degrees Celsius• No shade• No lake/water

– No moose!

How do we manage moose?

• Habitat management• Harvest management

Habitat Management

• Necessary habitat components

– Abundant high quality winter food

– Shelter near food– Isolated calving

sites– Aquatic feeding

areas– Mineral licks

– Seral forest stands with deciduous shrubs and forbs in summer

– Mature forests for shelter from snow and heat

– Travel corridors

Habitat Management

• Necessary habitat components– Seral forest stands with deciduous

shrubs and forbs in summer• Young and mature forest mix• Highest moose densities

Habitat Management

• Necessary habitat components– Seral forest stands with deciduous

shrubs and forbs in summer• Open up forest• Allow light to hit forest floor • Promote growth of young trees and shrubs

– Primary food!

Habitat Management

• How to create seral vegetation– Wildfire = ultimate habitat creator– Logging has historical benefits

Habitat Management

• How to create seral vegetation– Logging has historical benefits

• Timber harvest– Creates habitat in some areas– Can be destructive if:

» Habitat components lost» Uncontrolled logging road access» Large areas converted to monotypic stands

Habitat Management

• How to create seral vegetation– Logging has historical benefits

• Recommended forest cut size– 24-250 ha

» Depends on site productivity– Made considering greatest vegetative

regeneration benefits and components of good habitat

Habitat Management

• Non-forestry practices that create good seral vegetation – Prescribed burns– Selected land clearing– Abandonment of farmsteads– Mechanical rehabilitation– Wind-throw– Insects

Habitat Management

• Managing for mortality– Vehicular collisions

• Speed limits• Signs• Lighting• Clearing of vegetation• Fencing• Media awareness

Habitat Management

• Managing for mortality– Vehicular collisions

• McDonald 1991: Moose movement and mortality

– Glenn Highway expansion, Anchorage, AK– 65% Decrease in mortality

» Moose-proof fencing» One-way gates» Underpasses» Lighting

Harvest Management

• How do we manage harvest?– Data required

• Limited harvest• Optimum sustained yield

– Cow and bull

Harvest Management

• How do we manage harvest?– Data required

• License sales• Controlled access• Controlled method and means of take• Special announcements

– Opening and closure

Harvest Management

• Michigan Case Study– 1889, completely protected in Michigan

• No legal harvest since then

– Michigan: Public Act 366 of 2010• Allows 1st moose hunting season since late

1800s• MHAC Moose Hunting Advisory Council

The Future• Climate change

– Increased temperatures• Southern-most moose distribution appears

to be temperature-controlled• Easily heat-stressed

The Future• Climate change

– May impact recreational harvest

The Future• Distribution and population trends

– Unrestricted hunting– Clearing of forests for farms

• White-tailed deer

Current Event

http://www.pressherald.com/news/increase-of-ticks-has-biologists-worried-about-moose_2013-07-07.html

Questions?

Sources• Ecology and Management of Large Mammals in North America, Demarais and Krausman• Big Game of North America, Wildlife Management Institute• Dr. Giuliano’s Wildlife Ecology and Management class

• http://www.maine.gov/ifw/wildlife/species/moose/• http://www.pressherald.com/news/increase-of-ticks-has-biologists-worried-about-moose_2013-07-07.htm• http://www.therepublic.com/view/story/03277c173e6343f7a317193928c452ba/NH--Moose-Population-NH• www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FW/2ColumnSubPage/STDPROD_090208.html• http://www.mnr.gov.on.ca/en/Business/FW/2ColumnSubPage/STDPROD_090559.html• http://www.michigan.gov/documents/dnr/Moose_white_paper_28_Feb_2011_Final_350494_7.pdf• http://www.mooseworld.com/mooseman/index.htm• http://www.maine.gov/ifw/pdfs/species_planning/mammals/moose/assessment.pdf• http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?

sourceTemplate=tabular_report.wmt&loadTemplate=species_RptComprehensive.wmt&selectedReport=RptComprehensive.wmt&summaryView=tabular_report.wmt&elKey=792092&paging=home&save=true&startIndex=1&nextStartIndex=1&reset=false&offPageSelectedElKey=881533&offPageSelectedElType=species&offPageYesNo=true&post_processes=&radiobutton=radiobutton&selectedIndexes=881533&selectedIndexes=792092&selectedIndexes=792132

• http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/animals/mammal/alam/all.html• http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/02/0208_moose.html• http://www.mooseworld.com/ecology.htm• http://www.ct.gov/deep/cwp/view.asp?A=2723&Q=326044• http://www.google.com/imgres?um=1&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-

US:official&channel=fflb&hl=en&authuser=0&biw=1680&bih=853&tbm=isch&tbnid=qPRBMeX-IzwuBM:&imgrefurl=http://fineartamerica.com/featured/moose-male-and-female-during-the-rut-philippe-henry.html&docid=KKxjeGU5f_FQHM&imgurl=http://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large/moose-male-and-female-during-the-rut-philippe-henry.jpg&w=900&h=599&ei=xwI3UuCNIZPa9QSG24CIBw&zoom=1&ved=1t:3588,r:20,s:0,i:148&iact=rc&page=1&tbnh=183&tbnw=264&start=0&ndsp=26&tx=161&ty=83

• http://www.bullseyetaxidermy.com/Gallery.html

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Moose Presented by Lauren N. Watine. What is a moose? Introduction Ecology Management The Future