Upload
others
View
6
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
1
More Decision-Aid Technology in Sport? An Analysis of Football Supporters’
Perceptions on Goal Line Technology.
Submitted to Soccer & Society 21/08/2015
Minor revision submitted 02/05/2016
Accepted 29/11/2016
Mathieu Winand, Faculty of Health Sciences and Sport, University of Stirling
E-mail: [email protected] (corresponding author)
Craig Fergusson, Lets Get Sporty
E-mail: [email protected]
To cite the article:
Winand, M. & Fergusson, C. (forthcoming). More Decision-Aid Technology in Sport? An
Analysis of Football Supporters’ Perceptions on Goal Line Technology. Soccer & Society.
Bios
Mathieu Winand is Lecturer in Sport Management in the Faculty of Health Sciences and
Sport at the University of Stirling (Scotland, UK). His expertise is in the area of sport
governance, performance management and innovation in sport.
Craig Fergusson has graduated from Stirling University with a Bachelor of Arts
with Honours in Sport Studies. He is now working as General Manager at ‘Lets Get Sporty’.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Stephen Morrow for his assistance in writing this article.
2
Abstract
The introduction of decision-aid technology in sport, such as Goal Line Technology (GLT) in
football, has generated minimal literature on supporters’ perspectives. This paper aims to
investigate Scottish football supporters’ perceptions towards GLT. Two hundred and seventy
Scottish supporters completed a questionnaire to assess their satisfaction with GLT and
factors that influence their level of satisfaction. The majority of Scottish supporters trust the
technology applied in football and favours its use. However, they are dissatisfied with GLT in
part because GLT is considered to detract from the atmosphere resulting from contentious
goals which supporters appreciate and lessen the debate around crucial decisions. Findings
also showed that football supporters are against GLT viewing in the stadium and do not
welcome future decision-aid technology in football.
Keywords: Decision-aid technology, Goal Line Technology, supporter satisfaction,
supporter identification, football
3
Introduction
Our modern society is replete with new technologies designed to make our life easier.
Likewise, the world of sport has embraced the new waves of decision-aid technology,
designed to help referees and officials make the right decision. Examples include instant
replay systems used in Basketball, Hockey and Rugby, and Hawk-Eye technology, i.e. a
computer and camera based system which traces a ball’s trajectory, used in Cricket and
Tennis. Professional sports pace has made it hard for referees and umpires to take correct
decisions,1 and any wrong decision has greater sporting and financial consequences and
implications. These reasons might explain the growing use of decision-aid technologies being
applied in different sports. Academic research undertaken on decision-aid technology in sport
has mostly taken a descriptive approach combined with a critical philosophical perspective on
the necessity and/or consequences of the use of the technology in sport.2 Empirical research
on the use of decision-aid technology is rare, and limited to a research on referees’ views on
decision-aid technology in football.3 It is though crucial to collect and analyse the views of
stakeholders that are confronted with the technology. One of these key stakeholders is
supporters. Collins and Evans4 suggest that technology might impact sport spectators’
behaviour, though no academic research has been undertaken to analyse supporters’ views on
decision-aid technology in sport or on the introduction of future technology. Drawing on
social identity theory and customer satisfaction, the present study aims to fill this gap by
analysing sport supporters perceptions on decision-aid technology recently introduced into
the game of football, Goal Line Technology (GLT), and on factors that can contribute to
(dis)satisfaction with that technology.
Football’s international governing body, FIFA (Fédération Internationale de Football
Association), has long been opposed to the introduction of instant replay or technologies that
4
remove the responsibility from referees (FIFA, 2010a). FIFA has previously argued
technology undermines the game and that football “must be played in the same way no matter
where you are in the world”.5 Though reluctant to include technologies that slow down the
game,6 incidents such as Frank Lampard’s disallowed goal for England at the 2010 World
Cup pressured FIFA to find a solution.7 In October 2010, IFAB (International Football
Association Board) the body determining the Laws of the Game of football, agreed to discuss
the introduction of a technology that identifies whether or not the ball had fully crossed the
goal line and hence whether a goal should be awarded.8 After testing procedures were put in
place to guarantee the accuracy of the technology, FIFA announced in 2012 the introduction
of GLT in football.9 Different systems were accepted which are based on cameras situated
around the football pitch tracking the ball (Hawk-Eye Goal System and Goal-Control), or
based on a chip inserted inside the ball (GoalRef). No matter the system used, once the ball
has fully crossed the goal line, a signal is sent to the referee’s watch. A major step in the
introduction of decision-aid technology in football was when Goal-Control was adopted by
FIFA for the 2013 Confederations Cup and the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.10 FIFA’s main
rationale referred to the rapid technical and tactical evolution of the game which results in
goals being at a premium and hence the increased importance of determining whether one has
been scored or not.11 The introduction of GLT has long been debated within FIFA instance.12
Players, managers and teams are not the only ones directly concerned by the new technology
and interestingly, one of the first arguments against GLT focused on supporters’ presumed
dissatisfaction therewith.13 Indeed, supporters may be concerned by GLT and with how it
affects their experience of the game as well as any impact on their team. Hunt, Bristol, and
Bashaw14 suggest that this derives from levels of supporter identification and passion towards
a football club. But at the same time, football supporters dissatisfied by poor decisions
making by match officials may welcome the introduction of GLT as well as the possibility of
5
future innovation. To date, however, no study has investigated supporters’ perceptions of
GLT, despite its implications for FIFA and international governing bodies given the
importance they claim to attach to supporter satisfaction. The present research contributes to
the literature by exploring for the first time football supporters’ perceptions of decision-aid
technology and factors of supporters’ satisfaction at a football game that are affected by the
technology.
The paper proceeds as follows. First, the paper reviews literature on football supporters
identification, satisfaction and decision-aid technology in sport. Second, the paper’s
methodology is set out, including a description of data collection and analysis. Third, results
are presented and discussed. Finally, theoretical and managerial implications are suggested.
Literature Review
Football Supporter Identification and Satisfaction
According to social identity theory15 individuals have two identities: a personal identity and a
social identity which relates to groups with which individuals identify themselves. In the case
of sport fans, they identify to the sport team they support, and their level of identification can
explain how they act on behalf of their team.16 Hence, a football fan can be categorised as an
individual emotionally attached to a football team.17 Haynes18 furthers the argument by
suggesting that the difference between a football fan and a spectator (not being a fan) is that
the spectator has no emotional connection with a club, therefore they would not suffer if the
club they were watching lost. Different levels of commitment have been highlighted in the
literature. Hunt et al.19 argue that football fans vary in levels of identification and emotional
attachment towards their football club- temporary; local; devoted; fanatical; and
dysfunctional. ‘Temporary’ relates to a fan who would attend a one off match such as a
World Cup final without any emotional attachment whereas a ‘dysfunctional’ fan would miss
6
their wedding day to watch their football team play.20 Vallerand et al.21 provide a similar
model relating to different types of passion between football fans- harmonious and obsessive.
‘Harmonious’ refers to an individual celebrating their team’s victory and ‘obsessive’ relates
to a fan missing their work to attend a game. Looking at spectator identities, Giulianotti22
provides a theoretical classification of four ideal-type categories of football spectators based
on the kind of identification they have toward their club: supporters, fans, followers and
flâneurs. According to the author, supporters have a long term personal attachment to the club
whereas flâneurs have low identity and a market-centered relationship with the club. Fans
have high degree of loyalty and identification to the club but their relationship with the club
is more distant compared to supporters. Furthermore, fans are also characterised by the
consumption of products related to the club or its players. Followers keep up to date with the
clubs’ developments for which they have an interest that can come from historical links with
the club. According to researchers23 there are differences in types or levels of identification
between football spectators and their favourite club. For the purpose of the present paper we
use the term supporters to designate the categories of fans, supporters, flâneurs and followers
established by Giulianotti24 while emphasizing the attachment they have towards their
favourite club. The more strongly supporters identify with their team, the more likely they
will be committed to ensuring its best interest; the less identified they are the more focussed
they will be on their own needs and self-interest.25 Therefore, according to their level of
identification, supporters might have different expectations when attending games.
The differences in supporters’ identification have been investigated in research through
different scales such as the Motivational Scale for Sport Consumption (MSSC)26 and the
Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS).27 While the MSSC is a suitable measurement for
understanding the relationship and attachment between football supporters and their club,28 it
does not provide insight into the level or type of identification supporters have with their
7
club. In order to measure supporter identification, one can use the SSIS29 recently applied in
research to measure supporters’ level of identification to their team.30 The SSIS classifies
sport spectators under one of three categories - low; moderate; or highly identified
spectators.31 According to researchers who analysed the reliability of the measurement32, not
only does the SSIS identify different types of football spectators but it can also produce clear
findings as to how supporters might be identified with their club, which in turn could be
associated with supporters’ expectations and satisfaction with different aspects of the game.
The introduction of a new component into the game such as decision-aid technology may
potentially impact supporters’ expectations and satisfaction differently depending on their
level of identification.
Drawing on social identity theory33 and customer satisfaction through the disconfirmation of
expectations model,34 Leeuwen et al.35 developed a framework which investigates team
identification as a possible indicator of sport spectator satisfaction – the Sport Spectator
Satisfaction Model (SSSM). Leeuwen et al.36 suggest that a highly identified spectator would
be more likely to experience a higher level of satisfaction with spectator services compared to
a lowly identified spectator. These findings are in line with previous arguments from Dietz-
Uhler and Murrell37 who proposed that supporters with low levels of identification enjoy
football games less as they are not as emotionally attached to a particular football club, and
hence do not want or need their team to win as badly as highly identified supporters. Another
element from the SSSM is the importance of winning for spectator satisfaction. Leeuwen et
al.38 suggest that winning influences spectator satisfaction and that highly identified
spectators whose team win report higher level of satisfaction compared to those who support
a team that lose. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell39 went further suggesting that highly identified
supporters would be more likely to accept one of their team’s players breaking the rules if it
8
results in their team winning. Arguing sport spectatorship is a service, Leeuwen et al.40
distinguished between core and peripheral services where the game itself is the core service,
and non-game extras such as parking, catering and half-time entertainment are peripheral
services. The importance of peripheral services for supporters satisfaction is stressed by
Leeuwen et al.41 as well as the levels of identification spectator have towards their team and
the importance of winning. The SSSM model allows one to investigate whether highly
identified supporters have greater or lower satisfaction levels towards the introduction of a
component of the game such as GLT which could impact the win/lose element and supporters
expectations at a sport event.
Factors Influencing Supporter Satisfaction at Football Matches
The match day atmosphere is a positive indicator of supporter satisfaction along with services
during the game.42 Charleston43 suggests that the ‘atmosphere’ at a football match is created
by two sets of supporters who engage each other through various courses of singing and
chanting, history between opponents and connection between supporters. Although goals
scored were not the strongest influence on the atmosphere, they had an effect as they generate
either positive or negative reactions.44 Also, wrong decisions made by referees have been
highlighted as influencing match day atmosphere,45 but the impact of these errors on
supporters has not been further examined. According to FIFA,46 supporters might perceive a
contentious goal, i.e. when the ball has not crossed the line but a goal is still given, to
improve the atmosphere at a football match, although no evidence is offered to support such
an argument. FIFA’s argument is that ‘Fans love to debate any given incident in a game. It is
part of the human nature of our sport’.47 According to FIFA, by removing contention and
thus debate, supporters will no longer get to experience the element of doubt is something
they may enjoy. Therefore, the introduction of GLT removes contentious goal line decisions
9
which might influence the match day atmosphere and supporter satisfaction. Even though
technology may minimise bad decisions being made, football supporters may actually miss
the debate which stem from refereeing decisions48 and which contributes to the overall
experience for football supporters.49 The atmosphere during the game and the debate after the
game seem to be key factors that might influence supporters’ satisfaction towards GLT. This
is important given that a satisfactory experience from attending a game can also impact
supporters’ likelihood of attending future games.50
Decision-Aid Technology in Sport
The introduction of decision-aid technology not only reduces the authority of match officials
but also undermines the ability of referees to make the right decisions during the crucial
moments of a match.51 Generally supporters accept that referees will make bad decisions
from time to time and that refereeing controversies are part of football.52 In tennis, the
authority is transferred from the referee to the technology when a player challenges a
referee’s call. The problem, according to Collins53, is that the technology is less accurate than
it appears which leads to false transparency that is condemned by the author. Likewise in
football, Ryall54 believes caution is required with the technology by suggesting that ‘the
weather’ and ‘goal line scrambles’ with players covering not only the ball but the goal line
are issues that may impair the accuracy of the technology. The issues highlighted have
probably been taken into consideration during the testing phase, but there is a tolerable
degree of statistical errors with all technologies. Collins and Evans55 suggest that supporters
be educated by sport commentators about how decisions are made using decision-aid
technology and the inherent margin of errors.
10
The first goal validated by GLT at the World Cup 2014 in Brazil which saw Karim Benzema
from France scoring against Honduras has encountered some confusion when big screen in
stadium first showed ‘No Goal’ when the ball hit the inside of the post which was then
followed by another GLT replay showing ‘Goal’ when the ball went slightly over the line
after it bounced against the keeper. This confusion has resulted in FIFA changing the
guidelines on showing GLT replays to avoid any further confusion and “enhance the viewing
experience for fans”.56 Unless competition organisers decide otherwise, the only individuals
in the football stadium that will see whether or not the ball has crossed the line are the match
officials through the use of their watch. The technology would hence only be used to aid
referees and not for entertainment purposes. The influence of technology and screen viewing
in the stadium has been discussed by Cairns57 who warned that spectators’ engagement at live
sporting event might be transformed with spectators potentially being disturbed by
information related to the game (e.g. instant replays, tactical analysis, players’ interview and
betting odds) resulting in their attention shifted out of the game itself. However, the aspect of
viewing on screen the decision of whether or not the ball has crossed the line should be asked
to supporters themselves. Therefore, it is of interest to know whether spectators appreciate
viewing the decision on screens and whether it adds to the atmosphere at particular events.
The introduction of decision-aid technology into football may open the door for further
innovation.58 In particular, Bal and Dureja59 propose that if GLT is successful, FIFA may
consider technology for offside or penalty decisions. Recent declarations by FIFA president
Gianni Infantino advocate for the use of video refereeing at the 2018 World Cup in Russia. 60
However, Michel Platini, former head of UEFA (Union of European Football Associations) is
concerned about the prospect of further technical innovations within the game. Although it is
11
a concern from key and influential figures in governing bodies of football, no study has yet
investigated supporters’ perceptions of the inclusion of further technology in football.
Since the introduction of GLT in 2012, a lack of academic literature relating to supporters
perspectives is evident. Two studies61 conducted through surveys posted on football forums
have been undertaken posing a singular question to football supporters: are you in favour of
GLT? The results from both studies showed that the majority of football supporters- in excess
of 75% in both surveys - were in favour of GLT. In contrast, another survey undertaken by
Hattrick Global Football Voice62 showed that only 49% of supporters were in favour of GLT.
There is clearly a need for supporters opinions on the various aspects of GLT to be heard.
Method
Research Design
The research focuses on the perceptions of Scottish football supporters towards GLT. A
quantitative approach based on an online questionnaire has been chosen to collect
information on supporters’ opinions. The online questionnaire uses Qualtrics online survey
software and was posted on football supporters forum in Scotland and on Scottish
professional football clubs social media pages. The questionnaire was accessible from the 1st
of January 2014 until the 1st of February 2014. At the time of data collection, GLT had
officially been introduced in four different competition formats: the 2012 FIFA Club World
Cup in Japan, the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup in Brazil, the 2013/14 English Premier
League season and 2013/14 Football league Cup in England from the quarter finals. GLT is
now used in four major European leagues such as English Premier League (England), Serie A
(Italy), Ligue 1 (France), and Bundesliga (Germany). It has been used at the 2014 FIFA
World Cup and the 2016 UEFA Euro tournament and will be introduced in European
12
competitions such as the 2016/17 UEFA Champions League from the play-offs onwards. 63
According to IFAB, the decision to display replays of GLT results in-stadium is taken by
each competition organiser. 64
Supporters of Scottish football clubs were asked to provide background information such as
gender, age, number of years they had supported their favourite team, whether they had a
membership with their favourite team and the number of times a season they watch their team
at the stadium (Table 1). Perceptions of supporters towards the use of GLT and its accuracy
were evaluated by asking respondents to answer yes, no or do not know to questions such as
‘Are you in favour of GLT?’ ; ‘Do you trust referees to use GLT properly?’ or ‘Is GLT
accurate?’. Level of Scottish supporters’ commitment (i.e. supporter identification) and
perceptions towards GLT (e.g. satisfaction and viewing) are assessed by asking respondents
to rate their level of agreement on a 7 point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to
7 (strongly agree), where 4 is neither agree nor disagree. This was deemed preferable to a 5
point Likert scale as it offers greater range of opinion and is deemed more reliable.65
Instruments
Wann and Branscombe’s Sport Spectator Identification Scale (SSIS)66 has been applied to the
present study to measure Scottish supporters identification, i.e. their level of commitment to
their team. Respondents provided their level of agreement on 7 items from strongly disagree
to strongly agree (7 point Likert scale), e.g. The football team’s successes are my successes.
An exploratory measure of supporters’ satisfaction towards GLT adapted from the SSSM was
developed consisting of 5 items on a 7pt Likert scale such as ‘I am satisfied by G.L.T in
football’. Other exploratory scales have been created to measure ‘Enjoyment from referee’s
error’ (5 items), ‘Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal’ (4 items), ‘Enjoyment from
13
debate’ (5 items), ‘GLT viewing in the stadium’ (5 items), and ‘Future decision-aid
technology’ (4 items).
Statistical Analysis
An overview of the opinions of supporters on GLT has been established by providing the
percentage of supporters surveyed favouring GLT, trusting referees to use it and deeming it
to be accurate.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Cronbach’s alpha (>.7) have been used to evaluate
the factor structure of the SSIS using IBM SPSS 19 and AMOS 19.0 programs. To assess
whether the tested model demonstrated ‘good fit’ to the data set, we used the comparative fit
index (CFI >.9) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA <.07).67 Average
of respondents’ scores (7pt scale) for supporter identification is computed in order to
highlight groups of supporters according to their commitment to their team: lowly (score of 3
or fewer), moderate (scores between 3 and 5) and highly (scores of 5 or higher) identified
supporters.
Exploratory factor analysis, using principal component analysis (factor loadings >.4),
validated by Cronbach’s alpha (>.7) has been used to extracts reliable scales for ‘Satisfaction
towards GLT’ ; ‘Enjoyment from referee’s error’ ; ‘Atmosphere enhanced by contentious
goal’ ; ‘Enjoyment from debate’ ; ‘GLT viewing in the stadium’ and ‘Future decision-aid
technology’. Average scores of items per factor have provided overall scores for each factor
under investigation on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) where 4 is
neutral.
Using IBM SPSS 19, the following statistical analyses have been performed. Correlational
analysis has been used to measure relationships between factors, and ANOVA with Tukey's
post-hoc test is used to measure mean differences between groups of supporters identified.
14
Finally, multiple linear regression analysis is used to explain supporter satisfaction towards
GLT.
[Insert Table 1 about here]
Descriptive Statistics
Among the 313 surveys returned, 43 were incomplete and were eliminated, reducing the
usable sample to 270. Table 1 sets out the profile of respondents. Among the 270
respondents, 193 (71.5 percent) were male and 77 (28.5 percent) female; 108 (40 percent)
were under the age of 33, 93 (34.5 percent) were between 34 and 49, and 59 (25.5 percent)
were 50 or older (see Table 1). A hundred and forty-nine respondents (54.2 percent) have
supported their favorite team for more than 20 years and a hundred and twenty-nine (44.8
percent) have supported their favorite team for up to 20 years. A majority of respondents
have indicated they have a membership with their favorite team. Thirty-one respondents (11.5
percent) have not seen their team at the stadium during the previous season.
Results
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to evaluate the factor structure of the supporter
identification model. The 7 supporter identification items are listed in table 2. The supporter
identification model demonstrates a ‘good fit’ to the data measured in the present study,
according to the comparative fit index (CFI) and the root mean square error of approximation
(RMSEA). The ration of χ2 to the degree of freedom (χ2/df=1.6) and the remaining commonly
used goodness-of-fit indices (CFI=.994, RMSEA=.047) were in line with the recommended
criteria.68 As indicated in Table 2, factor loadings were comparably high and statistically
significant, ranging from .69 to .82, which in accordance with the adequacy of the fit indices,
supported the hypothesized structure of the supporter identification model. Cronbach’s alpha
of .91 validate the consistency of the 7 items (>.7).
15
[Insert Table 2 about here]
Table 2 shows that participants in the survey have, on average, a moderate supporter
identification score (M=4.09; SD=1.48) which can be split between three main categories
according to participants’ average score on the 7 supporter identification items as shown in
Table 3. According to the 7pt Likert scale, sixty-two participants (23 percent) show scores
below 3 which reveals they are lowly identified supporters, a hundred and forty-two (52.6
percent) are moderate identified supporters with scores between 3 and 5, and sixty-six (24.4
percent) are highly identified supporters with scores higher than 5.
[Insert Tables 3 and 4 about here]
As shown in table 4, a very large majority of participants perceives that GLT is accurate, trust
referees to use GLT and trust that referees will make correct decisions using GLT,
respectively 93, 74.4 and 88.5 percent. Two third of participants are in favour of GLT
compared to 30 percent who disfavour it. Despite its accuracy being largely endorsed by
supporters, it seems that a non-negligible proportion of participants are against the use of the
decision-aid technology in football. There is no evidence that lowly or highly identified
supporters are more or less in favour of GLT.
[Insert Table 5 about here]
Principal component analysis shown in Table 5 reveals six variables that could give insights
into the perceptions of supporters about GLT. Each variable has factor loading >.4 and is
validated by Cronbach’s alpha (>.7). Participants do not particularly seem satisfied with GLT
(M=3.62; SD=1.66). On average, they enjoy the debate resulting from a contentious goal
(M=4.74; SD=1.58) and believe that the atmosphere is enhanced by a contentious goal being
awarded (M=4.34; SD=1.41). Average score for the enjoyment of referee’s human error is
neutral (M=3.95; SD=1.23). They do not favor GLT viewing in stadium (M=3.41; SD=1.36)
and are against the introduction of future aid decision technology (M=3.00; SD=1.45).
16
[Insert Table 6 about here]
The relationship between variables has been investigated using correlational analysis (Table
6). Negative significant correlational relationships are observed between ‘Satisfaction with
GLT’ and variables favouring contentious goals: enjoyment from referee’s error (r=-.28;
p<.01), atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal (r=-.57; p<.01) and enjoyment from debate
r=-.74; p<.01). These three variables are correlated with one another. Participants who enjoy
referees’ error, believe the atmosphere is enhanced by a contentious goal being awarded and
enjoy debating about contentious goal are dissatisfied with GLT. Positive significant
correlational relationships are observed between ‘Satisfaction with GLT’ and the introduction
of GLT viewing in stadium (r=.19; p<.01) and future decision-aid technology (r=.18; p<.01).
Negative significant correlational relationships are observed between ‘Enjoyment from
debate’ and ‘GLT viewing’ in the stadium (r=-.23; p<.01) and ‘Future decision-aid
technology’ (r=-.27; p<.01), while the two latter outcomes are positively correlated (r=.27;
p<.01). The more supporters enjoy debating after a football game, the less they seem to
favour GLT viewing in the stadium and the less they would welcome further decision-aid
technology in football.
[Insert Table 7 about here]
Significant differences appear when comparing average score of the different categories of
supporter on their enjoyment from referee’s error, GLT viewing in stadium and introduction
of future decision-aid technology in football (Table 7). Lowly identified supporters do enjoy
referees’ errors compared to moderate and highly identified supporters. Furthermore, lowly
identified supporters are more supportive of GLT viewing in stadium compared to highly
identified supporters, and they are less reluctant towards the introduction of decision-aid
technology in football compared to moderate and highly identified supporters. No significant
difference emerges between moderate and highly identified supporters.
17
[Insert Table 8 about here]
Table 8 shows the result of a multiple regression analysis predicting supporters’
(dis)satisfaction towards GLT by using control variables such as gender, age, number of
years supporters have supported their favourite team, whether they had a membership with
their favourite team and the number of times a season they watch their team at its home
stadium. The three variables favouring contentious goals, i.e. Enjoyment from referee’s error,
Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal and Enjoyment from debate, have been used to
predict supporters’ (dis)satisfaction. Model 3 (Table 8) predicts 58 percent of the variance in
supporters’ (dis)satisfaction through ‘Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal’ (r=-.25;
p<.001) and ‘Enjoyment from debate’ (r=-.65; p<.001). Dissatisfaction of supporters towards
GLT is thus partly explained by the fact that supporters enjoy the atmosphere resulting from
contentious goals and enjoy even more discussing this after a football game.
Discussion
The rigorous testing procedures put in place by FIFA, and its communication seemed to have
been effective given the high level of trust supporters have in the new decision-aid
technology and its proper use by referees. The ability of the technology to determine whether
the ball has crossed the line was not questioned by supporters.
Findings are in line with previous statements from FIFA69 arguing that supporters enjoy
debating. Furthermore, the more supporters enjoy the atmosphere resulting from contentious
goal and debate after the game, the more they seem to be dissatisfied with GLT.
Regression analysis has shown that the atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal and in
particular enjoyment from debate after the game play a significant role in explaining why
supporters might be dissatisfied with GLT. The present study supports Singh70 suggestion
that supporters would object to decision-aid technology in sport as it removes the enjoyment
18
of debating decisions. Indeed, a technology that predicts whether the ball has crossed the line
removes the debate during and after the game, and ultimately a key part of the football
supporter experience and satisfaction at sport event as suggested by researchers.71 Debate is
therefore an important component of supporters’ satisfaction at a sport event that is partially
removed by decision-aid technology. Many high profile instances, including Frank
Lampard’s disallowed goal at the 2010 World Cup, have been greeted with mixed receptions
surrounding the need for decision-aid technology. Although the match official made the
wrong decision, Nlandu72 argues that the controversy surrounding the decision enhanced
many football supporters enjoyment after the match. The introduction of GLT removes such
enjoyment and potentially influence sport spectator behaviour as suggested by Collins and
Evans.73
According to social identify theory,74 highly identified supporters are concerned about their
team best interests, whereas lowly identified supporters are more concerned about their self-
interest. Although it could have been expected that highly identified supporters might be
opposed to GLT75 as it removes part of their satisfaction and experience at a football game
which they value more than lowly identified supporters,76 no differences in supporters’
satisfaction towards GLT have been shown between groups of low, moderate and highly
identified supporters. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell’s suggestion that highly identified supporters
would have different satisfaction towards GLT compared to lowly identified supporters77 is
also not supported in the present research. However, we suggest that lowly identified
supporters have different expectations from football games. Lowly identified supporters
enjoy referees’ error more, are more in favour of GLT viewing in the stadium and of future
decision-aid technology in football as compared to moderate and/or highly identified
supporters. Lowly identified supporters are less emotionally attached to their team,78
19
therefore they attach less importance to victories. Referees’ error might hence be more
enjoyable to them as they are less concerned about the end result of the game compared to
moderate and highly identified supporters. At the same time, lowly identified supporters are
less opposed to GLT viewing and to the introduction of new technology in football. Results
suggest that supporters have different expectations from a sport event according to their level
of identification with the team they support. Fans and supporters who are highly identified to
their team would be traditionally focussed on the game and its result whereas flâneurs and
followers who are lowly identified to their team79 would like to be entertained with less
concern about the end result. Entertaining components of the games such as GLT viewing in
the stadium, which has been discouraged by Collins and Evans,80 would be favoured by the
latter. These findings can be placed in perspective with Carins81 who argued that the use of
technology and availability of screen viewing at live sporting event would alter the sport
spectatorship experience. However, we would suggest it mainly impacts those spectators who
do not have a strong attachment to either of the teams being watched. Further investigation
need to be undertaken to identify whether lowly identified supporters favour GLT for
entertainment purpose, which is not the aim of the technology but might be a deviant
consequence. Ryall82 believes that spectators at sports events have become fixated on
viewing replays on big screens such as in tennis and cricket and that football supporters will
be no different in terms of their demand for and reaction to technology in the stadium. The
present study shows, however, that supporters are, on average, against GLT viewing in the
stadium although differences exist between groups of supporters. Supporters who disfavour
GLT viewing in the stadium are also significantly less opened to the introduction of new
decision-aid technology. Interestingly, these supporters are less satisfied with GLT, in line
with Ryall83 who suggests that sports supporters will only be in favour of technology
broadcasting verdicts on a screen if they are primarily supportive of technology.
20
Lowly identified supporters enjoy wrong decisions made by referees which is a component of
the game satisfaction.84 Collins further suggests that the introduction of decision-aid
technology would remove the enjoyment of human error in decision making by referees, but
the present study does not support that notion that supporters’ dissatisfaction towards GLT
would be explained by enjoyment of referee’s error. Nevertheless, given supporters strong
opposition to future decision-aid technology in sport, especially moderate and highly
identified supporters, it could be argued that the introduction of more technology in football,
such as ‘offside’ or ‘penalty decision’, would lead not only to further eradication of referee
human error, but also to greater supporter dissatisfaction. FIFA therefore has to be cautious
that this is not the beginning of an up intensification of technology in football as warned of
by, for example, Michel Platini, the former head of UEFA. From GLT debut, UEFA has
strongly objected to the technology and, for some time, has taken a different approach by
only implementing match officials around the goal line, to finally surrender to the use of GLT
– alongside additional assistant referees around the penalty area– in European competitions
such as Euro 2016 and Champions League.85 As argued by Collins86, and supported by the
views of moderate and highly identified supporters in the present study, the introduction of
new decision-aid technology should not be aimed at entertaining, but to maintain justice of
decisions, which Collins87 argued is different from accuracy.
Conclusion
The present study contributes to the research on technological innovation in sport by
providing evidence of supporters’ perceptions on the introduction of decision-aid technology.
Although a majority of supporters trust the new decision-aid technology applied in football
and favours its use, evidence is provided that two key elements impact on supporters’
dissatisfaction of the technology, atmosphere resulting from contentious goals and the debate
21
that follows, both of which are partly removed by GLT and could ultimately lessen the
football supporters’ experience.
As a contribution to customer satisfaction and sport spectator behaviour at sport event,
enjoyment from debate has proved to be a strong element that explains dissatisfaction
towards GLT. We suggest that the introduction of decision-aid technology influences
supporters’ behaviour and satisfaction at sport event as it partially removes the debate they
enjoy. Further research needs to investigate the importance of debate in terms of match day
atmosphere and supporter satisfaction overall. At the same time, football supporters are
against GLT viewing in the stadium and do not welcome future decision-aid technology in
football. This result suggests that supporters do not accept any further alteration of the live
experience.
Contributing to social identity theory, a difference in game expectations has been highlighted
between types of supporters which would suggest that lowly identified supporters expect
more entertainment during games compared to highly identified supporters. Further research
would need to be undertaken in order to analyse differences in supporters’ expectations
according to their level of identification and the role of components of the game in supporter
satisfaction.
The present exploratory study is limited to Scottish supporters’ perceptions, and the sample
size has been limited to 270 supporters. Further research needs to be undertaken in other
countries and with a larger sample size. Ideally this should also include other key
stakeholders such as players, managers and referees. The time frame during which the study
22
has been undertaken (i.e. before the use of GLT at the 2014 World Cup) might also have
impacted the results.
Implications can be highlighted for FIFA, sport competition organisers and other sport
institutions such as International Sports Federations. FIFA has to understand that while it is
imperative to award a goal being scored, reducing any part of a supporter’s experience might
lessen the satisfaction they derive from the game. Although decision-aid technology may be
the answer for less controversy, the risk of reducing supporters’ enjoyment is very much
evident. Dissatisfied supporters may be less likely to attend matches88. Implementing match
officials around the goal line can minimise poor refereeing decisions, and at the same time
keep the atmosphere and debate valued by supporters.
Additionally, as noted by Collins89 decision-aid technology leads to false transparency as it is
less accurate than it appears. Sport spectators should be educated on how decisions are taken
with the use of the technology which might bring back the debate for supporters at live
events. Sport commentators could assume this educating role.
The balance between entertainment at games and use of the technology should be carefully
managed as supporters do not favour GLT viewing at the stadium and do not favour future
decision-aid technology, particularly moderate and highly identified supporters. Indeed, GLT
viewing also plays a part in removing the atmosphere from contentious goal. It is unlikely
that FIFA will in the near future go back on its decision to use GLT, and therefore care
should be taken using decision-aid technology so that it does not take much more importance
as compared to the game itself. Supporters’ live experience in stadium should not be altered
by technology moving closer to the experience one has at home watching a game at risk of
dissatisfying supporters at live events.
23
Findings from this study are to some extent applicable to other sports that have seen the
introduction of decision-aid technology such as Basketball, Cricket, Hockey, Rugby, and
Tennis. Although International Federations of these sports recognise the importance of
supporters at sport events, the latter are not consulted when these institutions consider the
introduction of new rules. We recommend a clear and transparent consultative process of key
stakeholders, including supporters, when considering changing rules that can alter supporters’
experience of games.
Notes
1. Collins and Evans, Public Understanding of Technology, 135.
2. Bal and Dureja, Hawk Eye, 107; Collins, Philosophy of Umpiring, 135; Collins and Evans,
Public Understanding of Technology, 135; Li, Lin, and Zhang, Hawkeye and Football
Development, 44; Nlandu, Goal-Line Technology in Soccer, 451; Royce, Refereeing and
Technology–Reflections, 53; Ryall, Arguments against Goal-Line Technology, 439.
3. Surujlal and Jordaan, Referees and technology in soccer, 245.
4. Collins and Evans, 2008, Public Understanding of Technology, 135.
5. Blatter, FIFA’s position on technology. Source:
https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/1819534/FIFA.com%20-
%20%20FIFA%E2%80%99s%20position%20on%20technology%20in%20football%20.htm
(accessed January 7, 2014).
6. Ibid.
7. BBC Sport, Blatter on Disallowed Goal. Source:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/8771294.stm (accessed October 21,
2013).
8. FIFA, IFAB on goal-line technology,
http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/media/news/newsid=1320761/ (accessed
May 22, 2015).
9. FIFA, Goal-Line Technology. Source: http://quality.fifa.com/en/Goal-Line-Technology/
(accessed May 22, 2015).
10. BBC Sport, Confederations Cup. Source:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22921076 (accessed October 21, 2013).
11. FIFA, Goal-Line Technology, http://quality.fifa.com/en/Goal-Line-Technology/
(accessed May 22, 2015).
24
12. FIFA, IFAB on goal-line technology,
http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/media/news/newsid=1320761/ (accessed
May 22, 2015).
13. Blatter, FIFA’s position on technology. Source:
https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/1819534/FIFA.com%20-
%20%20FIFA%E2%80%99s%20position%20on%20technology%20in%20football%20.htm
(accessed January 7, 2014).
14. Hunt, Bristol, and Bashaw, Classifying Sports Fans, 439.
15. Hogg, ‘Social identity theory’, 555; Turner, ‘Redefinition of the social group’, 15.
16. Albert, Ashforth, and Dutton, Organizational identity and identification, 13.
17. Haynes, The Football Imagination; Potter and Keene, Sports Fan Identification, 348.
18. Haynes, The Football Imagination
19. Hunt, Bristol, and Bashaw, Classifying Sports Fans, 439
20. Ibid.
21. Vallerand et al., Passion and Sports Fans, 1279.
22. Giulianotti, Taxonomy of spectator identities, 25.
23. Giulianotti, Taxonomy of spectator identities, 25.; Hunt, Bristol, and Bashaw, Classifying
Sports Fans, 439; Vallerand et al., Passion and Sports Fans, 1279.
24. Giulianotti, Taxonomy of spectator identities, 25.
25. Brickson, Identity orientation, 82; Leeuwen, Quick, and Daniel, Sport Spectator
Satisfaction Model, 99; Scott and Lane, Organizational identity, 43.
26. Trail and James, Sport Consumption Motivation Scale, 241.
27. Wann and Branscombe, Sports Fans, 1.
28. Fink and Parker, Spectator Motives, 210; Hoye and Lillis, Travel Motivations of Fans, 13;
Woo et al., Motives among football spectators, 38.
29. Gayton, Coffin, and Hearns, Sports Spectator Identification Scale, 1137; Jones, Football
Fandom, 123.
30. See Norris, Wann, and Zapalac, Sport fan maximizing, 157; Parry, Jones, and Wann,
Sport Fandom, 251.
31. Wann and Branscombe, Sports Fans, 1.
32. Gayton, Coffin, and Hearns, Sports Spectator Identification Scale, 1137; Jones, Football
Fandom, 123.
33. Hogg, ‘Social identity theory’, 555; Turner, ‘Redefinition of the social group’, 15.
34. McCollough, Berry, and Yadav, Customer satisfaction, 121; Patterson, Expectations and
product performance, 449.
25
35. Leeuwen, Quick, and Daniel, Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model, 99
36. Ibid.
37. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell, Fan Reactions to Game Outcomes, 15.
38. Leeuwen, Quick, and Daniel, Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model, 99
39. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell, Fan Reactions to Game Outcomes, 15.
40. Leeuwen, Quick, and Daniel, Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model, 99
41. Ibid.
42. Charleston, Determinants of Home Atmosphere, 1150; Uhrich and Benkenstein, Sport
Stadium Atmosphere, 211; Yoshida and James, Customer Satisfaction with Game, 338.
43. Charleston, Determinants of Home Atmosphere, 1150.
44. Uhrich and Benkenstein, Sport Stadium Atmosphere, 211
45. Ibid
46. FIFA, ‘Keeping Football Human’, 17.
47. Ibid
48. Li, Lin, and Zhang, Hawkeye and Football Development, 44; Singh, Level Playing Field,
81.
49. Ross, Sport Technology; Stone, Football in Everyday Life, 169.
50. Madrigal, Satisfaction with Sporting Event, 205.
51. Li, Lin, and Zhang, Hawkeye and Football Development, 44; Collins, Philosophy of
Umpiring, 135.
52. Ryall, Arguments against Goal-Line Technology, 439; Nlandu, Goal-Line Technology in
Soccer, 451.
53. Collins, Philosophy of Umpiring, 135.
54. Ryall, Arguments against Goal-Line Technology, 439.
55. Collins and Evans, 2008, Public Understanding of Technology, 135.
56. BBC Sport, 2014
57. Cairns, 2015, The hybridization of sight in sport, 745.
58. Ross, Sport Technology; Gillis (2001)
59. Bal and Dureja, Hawk Eye, 107
60. BBC Sport, 2016
26
61. by Football Fans Census, Goal Line Technology. Source:
http://www.footballfanscensus.com/FCBgoallinetech.pdf (accessed September 17, 2013);
YouGov, Goal Line Technology. Source:
http://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/n8btkavhir/YG-Archive-
210612-football-goal-line-technology.pdf (accessed October 18, 2013).
62. Hattrick Global Football Voice, Global Football Survey. Source:
http://www.sportindustry.biz/news/view/11194/over-half-of-england-fans-favour-goal-line-
tech (accessed October 4, 2013).
63. UEFA, UEFA backs Infantino for FIFA presidency. Source:
http://www.uefa.org/mediaservices/newsid=2325766.html (accessed May 2, 2016).
64. FIFA, GLT replays. Source: http://quality.fifa.com/en/Goal-Line-Technology/Install-
goal-line-technology/Replays (accessed May 2, 2016).
65. Gob, McCollin and Ramalhoto, Likert Scales, 601.
66. Wann and Branscombe, Sports Fans, 1.
67. Hu and Bentler, ‘Covariance structure analysis’, 1; Kline, Structural Equation Modeling.
68. Ibid.
69. FIFA, ‘Keeping Football Human’, 17.
70. Singh, Level Playing Field, 81.
71. Cairns, The hybridization of sight in sport, 745; Li, Lin, and Zhang, Hawkeye and
Football Development, 44; Stone, Football in Everyday Life, 169; Uhrich and Benkenstein,
Sport Stadium Atmosphere, 211; Ross, Sport Technology.
72. Nlandu, Goal-Line Technology in Soccer, 451.
73. Collins and Evans, 2008, Public Understanding of Technology, 135.
74. Hogg, ‘Social identity theory’, 555; Turner, ‘Redefinition of the social group’, 15.
75. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell, Fan Reactions to Game Outcomes, 15.
76. Leeuwen, Quick, and Daniel, Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model, 99; Ross, Sport
Technology; Stone, Football in Everyday Life, 169.
77. Dietz-Uhler and Murrell, Fan Reactions to Game Outcomes, 15.
78. Ibid.
79. Giulianotti, Taxonomy of spectator identities, 25.
80. Collins and Evans, Public Understanding of Technology, 135.
81. Cairns, The hybridization of sight in sport, 745
82. Ryall, Arguments against Goal-Line Technology, 439.
83. Ibid.
27
84. Uhrich and Benkenstein, Sport Stadium Atmosphere, 211; Collins, Philosophy of
Umpiring, 135
85. Platini, ‘GLT at Euro 2016'. Source: http://www.football.co.uk/fifa/platini-may-use-glt-
at-euro-2016/4514515/#ejdTdRDMUqFc4c83.97 (accessed May 1, 2015); UEFA, UEFA
backs Infantino for FIFA presidency. Source:
http://www.uefa.org/mediaservices/newsid=2325766.html (accessed May 2, 2016).
86. Collins, Philosophy of Umpiring, 135.
87. Ibid.
88. Madrigal, Satisfaction with Sporting Event, 205.
89. Collins, Philosophy of Umpiring, 135.
Bibliography
Albert, S., Ashforth, B.E., and Dutton, J.E. “Organizational identity and identification:
Charting new waters and building new bridges.” Academy of Management Review, 25
(2000): 13–17.
Bal, B., and Dureja, G. “Hawk Eye: A Logical Innovative Technology Use in Sports for
Effective Decision Making”. Sport Science Review, 15 (2012): 107-119.
BBC. “Goal-line technology Q&A”, BBC website.
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/17725886 (accessed June 1, 2015).
BBC Sport. “Blatter Apologises for Disallowed Goal”, BBC Sport website.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2010/8771294.stm (accessed on
January 21, 2013).
BBC Sport. “Confederations Cup: Goal-Line Technology ready for use”, BBC Sport website,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/22921076 (accessed October 21, 2013).
BBC Sport. “Gianni Infantino: Video referees 'to be used at 2018 World Cup'”, BBC Sport
website, http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/36085289 (accessed May 2, 2016)
BBC sport. “World Cup 2014: Goalline technology TV process reviewed”, BBC Sport website,
http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/football/27864393 (accessed December 31, 2014).
Blatter, S. “FIFA’s position on technology in football”, FIFA.com, 11 March. Available at
https://dl.dropboxusercontent.com/u/1819534/FIFA.com%20-
28
%20%20FIFA%E2%80%99s%20position%20on%20technology%20in%20football%20.
htm (accessed on January 1, 2014).
Brickson, S. “The impact of identity orientation on individual and organizational outcomes in
demographically diverse settings.” Academy of Management Review, 25 (2000): 82–101.
Cairns, G. “The hybridization of sight in the hybrid architecture of sport: the effects of
television on stadia and spectatorship.” Sport in Society, 18 (2015): 734-749.
Carifio, J., and Perla, R. “Resolving the 50-year Debate Around Using and Misusing Likert
Scales.” Medical Education, 42 (2008): 1150-1152.
Charleston, S. “Determinants of Home Atmosphere in English Football: A Committed
Supporter Perspective.” Journal of Sport Behaviour, 31 (2008): 312-328.
Collins, H. “The Philosophy of Umpiring and the Introduction of Decision-Aid Technology.”
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 37 (2010):135-146.
Collins, H., and Evans, R. “You cannot be Serious! Public Understanding of Technology with
Special Reference to Hawk-Eye.” Public Understanding of Science, 17 (2008): 283-308.
Dietz-Uhler, B., and Murrell, A. “Examining Fan Reactions to Game Outcomes: a
Longitudinal Study of Social Identity.” Journal of Sport Behaviour, 22 (1999): 15-27.
FIFA ‘Keeping Football Human’ FIFA World, 1, num. 10 (2010): 14-20.
FIFA “IFAB agrees to re-examine goal-line technology.”
http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/ifab/media/news/newsid=1320761/ (accessed
May 22, 2015).
FIFA “Goal-Line Technology.” http://quality.fifa.com/en/Goal-Line-Technology/ (accessed
May 22, 2015).
FIFA “Goal Line Technology replays.” http://quality.fifa.com/en/Goal-Line-
Technology/Install-goal-line-technology/Replays (accessed May 2, 2016).
Fink, J. S., and Parker, H. M. “Spectator Motives: Why do we watch when our Favourite
Team is not Playing?” Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18 (2009): 210-218.
29
Football Fans Census “Goal Line Technology.” Football Fans Census website,
http://www.footballfanscensus.com/FCBgoallinetech.pdf (accessed September 17, 2013).
Gayton, W. F., Coffin, J. L., and Hearns, J. “Further Validation of the Sports Spectator
Identification Scale.” Journal of Sport Psychology, 87 (1998): 1137 -1138.
Gillis, R. “Time for the Umpire to Strike back: Richard Gillis asks if the Debate on
Technology as an Aid to On-Field Decision Making has Shifted from "could we?" to
"should we?”’ Sports Business International, Vol. 1, No. 64 (2001): pp. 38-39.
Giulianotti, R. “Supporters, followers, fans, and flaneurs A taxonomy of spectator identities
in football.” Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 26 (2002): 25-46.
Gob, R., McCollin, C., and Ramalhoto, F. M. “Ordinal Methodology in the Analysis of
Likert Scales.” Quality and Quantity, 41 (2007): 601-626.
Hattrick Global Football Voice “Global Football Survey- Goal Line Technology”, Hattrick
Global Football Voice website, http://www.sportindustry.biz/news/view/11194/over-
half-of-england-fans-favour-goal-line-tech (accessed October 4, 2013).
Haynes, R. The Football Imagination: the Rise of Football Fanzine Culture, U.S.A: New
York Press, 1995.
Hogg, M.A. “Social identity theory.” In A.S.R. Manstead and M. Hewstone (Eds.), The
Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology (pp. 555–560). Oxford, England:
Blackwell, 1995.
Hoye, R., and Lillis, K. “Travel Motivations of Australian Football League Fans: an
Exploratory Study.” Managing Leisure, 13 (2008): 13-20.
Hu, L. T., and Bentler, P. M. “Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis:
Conventional criteria versus new alternatives.” Structural Equation Modeling: A
Multidisciplinary Journal, 6 (1999): 1-55.
30
Hunt, K. H., Bristol, T., and Bashaw, R. E. “A Conceptual Approach to Classifying Sports
Fans.” Journal of Services Marketing, 13 (1999): 439-542.
Jones, I. “Football Fandom: Football Fan Identity and Identification at Luton Town Football
Club.” Journal of Sport Marketing, 12 (1998): 123-135.
Kline, R. B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (3rd Ed). New York:
NY: The Guilford Press, 2011.
Leeuwen, V. L., Quick, S., and Daniel, K. “The Sport Spectator Satisfaction Model: A
Conceptual Framework for Understanding the Satisfaction of Spectators.” Sport
management Review, 5 (2002): 99-128.
Li, Z.Z., Lin, B.P., and Zhang, Z. “Influence of Hawkeye System on Football Development.”
Journal of Guangzhou Physical Education Institute, 1 (2011): 44-65.
Madrigal, R. “Cognitive and Affect Determinants of Fan Satisfaction with Sporting Event
Attendance.” Journal of Leisure Research, 27 (1995): 205-227.
McCollough, M.A., Berry, L.L., and Yadav, M.S. “An empirical investigation of customer
satisfaction after service failure and recovery.” Journal of Service Research, 3 (2000):
121–137.
Nlandu, T. “The Fallacies of the Assumptions Behind the Arguments for Goal-Line
Technology in Soccer.” Sports, Ethics and Philosophy, 6 (2012): 451-466.
Norris, J. I., Wann, D. L., and Zapalac, R. K. “Sport fan maximizing: following the best team
or being the best fan?” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 32 (2015): 157-166.
Parry, K. D., Jones, I., and Wann, D. L. “An Examination of Sport Fandom in the United
Kingdom: A Comparative Analysis of Fan Behaviors, Socialization Processes, and Team
Identification.” Journal of Sport Behavior, 37 (2014): 251-267.
Patterson, P.G. “Expectations and product performance as determinants of satisfaction for a
high-involvement purchase.” Psychology and Marketing, 10 (1993): 449–465.
31
Platini, M. “Platini 'may use GLT at Euro 2016'” http://www.football.co.uk/fifa/platini-may-
use-glt-at-euro-2016/4514515/#ejdTdRDMUqFc4c83.97 (accessed May 1, 2015).
Potter, R.F., and Keene, J.R. “Effect of Sports Fan Identification on the Cognitive Processing
of Sports News.” International Journal of Sport Communication, 5 (2012): 348-367.
Rice, W. R. “Analysing Tables of Statistical Tests.” Journal of Evolution, 43 (1989): 201-
223.
Ross, S. Sport Technology, London: Evan Brothers, 2010.
Royce, R. “Refereeing and Technology–Reflections on Collins’ Proposals.” Journal of the
Philosophy of Sport, 39 (2012): 53-64.
Ryall, E. “Are there any Good Arguments against Goal Line Technology?” Journal of Sport,
Ethics and Philosophy, 6 (2012): 439-450.
Scott, S.G., and Lane, V.R. “A stakeholder approach to organizational identity.” Academy of
Management Review, 25 (2000): 43–62.
Singh, H. “In Search of a Level Playing Field: Rules, Morals and the Jurisprudence of Sport.”
International Journal of Sport and Society, 3 (2012): 81-100.
Stone, C. “The Role of Football in Everyday Life.” Soccer and Society, 8 (2007): 169-184.
Surujlal, J., and Jordaan, D. B. “Goal line technology in soccer: are referees ready for
technology in decision making?: technology and innovation.” African Journal for
Physical Health Education, Recreation and Dance, 19 (2013): 245-257.
Trail, G. T. and James, J. “Motivation Scale for Sport Consumption: Assessment of the
Scale's Psychometric Properties.” Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24 (2001): 241-256.
Turner, J.C. “Towards a cognitive redefinition of the social group.” In H. Tajfel (Ed.),
Social identity and intergroup relations (pp. 15–40). London, England: Cambridge
University Press, 1982.
UEFA “UEFA Executive Committee unanimously backs Gianni Infantino for FIFA
presidency.” http://www.uefa.org/mediaservices/newsid=2325766.html (accessed May 2,
2016).
32
Uhrich, S., and Benkenstein, M. “Sport Stadium Atmosphere: Formative and Reflective
Indicators for Operationalizing the Construct.” Journal of Sport Management, 24
(2010) : 211-237.
Vallerand, R. J., Ntoumanis, N., Philippe, F. L., Lavigne, G. L. Carbonneau, N.,
Bonneville, A., Lagace, C., et al. “On Passion and Sports Fans: A look at Football.”
Journal of Sport Sciences, 26 (2008): 1279-1287.
Wann, D. L., and Branscombe, N. R. “Sports Fans: Measuring Degree of Identification with
the Team.” International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24 (1993): 1-17.
Woo, B., Trail, G. T., Kwon, H. H., and Anderson, D. “Testing Models of Motives and Points
of Attachment among Spectators in College Football.” Sport Marketing Quarterly, 18
(2009): 38-41.
Yoshida, M., and James, J. D. “Customer Satisfaction with Game and Service Experiences:
Antecedents and Consequences.” Journal of Sport management, 24 (2010): 338-361.
YouGov “What the World Thinks- Goal Line Technology”, YouGov website,
http://d25d2506sfb94s.cloudfront.net/cumulus_uploads/document/n8btkavhir/YG-
Archive-210612-football-goal-line-technology.pdf (accessed October 18, 2013).
33
Table 1: Profile of the Respondents (N=270). Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 193 71.5
Female 77 28.5
Age
18-25 48 17.8
26-33 60 22.2
34-41 52 19.3
42-49 41 15.2
50-59 29 10.7
60-69 27 10.0
70+ 13 4.8
Number of years supporting the favourite team
Up to 10 28 10.4
11-20 93 34.4
21-30 82 30.4
31-40 49 18.1
41+ 18 6.7
Membership with the favorite team
Yes 148 54.8
No 122 45.2
Number of time a season watch the favorite team
at the stadium
None 31 11.5
1- 5 89 33.0
6-10 57 21.1
11-15 47 17.4
16+ 46 17.0
Table 2: Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the fan identification model on 7pt Likert
scale (N = 270) Factor
Loadings
Cronbach’s
alpha
Mean SD
Fan identification model .91 4.09 1.48
I am very interested in what others think about
my football team
.82
The football team’s successes are my successes .81
When someone praises my football team, it feels
like a personal compliment
.80
When someone criticizes my football team, it
feels like an insult
.77
I wear my sports teams clothing as much as
possible
.74
I strongly dislike my team’s rivals .69
If a story in the media criticized my football
team, I would feel embarrassed
.69
Note. All factor loadings are statistically significant (p<.001).
Model fit indices (CFA): χ2/df= 1.6 ; CFI= .994 ; RMSEA= .047
34
Table 3: Fan identification type (N=270). Frequency Percent
Lowly identified supporters (3 or fewer) 62 23
Moderate identified supporters (between 3
and 5)
142 52.6
Highly identified supporters (5 or higher) 66 24.4
Note: Fan identification scale is measured on a 7pt Likert scale
Table 4: Supporters’ perceptions (%) on Goal Line Technology (GLT) (N = 270)
Yes No DNK
GLT is accurate? 93 1.5 5.6
Trust referees to use GLT properly? 74.4 18.1 7.4
Trust referees to make correct decision using GLT? 88.5 5.2 6.3
In favour of GLT? 66.3 30 3.7
Table 5: Exploratory factor analysis (PCA) and factors’ mean (N = 270) Range of
items’ factor
loadings
Cronbach’s
alpha
Mean SD
Satisfaction with GLT (5 items) .84 - .87 .97 3.62 1.66
Enjoyment from referee’s error (5 items) .85 - .90 .94 3.95 1.23
Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal (4 items) .80 - .84 .96 4.34 1.41
Enjoyment from debate (5 items) .82 - .85 .98 4.74 1.58
GLT viewing in the stadium (5 items) .88 - .92 .95 3.41 1.36
Future decision-aid technology (4 items) .90 - .93 .95 3.00 1.45 Note. Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization (Rotation converged in 6 iterations)
87.3% of variance is explained
GLT: Goal Line Technology
Table 6: Correlational analysis between variables (N = 270) D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
D1: Satisfaction with GLT
D2: Enjoyment from referee’s error -.28**
D3: Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal -.57** .49**
D4: Enjoyment from debate -.74** .27** .57**
D5: GLT viewing in the stadium .19** -.08 -.11 -.23**
D6: Future decision-aid technology .18** -.03 -.12 -.27** .27**
** p<.01
35
Table 7: Results of the ANOVAs
Enjoyment from
referee’s error
GLT viewing in
the stadium
Future decision-
aid technology
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Lowly identified supporters 4.45 1.34 3.75 a 1.37 3.47 1.78
Moderate identified
supporters 3.75a 1.18 3.37 a,b 1.37
2.91 a 1.32
Highly identified
supporters 3.90 a 1.13 3.18 b 1.36
2.75 a 1.28
Significance level * * *
Total 3.95 1.23 3.41 1.36 3.00 1.45
Note. SD: Standard deviation a and b indicate the result of a Tukey's post-hoc test.
Clusters with the same letter in superscript do not significantly differ.
* p<.05
Table 8: Hierarchical multiple regression (n=270) predicting football supporters satisfaction
towards Goal Line Technology from referee’s error, atmosphere and debate.
Predictor variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
Gender -.01 -.03 -.01
Age -.05 -.06 .05
Years supporters .01 .001
Membership with team .02 .08
Frequency watching at the stadium .01 -.002
Enjoyment from referee’s error -.02
Atmosphere enhanced by contentious goal -.25***
Enjoyment from debate -.65***
R2 .00 .01 .58
R2 change .00 .01 .57
Significance of F Change .96 .72 <.001
*** p<.001