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Motivation
Concepts
What Is Motivation?What Is Motivation?
Direction
PersistenceIntensity
Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Key Elements
1. Intensity: How hard a person tries
2. Direction: Toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: How long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
What Is Motivation? What Is Motivation?
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
E X H I B I T 6–1E X H I B I T 6–1
Lower-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs
Higher-Order Needs
Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem,
and self-actualization needs
Self
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Assumptions of Maslow’s HierarchyAssumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement Up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Maslow Application
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order.
Theory XManagers See Workers as…
Theory XManagers See Workers as…
Disliking WorkDisliking Work
Avoiding ResponsibilityAvoiding Responsibility
Having Little AmbitionHaving Little Ambition
Theory Y Managers See Workers as…
Theory Y Managers See Workers as…
Enjoying WorkEnjoying Work
Accepting ResponsibilityAccepting Responsibility
Self-DirectedSelf-Directed
Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Bottom Line: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites of the same thing!
Separate Constructs– Hygiene Factors—Extrinsic
and Related to Dissatisfaction
– Motivation Factors—Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
Hygiene Factors
•Salary
•Work Conditions
•Company Policies
Hygiene Factors
•Salary
•Work Conditions
•Company Policies
Motivators
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
Motivators
•Achievement
•Responsibility
•Growth
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job dissatisfaction
Factors characterizing events on the job that
led to extreme job satisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–2E X H I B I T 6–2
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction
E X H I B I T 6–3E X H I B I T 6–3
David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Bottom Line
Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas,
and those levels will drive their behavior.
Bottom Line
Individuals have different levels of needs in each of these areas,
and those levels will drive their behavior.
Matching High Achievers and JobsMatching High Achievers and Jobs
E X H I B I T 6–4E X H I B I T 6–4
Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation
The theory may be relevant only to jobs that are neither extremely dull nor extremely interesting. Hint: For this theory,
think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
Hint: For this theory, think about how fun it is to read in the summer, but once reading is assigned to you for a grade, you don’t want to do it!
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
But, the relationship between goals and performance will depend on:
•Goal commitment
–“I want to do it & I can do it”
•Task characteristics (simple, well-learned)
•National culture
Self-EfficacySelf-Efficacy
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves
Self-esteem, which is:
Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)
•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved
Not to be confused with:
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Assumptions:
• Behavior is environmentally caused.
• Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
• Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside
Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 6–8E X H I B I T 6–8
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
1. Change inputs (slack off)
2. Change outcomes (increase output)
3. Distort/change perceptions of self
4. Distort/change perceptions of others
5. Choose a different referent person
6. Leave the field (quit the job)
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.
Ethical Values and Ethical Values and Behaviors of Behaviors of
LeadersLeaders
Bottom Line
All three links between the boxes must be intact or motivation will not occur. Thus,
• Individuals must feel that if they try, they can perform and• If they perform, they will be rewarded and• When they are rewarded, the reward will be something they
care about.
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each morning
saying, “Bet you wish you didn’t have to be here,
huh?” Knowing this, which theory gives us insight
as to why Elizabeth may not be motivated at work?
Chapter Check-up: MotivationChapter Check-up: Motivation
Elizabeth’s boss my well be a Theory X
manager, as she/he assumes employees
don’t like work and/or want to be there.
Chapter Check-up: MotivationChapter Check-up: Motivation
If you study really hard and
only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?
If you study really hard and
only get a B on an exam, but
your classmate barely studies
at all and gets an A, what
theory will help explain why
you feel less motivated to go
to class?
Chapter Check-up: MotivationChapter Check-up: Motivation
Putting It All Together Putting It All Together