Motivation in Theory

8/7/2019 Motivation in Theory

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motivat ion in theory - introduct ion

What is Motivation?

Buchanan defines motivation as follows:

"Motivation is a decision-making process, throughwhich the individual chooses the desired outcomesand sets in motion the behaviour appropriate tothem".

How does motivation differ from "motives"

Buchanan defines motives as:

"learned influences on human behaviour that leadus to pursue particular goals because they arevalued".

Motivation can therefore be thought of as the degree

to which an individual wants AND chooses to engagein certain behaviours.

For example: are you motivated to study? Theanswer lies in whether you

(1) Want to study - what are the reasons, if so?

(2) Choose to study? - Why are you reading theserevision notes? What factors mean that you havetaken the decision to study? How much effort do youput in?


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Individual behaviour is at the heart of humanmotivation

Why is individual behaviour so important in trying to

understand and then influence motivation?

- Every individual has a set ofneeds and a differentset ofgoals

- Individuals behave in a way as to satisfy their needsand fulfil their goals

- Therefore, individuals behave differently!

- Businesses, as organisations, are in a position tooffer some of the satisfactions that individuals seek:

E.g. - Relationships; sense of belonging; intellectualstimulation; mental & physical challenge; self-development

Why is motivation important for businesses?

It is often said that the best businesses have the bestmotivated workers. Why might this be important?Because well-motivated employees are usuallycharacterised by:

- Higher productivity (i.e. they produce more for agiven level of resources than poorly-motivatedworkers)

- Better quality work with less wastage


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- A greater sense of urgency (things happen quicker -when they need to)

- More employee feedback and suggestions made for

improvements (motivated workers take more"ownership" of their work")

- More feedback demanded from superiors andmanagement

- Working at 80-95% of their ability

motivat ion in theory - herzberg twofactor theory

Introduction

Herzberg's Two Factor Theory is a "content theory" ofmotivation" (the other main one is Maslow'sHierarchy of Needs).

Herzberg analysed the job attitudes of 200accountants and engineers who were asked to recallwhen they had felt positive or negative at work andthe reasons why.

From this research, Herzberg suggested a two-stepapproach to understanding employee motivation and

satisfaction:
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Hygiene Factors

Hygiene factors are based on the need to for abusiness to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these

factors are considered inadequate by employees,then they can cause dissatisfaction with work.Hygiene factors include:

- Company policy and administration

- Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration

- Quality of supervision

- Quality of inter-personal relations

- Working conditions

- Feelings of job security


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Motivator Factors

Motivator factors are based on an individual's needfor personal growth. When they exist, motivator

factors actively create job satisfaction. If they areeffective, then they can motivate an individual toachieve above-average performance and effort.Motivator factors include:

- Status

- Opportunity for advancement

- Gaining recognition

- Responsibility

- Challenging / stimulating work

- Sense of personal achievement & personal growth

in a job

There is some similarity between Herzberg's andMaslow's models. They both suggest that needs haveto be satisfied for the employee to be motivated.However, Herzberg argues that only the higher levelsof the Maslow Hierarchy (e.g. self-actualisation,esteem needs) act as a motivator. The remaining

needs can only cause dissatisfaction if notaddressed.

Applying Hertzberg's model to de-motivatedworkers


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What might the evidence of de-motivated employeesbe in a business?

- Low productivity

- Poor production or service quality

- Strikes / industrial disputes / breakdowns inemployee communication and relationships

- Complaints about pay and working conditions

According to Herzberg, management should focus onrearranging work so that motivator factors can takeeffect. He suggested three ways in which this couldbe done:

- Job enlargement

- Job rotation

- Job enrichment

motivat ion in theory - maslow'shierarchy of needs

Introduction

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a "content theory" of

motivation" (the other main one is Herzberg's TwoFactor Theory).

Maslow's theory consisted of two parts:

(1) The classification of human needs, and
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(2) Consideration of how the classes are related toeach other

The classes of needs were summarised by Maslow as

follows:

How does the Hierarchy Work?

- A person starts at the bottom of the hierarchy(pyramid) and will initially seek to satisfy basicneeds (e.g. food, shelter)

- Once these physiological needs have been satisfied,they are no longer a motivator. the individual movesup to the next level

- Safety needs at work could include physical safety(e.g. protective clothing) as well as protection


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against unemployment, loss of income throughsickness etc)

- Social needs recognise that most people want to

belong to a group. These would include the need forlove and belonging (e.g. working with colleague whosupport you at work, teamwork, communication)

- Esteem needs are about being given recognition fora job well done. They reflect the fact that manypeople seek the esteem and respect of others. A

promotion at work might achieve this- Self-actualisation is about how people think aboutthemselves - this is often measured by the extent ofsuccess and/or challenge at work

Maslow's model has great potential appeal in thebusiness world. The message is clear - if

management can find out which level each employeehas reached, then they can decide on suitablerewards.

Problems with the Maslow Model

There are several problems with the Maslow modelwhen real-life working practice is considered:

- Individual behaviour seems to respond to severalneeds - not just one


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- The same need (e.g. the need to interact sociallyat work) may cause quite different behaviour indifferent individuals

- There is a problem in deciding when a level hasactually been "satisfied"

- The model ignores the often-observed behaviour ofindividuals who tolerate low-pay for the promise offuture benefits

- There is little empirical evidence to support themodel. Some critics suggest that Maslow's model isonly really relevant to understanding the behaviourof middle-class workers in the UK and the USA(where Maslow undertook his research).

motivat ion in theory - tay lor - sc ient i f icmanagement

Introduction

Taylor developed his theory of "scientificmanagement" as he worked his way up from alabourer to a works manager in a US steelworks.

From his observations, Taylor made three keyassumptions about human behaviour at work:

(1) Man is a rational economic animal concernedwith maximising his economic gain;

(2) People respond as individuals, not as groups


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(3) People can be treated in a standardised fashion,like machines

Taylor had a simple view about what motivated

people at work - money. He felt that workers shouldget a fair day's pay for a fair day's work, and thatpay should be linked to the amount produced (e.g.piece-rates). Workers who did not deliver a fair day'swork would be paid less (or nothing). Workers whodid more than a fair day's work (e.g. exceeded thetarget) would be paid more.

The implications of Taylor's theory for managingbehaviour at work were:

- The main form of motivation is high wages, linkedto output

- A manager's job is to tell employees what to do

- A worker's job is to do what they are told and getpaid accordingly

Weaknesses in Taylor's Approach

The most obvious weakness in Taylor's approach isthat it ignores the many differences betweenpeople. There is no guarantee that a "best way" willsuit everyone.

Secondly, whilst money is an important motivationat work for many people, it isn't for everyone. Taylor
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overlooked the fact that people work for reasonsother than financial reward.

motivat ion in theory - mcgregor - theory

x and theory y

Introduction

McGregor developed two theories of humanbehaviour at work: Theory and X and Theory Y.

He did not imply that workers would be one type or

the other. Rather, he saw the two theories as twoextremes - with a whole spectrum of possiblebehaviours in between.

Theory X workers could be described as follows:

- Individuals who dislike work and avoid it wherepossible

- Individuals who lack ambition, dislike responsibilityand prefer to be led

- Individuals who desire security

The management implications for Theory X workerswere that, to achieve organisational objectives, a

business would need to impose a managementsystem of coercion, control and punishment.

Theory Y workers were characterised by McGregoras:


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- Consider effort at work as just like rest or play

- Ordinary people who do not dislike work.Depending on the working conditions, work could be

considered a source of satisfaction or punishment

- Individuals who seek responsibility (if they aremotivated0

The management implications for Theory X workersare that, to achieve organisational objectives,rewards of varying kinds are likely to be the mostpopular motivator. The challenge for managementwith Theory Y workers is to create a workingenvironment (or culture) where workers can showand develop their creativity.

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Motivation in Theory