Motivation is the Psychological Feature That Arouses an Organism to Action Toward a Desired Goal and Elicits

7/31/2019 Motivation is the Psychological Feature That Arouses an Organism to Action Toward a Desired Goal and Elicits

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Motivation is the psychological feature that arouses an organism to action toward a desired goal

and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. For instance: An individual hasnot eaten, he or she feels hungry, and as a response he or she eats and diminishes feelings of

hunger. There are many approaches to motivation: physiological, behavioural, cognitive, and

social. It is the crucial element in setting and attaining goals and research shows that subjects can

influence their own levels of motivation and self-control. According to various theories,motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure, or it

may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a desired object, goal, state of being,

ideal or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as altruism,selfishness,morality, oravoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation is distinct fromvolitionand optimism. Motivation

is related to, but distinct from,emotion.

Brief history

At one time, employees were considered just another input into the production of goods and

services.[4]

But this changed after the Hawthorne Studies The Hawthorne studies were conducted

byElton Mayoat Hawthorne Plant in the 1920s. The researchers were studying the effect ofdifferent working environments on productivity. They used lighting as an experimental variable(the effect of bright lighting and dull lighting). Initially they noticed that employees were

working harder but it was not because of the lighting. They concluded that productivity increased

due to attention that the workers got from the research team and not because of changes to theexperimental variable. Hawthorne studies found that employees are not motivated solely by

money but motivation is linked to employee behaviour and their attitudes.[5]

The Hawthorne

Studies began the human relations approach to management, so the needs and motivation ofemployees became the primary focus of managers.

Motivation concepts

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
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Motivational poster

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task

itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic

motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than working towards an external

reward.

[6]

Intrinsic motivation has been studied bysocialandeducationalpsychologists since theearly 1970s. Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task

willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.[7]

Studentsare likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known asautonomy,

believe they have the skill that will allow them to be effective agents in reaching desiredgoals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck),

are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome,which then contradicts intrinsic motivation. It is widely believed that motivation performs two

functions. The first is often referred as to the energetic activation component of the motivation

construct. The second is directed at a specific behaviour and makes reference to the orientation

directional component. Motives can be divided into two types: external and internal. Internalmotives are considered as the needs that every human being experience, while external indicate

the presence of specific situations where these needs arise.[8]

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead tooverjustification

and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,

children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing

pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations thanchildren who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition.[9]For those children who

received no extrinsic reward,self-determination theoryproposes that extrinsic motivation can be

internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps tofulfill their basic psychological needs.

Push and Pull

This section does notciteanyreferences or sources.(July 2012)

This model is usually used when discussing motivation within tourism context, so the mostattention in gastronomic tourism research should be dedicated to this theory. Pull factors

illustrate the choices of destinations by tourists, whereas push factors determine the desire to goon holiday. Moreover, push motives are connected with internal forces for example need for

relaxation or escapism and pull factors in turn induce a traveller to visit certain location by

external forces such as landscape, culture image or climate of a destination. Dann also highlightsthe fact that push factors can be stimulated by external and situational aspects of motivation in

shape of pull factors. Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and
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therefore push an individual to choose to experience it. Since, a huge number of theories have

been developed over the years in many studies there is no single theory that illustrates allmotivational aspects of travelling. Many researchers highlighted that because motives may occur

at the same time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to perform

an action as it was presumed in previous studies. On the other hand, since people are not able to

satisfy all their needs at once they usually seek to satisfy some or a few of them.

Self-control

The self-control of motivation is increasingly understood as a subset ofemotional intelligence; a

person may be highly intelligent according to a more conservative definition (as measured by

manyintelligence tests), yet unmotivated to dedicate this intelligence to certain tasks.YaleSchool of ManagementprofessorVictor Vroom's "expectancy theory" provides an account of

when people will decide whether to exert self control to pursue a particular goal.

Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed

at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may notrequire external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies

such as hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be thedesire for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to

others.

By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training

animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates theanimals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.

Motivational theories

Incentive theory

Areward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior)

with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done byassociatingpositive meaningto the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect is

greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the

action to becomehabit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. Thesetwo sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.

Reinforcers and reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct of

reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that increases the futurefrequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the cognitive approach is certainly the way

forward as in 1973 Maslow described it as being the golden pineapple. Positive reinforcement is

demonstrated by an increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the pastbeing followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement involves stimulus

change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus following a response. Positive

reinforcement involves a stimulus change consisting of the presentation or magnification of anappetitive stimulus following a response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by
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environmental events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces is

irrelevant.

Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes

that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the

process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals.

Incentive theory inpsychologytreats motivation andbehaviorof the individual as they areinfluenced bybeliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive

theory is promoted bybehavioral psychologists, such asB.F. Skinnerand literalized by

behaviorists, especially by Skinner in hisphilosophyofRadical behaviorism, to mean that aperson's actions always havesocialramifications: and if actions are positively received people

are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this

manner.

Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such asdrive theory, in the

direction of the motivation. In incentive theory,stimuli"attract", to use the term above, a persontowards them. As opposed to the body seeking to reestablishhomeostasispushing it towards the

stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involvespositive reinforcement: the stimulus

has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows that eatingfood,

drinkingwater, or gainingsocial capitalwill make them happier. As opposed to in drive theory,which involvesnegative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the

punishment-- the lack ofhomeostasisin the body. For example, a person has come to know that

if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling ofhunger, or if they drink whenthirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.

Escape-seeking dichotomy model

Escapism and seeking are major factors influencing decision making. Escapism is a need to

breakaway from a daily life routine whereas seeking is described as the desire to learn, gain

some inner benefits through travelling. Both motivations have some interpersonal and personalfacets for example individuals would like to escape from family problems (personal) or from

problems with work colleagues (interpersonal). This model can also be easily adapted with

regard to different studies.

Drive-reduction theory

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept

that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the driveincreases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength

is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories ofFreudto the ideas offeedbackcontrol systems, such as athermostat.

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drivemodel appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and,

after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems,
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however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it

does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money satisfies nobiological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order

conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to eat, making the

drive ahomuncularbeinga feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem

behind this "small man" and his desires.

In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of behavior, or ahungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food before he finished cooking it.

The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by

adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, whichcombine with drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render it hard to test.

Cognitive dissonance theory

Suggested byLeon Festinger,cognitive dissonanceoccurs when an individual experiences some

degree of discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on theworld around them, and their own personal feelings and actions. For example, a consumer may

seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may

have been preferable. His feeling that another purchase would have been preferable is

inconsistent with his action of purchasing the item. The difference between his feelings andbeliefs causes dissonance, so he seeks to reassure himself.

While not a theory of motivation, per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that peoplehave amotivational driveto reduce dissonance. Thecognitive miserperspective makes people

want to justify things in a simple way in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They

do this by changing their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies,

because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying, blaming, anddenying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied theories insocial psychology.

Need theories

Motivation, as defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to

maximize the satisfaction of needs.[10]

Need hierarchy theory

Thecontent theoryincludes the hierarchy of needs fromAbraham Maslowand the two- factor

theory fromHerzberg. Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories ofmotivation.

The American motivation psychologist Abraham H. Maslow developed the Hierarchy of needsconsistent of five hierarchic classes. It shows the complexity of human requirements. According

to him, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs. The lower level needs such as Physiological

and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to be addressed. We can

relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. For example, if a manager
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is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to Maslow, he should try

to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level needs or the employeeswill not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will be satisfied by the same

needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are active for a certain

individual or employee. The basic requirements build the first step in his pyramid. If there is any

deficit on this level, the whole behavior of a human will be oriented to satisfy this deficit.Subsequently we do have the second level, which awake a need for security. Basically it is

oriented on a future need for security. After securing those two levels, the motives shift in the

social sphere, which form the third stage. Psychological requirements consist in the fourth level,while the top of the hierarchy comprise the self- realization So theory can be summarized as

follows:

Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfiedneeds influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.

Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to thecomplex.

The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at leastminimally satisfied.

The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness andpsychological health a person will show.

The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:

Physiology(hunger, thirst, sleep, etc.) Safety/Security/Shelter/Health Belongingness/Love/Friendship Self-esteem/Recognition/Achievement

Self actualization

Herzberg's two-factor theory

Frederick Herzberg'stwo-factor theory, a.k.a. intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, concludes that

certain factors in the workplace result injob satisfaction, but if absent, they don't lead todissatisfaction but no satisfaction.The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime,

but "respect for me as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.

He distinguished between:

Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give positivesatisfaction, and

Hygiene factors; (e.g. status,job security,salaryand fringe benefits) that do not motivateif present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.

The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you

healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.
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The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory" and/or "The Dual Structure

Theory."

Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as information systems and

in studies of user satisfaction (seeComputer user satisfaction).

Alderfer's ERG theory

Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created theERG theory. This theory posits

that there are three groups of core needsexistence, relatedness, and growth, hence the label:ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence

requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety

needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining

important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction withothers if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external

component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs' an

intrinsic desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow'sesteem category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.

Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory, developed byEdward Deciand Richard Ryan, focuses on the

importance ofintrinsic motivationin driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theoryand others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development.

Unlike these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for

achievement, but instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary

factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and

relatedness.

Broad theories

The latest approach in developing a broad, integrative theory of motivation is Temporal

Motivation Theory(TMT).[11]

Introduced in a 2007Academy of Management Review article, itsynthesizes into a single formulation the primary aspects (including time as a fundamental

term)[12]

of several other major motivational theories, including Incentive Theory, Drive Theory,

Need Theory, Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting. The original researchers note that, in an effort tokeep the theory simple, existing theories to integrate were selected based on their shared

attributes, and that these theories are still of value, as TMT does not contain the same depth of

detail as each individual theory. However, it still simplifies the field of motivation and allowsfindings from one theory to be translated into terms of another.

Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective based on the premise that performance

motivation results from the way broad components of personality are directed towardsperformance. As a result, it includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work

but which are not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. Especially it

integrates formerly separated approaches as Need for Achievement with, for example, social
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motives like dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory is based on this theory and

assesses three factors (in 17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.

Cognitive theories

Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theoryis based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach aclearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected

by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. Good goal setting incorporates the

SMART criteria, in which goals are: specific, measurable, accurate, realistic, and timely. Anideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the

end state is close. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a

bike than to masteralgebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In

both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumessome kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a

substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal intheir class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic

example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have noidea how much effort they need to reach that goal.

Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation andvolition.

Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral intentions. Volition is seenas a process that leads from intention to actual behavior. In other words, motivation and volition

refer to goal setting and goal pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts.

Several self-regulatory constructs are needed to operate inorchestrationto attain goals. Anexample of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceivedself-efficacy. Self-efficacyis supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the development of action plans,

and the initiation of action. It can support the translation of intentions into action.

Unconscious motivation

Somepsychologistsbelieve that a significant portion of human behavior is energized anddirected by unconscious motives. According toMaslow, "Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated

that the relationship between a conscious desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underliesit need not be at all direct."

Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has proposed atheory that found 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.[13][14]The 16 basic

desires that motivate our actions and define our personalities as:

Acceptance, the need for approval
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Curiosity, the need to learn Eating, the need for food Family, the need to raise children Honor, the need to be loyal to the traditional values of one's clan/ethnic group Idealism, the need for social justice

Independence, the need for individuality Order, the need for organized, stable, predictable environments Physical activity, the need for exercise Power, the need for influence of will Romance, the need for sex Saving, the need to collect Social contact, the need for friends (peer relationships) Social status, the need for social standing/importance Tranquility, the need to be safe Vengeance, the need to strike back/to win

In this model, people differ in these basic desires. These basic desires represent intrinsic desiresthat directly motivate a person's behavior, and not aimed at indirectly satisfying other desires.

People may also be motivated by non-basic desires, but in this case this does not relate to deepmotivation, or only as a means to achieve other basic desires.

Controlling motivation

This section does notciteanyreferences or sources.(February 2010)

The control of motivation is only understood to a limited extent. There are many differentapproaches ofmotivation training, but many of these are consideredpseudoscientificby critics.

To understand how to control motivation it is first necessary to understand why many peoplelack motivation.

Employee motivation

See also:Work motivation

Workers in any organization need something to keep them working. Most of the time, the salary

of the employee is enough to keep him or her working for an organization. An employee must be

motivated to work for a company or organization. If no motivation is present in an employee,then that employees quality of work or all work in general will deteriorate.

When motivating an audience, you can use general motivational strategies or specificmotivational appeals. General motivational strategies include soft sell versus hard sell and

personality type. Soft sell strategies have logical appeals, emotional appeals, advice and praise.

Hard sell strategies have barter, outnumbering, pressure and rank. Also, you can consider basing
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your strategy on your audience personality. Specific motivational appeals focus on provable

facts, feelings, right and wrong, audience rewards and audiencethreats.[15]

Job Characteristics Model

See also:Work motivationandJob satisfaction

TheJob Characteristics Model(JCM), as designed by Hackman and Oldham[16]attempts to use

job design to improve employee motivation. They have identified that any job can be described

in terms of five key job characteristics;

1. Skill Variety - the degree to which a job requires different skills and talents to complete a

number of different activities

2. Task Identity - this dimension refers to the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of

work versus a partial task as part of a larger piece of work

3. Task Significance - is the impact of the task upon the lives or work of others

4. Autonomy - is the degree of independence or freedom allowed to complete a job

5. Task Feedback - individually obtaining direct and clear feedback about the effectiveness of

the individual carrying out the work activities

The JCM links these core job dimensions listed above to critical psychological states which

results in desired personal and work outcomes. This forms the basis of this 'employee growth-

need strength." The core dimensions listed above can be combined into a single predictive index,

called theMotivating Potential Score.

Motivating Potential Score

See also:Work motivationandJob satisfaction

The motivating potential score (MPS) can be calculated, using the core dimensions discussed

above, as follows;

Jobs that are high in motivating potential must be high on at least one of the three factors thatlead to experienced meaningfulness, and also must be high on both Autonomy and Feedback.[17]

If a job has a high MPS, the job characteristics model predicts that motivation, performance and

job satisfaction will be positively affected and the likelihood of negative outcomes, such asabsenteeism and turnover, will be reduced.[17]

Drugs
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Some authors, especially in thetranshumanistmovement, have suggested the use of "smart

drugs", also known asnootropics, as "motivation-enhancers". These drugs work in various waysto affect neurotransmitters in the brain. It is generally widely accepted that these drugs enhance

cognitive functions, but not without potential side effects.[18]

The effects of many of these drugs

on the brain are emphatically not well understood, and their legal status often makes open

experimentation difficult.

[citation needed]

Applications

Education

Motivation is of particular interest toeducational psychologistsbecause of the crucial role it

plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation that is studied in thespecialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the more general forms of motivation

studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how they behavetowards subject matter.

[19]It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals2. Lead to increased effort and energy3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities4. Enhance cognitive processing5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing6. Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need situated motivation,

which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher creates.

If teachers decided to extrinsically reward productive student behaviors, they may find it difficult

to extricate themselves from that path. Consequently student dependency on extrinsic rewardsrepresents one of the greatest detractors from their use in the classroom.[20]

The majority of new student orientation leaders at colleges and universities recognize that

distinctive needs of students should be considered in regard to orientation information provided

at the beginning of the higher education experience. Research done by Whyte in 1986 raised the

awareness of counselors and educators in this regard. In 2007, the National Orientation DirectorsAssociation reprintedCassandra B. Whyte's research report allowing readers to ascertain

improvements made in addressing specific needs of students over a quarter of a century later tohelp with academic success.

[21]

Generally, motivation is conceptualized as either intrinsic or extrinsic. Classically, these

categories are regarded as distinct.[22]

Today, these concepts are less likely to be used as distinctcategories, but instead as twoideal typesthat define acontinuum:[23]
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Intrinsic motivationoccurs when people are internally motivated to do somethingbecause it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that whatthey are learning is significant. It has been shown that intrinsic motivation for education

drops from grades 3-9 though the exact cause cannot be ascertained.[24]

Also, in younger

students it has been shown that contextualizing material that would otherwise be

presented in an abstract manner increases the intrinsic motivation of these students.

[25]

Extrinsic motivationcomes into play when a student is compelled to do something or

act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like money or good grades).

Cassandra B. Whyte researched and reported about the importance of locus of control and

academic achievement. Students tending toward a more internal locus of control are moreacademically successful, thus encouraging curriculum and activity development with

consideration of motivation theories.[26][27]

Motivation has been found to be an important element in the concept ofAndragogy(whatmotivates the adult learner), and in treating Autism Spectrum Disorders, as inPivotal Response

Therapy.

Doyle and Moeyn have noted that traditional methods tended to use anxiety as negative

motivation (e.g. use of bad grades by teachers) as a method of getting students to work.

However, they have found that progressive approaches with focus on positive motivation overpunishment has produced greater effectiveness with learning, since anxiety interferes with

performance of complex tasks.[28]

Sudbury Model schools' approach

Main article:Sudbury Valley School

Sudbury Model schools adduce that the cure to the problem of procrastination, of learning ingeneral, and particularly of scientific illiteracy is to remove once and for all what they call the

underlying disease: compulsion in schools. They contend that human nature in a free society

recoils from every attempt to force it into a mold; that the more requirements we pile ontochildren at school, the surer we are to drive them away from the material we are trying to force

down their throats; that after all the drive and motivation of infants to master the world around

them is legendary. They assert that schools must keep that drive alive by doing what some of

them do: nurturing it on the freedom it needs to thrive.[29]

Sudbury Model schools do not perform and do not offer evaluations, assessments, transcripts, or

recommendations, asserting that they do not rate people, and that school is not a judge;comparing students to each other, or to some standard that has been set is for them a violation of

the student's right to privacy and to self-determination. Students decide for themselves how to

measure their progress as self-starting learners as a process of self-evaluation: real lifelong

learning and the proper educational evaluation for the 21st century, they adduce.[30]

According toSudbury Model schools, this policy does not cause harm to their students as they move on to life

outside the school. However, they admit it makes the process more difficult, but that such

hardship is part of the students learning to make their own way, set their own standards and meet
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their own goals. The no-grading and no-rating policy helps to create an atmosphere free of

competition among students or battles for adult approval, and encourages a positive cooperativeenvironment amongst the student body.[31]

Business

See also:Work motivation

At lower levels ofMaslow's hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, money is amotivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period

(in accordance withHerzberg's two-factor model of motivation). At higher levels of thehierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,empowermentand a sense of belonging are far more

powerful motivators than money, as bothAbraham Maslow's theory of motivation andDouglas

McGregor'stheory X and theory Y(pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.

According to Maslow, people are motivated by unsatisfied needs.[32]The lower level needs such

as Physiological and Safety needs will have to be satisfied before higher level needs are to beaddressed. We can relate Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs theory with employee motivation. Forexample, if a manager is trying to motivate his employees by satisfying their needs; according to

Maslow, he should try to satisfy the lower level needs before he tries to satisfy the upper level

needs or the employees will not be motivated. Also he has to remember that not everyone will besatisfied by the same needs. A good manager will try to figure out which levels of needs are

active for a certain individual or employee.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are better

motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and feels it is a poor

motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y category and are considered

stronger motivators than money.

Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job. Motivated employees are more quality oriented. Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and high

opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff are more attracted to

the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat side. Motivation is a powerful tool inthe work environment that can lead to employees working at their most efficient levels of

production.[33]

Nonetheless, Steinmetz also discusses three common character types of subordinates: ascendant,indifferent, and ambivalent who all react and interact uniquely, and must be treated, managed,

and motivated accordingly. An effective leader must understand how to manage all characters,

and more importantly the manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work,grow, and find answers independently.[34]
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The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study[35]

at Vauxhall

Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of orientation to work anddistinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where work is a means to an end),

bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security and immediate reward) and solidaristic

(which prioritises group loyalty).

Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg includedKurt

Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke'sGoal TheoryandVictor Vroom'sExpectancy theory.These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact that individuals tend to be motivated by

different factors at different times.[36]

According to the system ofscientific managementdeveloped byFrederick Winslow Taylor, a

worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore management need not consider

psychological or social aspects of work. In essence, scientific management bases human

motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast,David McClellandbelieved that workers could not be motivated by the mere need formoneyin fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could extinguish intrinsic motivation such as

achievement motivation, though money could be used as an indicator of success for various

motives, e.g., keeping score. In keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company,

had as its first motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland,satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayofound that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are very important andthat boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced motivation. Mayo believed that workers

could be motivated by acknowledging their social needs and making them feel important. As a

result, employees were given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was

paid to informal work groups. Mayo named the model theHawthorne effect. His model has beenjudged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for motivating

employees.[37]

William OuchiintroducedTheory Z, a hybrid management approach consisting of both Japanese

and American philosophies and cultures.[38]

Its Japanese segment is much like the clan culturewhere organizations focus on a standardized structure with heavy emphasis on socialization of its

members. All underlying goals are consistent across the organization. Its American segment

retains formality and authority amongst members and the organization. Ultimately, Theory Zpromotes common structure and commitment to the organization, as well as constant

improvement of work efficacy.

InEssentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition programs asmotivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success of an employee incentive

program:[39]

Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of behaviordeemed worthy of recognition

Allowing employees to participate
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Linking rewards to performance Rewarding of nominators Visibility of the recognition process

Documents

Motivation is the Psychological Feature That Arouses an Organism to Action Toward a Desired Goal and Elicits