MotivationMotivation

Organizational EffectivenessOrganizational Effectiveness

How Workers Feel How Workers Feel About Their JobsAbout Their JobsSurvey of 2,408 in 1995Survey of 2,408 in 1995 Satisfaction:Satisfaction:

– Usually look forward to going to work:Usually look forward to going to work: 66%66%– Don’t look forward to going to work:Don’t look forward to going to work: 34%34%

Participation:Participation:– Think involvement is important:Think involvement is important: 55%55%– Have a lot of direct involvement:Have a lot of direct involvement: 28%28%

Loyalty:Loyalty:– Feel a lot of loyalty to their employer:Feel a lot of loyalty to their employer: 54%54%– Feel they can trust their employer:Feel they can trust their employer: 38%38%

Personality and Personality and PerceptionPerception

EnvironmentEnvironment CultureCulture ExperiencesExperiences

HeredityHeredity

PersonalityPersonality

PerceptionPerception

Order of Importance of Order of Importance of Various Job FactorsVarious Job Factors

Job FactorsJob Factors

Survey of Survey of EmployeEmploye

esesSurvey of Survey of BossesBosses

Full appreciation of work doneFull appreciation of work done 11 88

Feeling of being in on thingsFeeling of being in on things 22 1010

Sympathetic help on personnel Sympathetic help on personnel problemsproblems

33 99

Job securityJob security 44 22

Good wagesGood wages 55 11

Interesting workInteresting work 66 55

Promotional growth in organizationPromotional growth in organization 77 33

Personal loyalty to employeesPersonal loyalty to employees 88 66

Good working conditionsGood working conditions 99 44

Tactful discipliningTactful disciplining 1010 77Source: A. I. LeDue, Jr., 1980.Source: A. I. LeDue, Jr., 1980.

Ways of Eliciting Ways of Eliciting FeedbackFeedback

1.1. Surveys—Closed or Open-endedSurveys—Closed or Open-ended

2.2. InterviewsInterviews

3.3. Focus GroupsFocus Groups

4.4. Confrontation MeetingsConfrontation Meetings

Summary of Summary of Reinforcement Reinforcement ContingenciesContingencies

LabelLabel

Effect Effect on on

BehaviBehavioror Nature of the ContingencyNature of the Contingency

1. Positive1. Positive increasincreaseses

Correct response is followed by a Correct response is followed by a positive reinforcing stimulus.positive reinforcing stimulus.

2. 2. PunishmentPunishment

decreasdecreaseses

Behavior is followed by an Behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus.aversive stimulus.

3. Escape3. Escape increasincreaseses

An aversive stimulus is present An aversive stimulus is present and the correct response and the correct response terminates it.terminates it.

4. 4. AvoidanceAvoidance

increasincreaseses

An aversive event will occur An aversive event will occur unless the correct response is unless the correct response is made.made.

5. 5. ExtinctionExtinction

decreasdecreaseses

The behavior is ignored. No The behavior is ignored. No reinforcement is associated with reinforcement is associated with the response.the response.

Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Continuous reinforcement schedule.Continuous reinforcement schedule.

Reinforcement follows every correct response.Reinforcement follows every correct response.– Produces a steady rate of performance as long as Produces a steady rate of performance as long as

reinforcement continues to follow every response.reinforcement continues to follow every response.– High frequency of reinforcement may lead to early High frequency of reinforcement may lead to early

satiationsatiation– Behavior extinguishes rapidly when reinforcement is Behavior extinguishes rapidly when reinforcement is

terminated.terminated.– Best schedule for teaching new behavior.Best schedule for teaching new behavior.

Time Reinforcement is terminatedTime Reinforcement is terminated

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Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Fixed ratio (FR).Fixed ratio (FR). A fixed number of responses must be made A fixed number of responses must be made

before a reinforcement occurs.before a reinforcement occurs.– Tends to produce a vigorous and steady rate of response that is Tends to produce a vigorous and steady rate of response that is

higher than continuous reinforcement.higher than continuous reinforcement.– Tends to extinguish rapidly when reinforcement is terminated.Tends to extinguish rapidly when reinforcement is terminated.

Variable ratio (VR)Variable ratio (VR). A varying or random number of . A varying or random number of responses must be made before reinforcement occurs.responses must be made before reinforcement occurs.– Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is

vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction. Variable Interval (VI).Variable Interval (VI). The first correct response after a The first correct response after a

varying or random interval of time is reinforced.varying or random interval of time is reinforced.– Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is Capable of producing a very high rate of response that is

vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.vigorous, steady, and resistant to extinction.

Time Reinforcement is terminatedTime Reinforcement is terminated

Resp

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Schedules of Schedules of Reinforcement and Reinforcement and Their Effects on Their Effects on BehaviorBehavior Fixed Interval (FI).Fixed Interval (FI). The first response The first response

after a fixed period of time is reinforced.after a fixed period of time is reinforced.– Produces an uneven response pattern that Produces an uneven response pattern that

varies from a very slow, lethargic response varies from a very slow, lethargic response rate immediately following reinforcement to a rate immediately following reinforcement to a fast, vigorous response rate immediately fast, vigorous response rate immediately preceding reinforcement.preceding reinforcement.

Time Length of fixed intervalTime Length of fixed interval

Resp

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Summary Motivation Summary Motivation ModelModel

1.1. EffortEffortExpectancyExpectancyInstrumentalityInstrumentalityValenceValence

6.6. RewardsRewards

5.5. OrganizationalOrganizationalStructureStructureand Cultureand Culture

4.4. WorkWorkDesignDesign

SatisfactionSatisfaction

7.7. EquityEquityComparisonsComparisons

ExtrinsicExtrinsic

IntrinsicIntrinsic

PerformancePerformanceXX

3.3. Goal SettingGoal SettingSpecificitySpecificityDifficultyDifficultyAcceptanceAcceptanceCommitmentCommitment

2.2. AbilityAbilitySkillsSkillsTrainingTraining

Implications from Theory Implications from Theory and Research on How to and Research on How to Motivate OthersMotivate Others1.1. Set clear and specific goals Set clear and specific goals withwith employees. employees.2.2. Employees should feel that they can Employees should feel that they can

accomplish the goals. Thus they need to have accomplish the goals. Thus they need to have the ability, training, and resources to succeed.the ability, training, and resources to succeed.

3.3. Job design, organizational culture, and Job design, organizational culture, and structure should facilitate the achievement of structure should facilitate the achievement of the goals.the goals.

4.4. Goal accomplishment should be linked with Goal accomplishment should be linked with salient internal and external rewards.salient internal and external rewards.

5.5. Inappropriate behaviors can be eliminated by Inappropriate behaviors can be eliminated by punishment or by failing to reinforce them.punishment or by failing to reinforce them.

6.6. Rewards should be seen as being fair.Rewards should be seen as being fair.

Advantages of Advantages of SpecializationSpecialization

1.1. Learning time is reducedLearning time is reduced

2.2. Workers don’t spend time Workers don’t spend time changing jobschanging jobs

3.3. Increased proficiencyIncreased proficiency

4.4. New technologies are more New technologies are more compatible with specialized jobscompatible with specialized jobs

5.5. Supervisors have more control Supervisors have more control over employee behaviorover employee behavior

Disadvantages of Disadvantages of SpecializationSpecialization

1.1. Workers often can’t control the pace of the Workers often can’t control the pace of the work.work.

2.2. Repetitiveness can lead to boredom and poor Repetitiveness can lead to boredom and poor quality. It also may result in health problems.quality. It also may result in health problems.

3.3. Workers only use a narrow set of skills. They Workers only use a narrow set of skills. They may be able to do more.may be able to do more.

4.4. Since workers see only a small part of the Since workers see only a small part of the process, they may not be able to solve process, they may not be able to solve problems or improve productivity/quality very problems or improve productivity/quality very effectively.effectively.

5.5. Workers often experience low social Workers often experience low social interaction.interaction.

6.6. Workers may not be encouraged to think on Workers may not be encouraged to think on the job.the job.

How to Enrich JobsHow to Enrich Jobs

1.1. AccountabilityAccountability

2.2. AchievementAchievement

3.3. Control over ResourcesControl over Resources

4.4. FeedbackFeedback

5.5. Personal Growth and Personal Growth and DevelopmentDevelopment

6.6. Control over Work PaceControl over Work Pace

Job Characteristics Job Characteristics ModelModel

Combining Combining taskstasks Skill varietySkill variety DependablDependabl

e e performanperforman

cece

Forming Forming natural work natural work

unitsunitsTask identityTask identity MeaningfulMeaningful

Establishing Establishing client client

relationshipsrelationships

Task Task significancesignificance

Good Good attendanceattendance

Vertical Vertical loadingloading AutonomyAutonomy ResponsibilityResponsibility High High

satisfactionsatisfaction

Opening Opening feedback feedback channelschannels

FeedbackFeedback Knowledge of Knowledge of resultsresults

SpontaneoSpontaneous and us and

innovative innovative behaviorsbehaviors

Job redesignJob redesignmethodsmethods

Core jobCore jobdimensionsdimensions

PsychologiPsychologicalcal

statesstates

WorkWorkoutcomesoutcomes

PersonalPersonalvaluesvalues

Why Performance Why Performance Appraisals?Appraisals?

1.1. To recognize and reward good To recognize and reward good performanceperformance

2.2. To make decisions regarding To make decisions regarding promotions and hiringpromotions and hiring

3.3. To provide individuals with feedback To provide individuals with feedback to help in their developmentto help in their development

4.4. To identify training and other needs To identify training and other needs for individuals and the organizationfor individuals and the organization

5.5. To obtain data for human resource To obtain data for human resource planningplanning

Problems with Problems with AppraisalsAppraisals1.1. Evaluation and feedback are poor Evaluation and feedback are poor

(see exhibit in text)(see exhibit in text)2.2. The atmosphere in the interview is The atmosphere in the interview is

highly defensive and not highly defensive and not constructiveconstructive

3.3. The rating system used is not linked The rating system used is not linked to the desired behaviorsto the desired behaviors

4.4. The behaviors that are being The behaviors that are being measured and rewarded are not measured and rewarded are not linked to the organization’s mission linked to the organization’s mission and goalsand goals

Types of CompensationTypes of Compensation

Individual Incentives:Individual Incentives:1.1. SalarySalary2.2. Merit PayMerit Pay3.3. Bonuses/StockBonuses/Stock4.4. Piece-RatePiece-Rate5.5. CommissionCommission6.6. Skill-Based PaySkill-Based Pay7.7. Knowledge-Based Knowledge-Based

PayPay

Group Incentives:Group Incentives:1.1. Merit PayMerit Pay2.2. BonusesBonuses3.3. Piece-RatePiece-Rate4.4. CommissionsCommissions

Company-Wide Incentives:Company-Wide Incentives:1.1. Profit SharingProfit Sharing2.2. Gain SharingGain Sharing3.3. Scanlon PlansScanlon Plans4.4. Bonuses/Stock or Stock Bonuses/Stock or Stock

OptionsOptions

Solving Performance Solving Performance ProblemsProblems

1.1. Describe the situationDescribe the situation

2.2. Diagnose whether it’s an ability or Diagnose whether it’s an ability or motivation problemmotivation problem

3.3. Use joint problem solving to come up with Use joint problem solving to come up with solutions to the problemsolutions to the problem

4.4. Communicate consequences for the Communicate consequences for the problemproblem

5.5. Handle emergent problems (but don’t get Handle emergent problems (but don’t get deflected from the core problem)deflected from the core problem)

6.6. Decide who will do what by when and Decide who will do what by when and follow upfollow up

Effective PunishmentEffective Punishment

1.1. Timely—Occurs immediately after the Timely—Occurs immediately after the mistakemistake

2.2. Unpleasant but not severeUnpleasant but not severe3.3. Should focus on the particular act/behaviorShould focus on the particular act/behavior4.4. Should be consistent across persons and Should be consistent across persons and

timetime5.5. Inform the person what he/she did wrong Inform the person what he/she did wrong

and how they can change/improveand how they can change/improve6.6. Punishment should occur in a supportive Punishment should occur in a supportive

environmentenvironment7.7. Punishment should not be followed by Punishment should not be followed by

undeserved rewardsundeserved rewards

Progressive DisciplineProgressive Discipline

1.1. Verbal WarningVerbal Warning

2.2. Verbal ReprimandVerbal Reprimand

3.3. Written ReprimandWritten Reprimand

4.4. SuspensionSuspension

5.5. DischargeDischarge