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The UOEH Association of Health Sciences
NII-Electronic Library Service
The UOEHAssociation ofHealthSciences
J UOEH30 (3):279 -292(2008) 279
[Original)
Motivation, Overcommitment and
Work: A Path Analytic ApproachPsychological Health at
AkizumjTsuTsuMII, Makiko NAGAMi2, Kanehisa MoRiMoTo3 and Norito K.oLwnKAMi`
' Occupationai Hbalth 7}'aining Centen University ofOccupational andEnvironmental Heaith,
.lapan. }khatanishi-ku, Kitadyushu 807-8555, Jtipan2 Department ofCiinic:al PsLychologl,, funsai Chiiversity qf Pl'lrCfbTe Sciences. Kashiwabara-ciol
Osaka 582-O02C .lapan
3 Department ofSbciat andEhvironmental Mledieine, asaka UViivems'it.v Gncichiate Schooi ofMedicine. Suita-ci4i Osaka 565-0871, Jkepan" Dqpartment ofyl4bntal Health, U)iivenstty ofn)kyo Grackiate St'hool of7L4edicine, Bunlyo-ku, 7blp.Jo
li3-O033, lapan
Abstract :Overcommitment is fbrmulated in the Eflbrt-Reward Imbalance occupationat stress
model as a critical coping pattern in individuals, and refers to a strong tendency
to commit oneselfto work activities. Motivation in working life is related to
employees" productivity and good mental health. A total of556 employees
completed a questionnaire package relating to overcommitment and motivation in
working life, as well as the 28-item version of the General Health Questionnaire.Path analysis revealed that motivation and overcommitment are positively related
to each other but that the health consequences are different. It is justifiable to draw
a distinction between overcommitrnent and high motivation at work, as modifying
a copi"g pattern of overly committing to work on the one hand and enhancing
motivation on the other may lead to improved mental health for employees.
KOy wortis :work motivation, overcomrnitment, psyehoiogical health, stress, path anaiysis.
(Received 28 March 2008, accepted 3 July 2008)
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2go A TsuTsLJMi et al
Introduction
The EfTbrt-Reward Imbalance model at work has gained attention in occupational researah because
ofits predictive validity for various health outcomes [1,2]. One ofthe unique features ofthe Eflbrt-
Reward Imbalance model concerns the inclusion ofa persenal component in an otherwise situational
model ofoccupational stress. Overcommitment defines a set of attitudes, behaviors and emotions
reflecting exeessive striving in combination with a strong desire to receive approval and esteem
in one's working ]ife. People characterized as overcommitted have a strong tendency to commit
themselves to work actiyities and make exaggerated effbrts beyond levels normally considered
approprlate,
With a few exceptions [3], evjdence supports tbe idea that overcommitment is associated with
various health outcomes, such as abdeminal and musculoskeletal symptoms [4 - 6], burnout,
depression [7,8] and cardiovascular risk factors [9 - 11]. A case-control study [12] demonstratedan increased risk ofmyecardial infarction in overcommitted employees, but due to the design of
this studM these findings should be interpreted cautiously. A one-year fbllow-up prospective study
showed a predictiye effect of overcommitment on selflreported health [13]. In anether study, a
stranger progression of carotid atherosclerosis was shown in overcommitted patients compared to
theiT counterparts [14]. Further evidence suggests that modifying the overcommitment coping pattem
is an eMcient interventional strategy for stress redriction in the workplace [ 1 5, t6].
Motivation is an important variable for employee productivity in occupational and organizational
psychology [l7,l8]. Motivation consists ofmulti-faceted concepts [l9]. The two main concepts
are achievement rnotivation and intrinsic!extrinsic motivation. Achieyement motivation can be
defined as an individnal's tendency to desire and work toward challenging personaJ and professional
goals. Intrinsic motivatiQn refers to the natura1 human propensity to perfbrm an activity for its own
sake, to seek out the pleasure and satisfaction jnherent in the activity [20]. Extrinsic motivation
refers to the perfbr:mance ofan activity to obtain some separate, extrinsic outcome. An extrinsically-
motivated person will work on a task eyen when they have iittle interest in it because ofthe
anticipated satisfaction they will get from a reward, such as money or grades. Individual differences
in achievement motivation have gained attention as they are related te employee productivity [17,i8].In addition, intrinsic motivation may be associated with good menta1 health [19], although the health
etfects ofmotivational behaviors in working life have rarely been investigated.
One may doubt whether the concepts of overcommitment and motivation in working ]ife are
ctearly distingujshed. From a practical perspective, fbr instance, do o¢ cupational health specialists
have to modify the behaviQral patterns ofhighly motivated employees? It seems legitimate that
motivation in working life, at least in part, underlies overcommitment but that the consequen ¢ es
are difTerent. These assQciations should be elucidated. 'Tb
approach this issue, we simultaneously
applied the relevant scales and exarnined the associations using a path analysis. We hypothesized
that 1) motivation in working life and overcommitrnent are positively related to each other, 2)
overcommitment is positively correlated with adverse psychotogical outcome, but 3) motivatien has a
negative correlation, or at least null associations, with adverse psychologicai outcome,
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Motivation and Overcommitment 281
Method
Subjects
Since 1991, an annual survey, in the fbrm ofa selgadministered questiennaire, has beencarried out as part of occupational health management by the health and safety section of a
Japanese appliance manufacturing company. The analysjs in this study was based on the survey
conducted within the company during July 2000, at which time the company had 822 fu11-
time employees. The analysis was carried out with the employees' informed consent, and fu11
confidentiality ofthe gathered infbrmation was guaranteed, The psychological questionnaire
package included Japanese versions ofthe Effort-Reward Imbalance questionnaire, the
motivational scale, and the 28-item version of the 6enera] Health Questionnaire (GHQ28). In
total, 595 employees responded (response rate = 729/6), Ofthe responses, we analyzed those with
complete data (n = 556). Table 1 shows the profile ofthe study population.
Table 1. Prefile ofthe study population
Study variables
Scx, n <%) Men
Womcn
450 (81)I06 (l9)
Mean ± SD age. years (range) 39 ± 11 (20-65)
Mean ± SD duration ofwork experience, years (range) IOt 8(0-42)
Educatien, n (%)
Completivn ofuniver$ity or postgraduate education
Less than university
223 (4e)
333 (60)
Employment status, n (9'e)
Holding a managerial position
Gencral cmployee
138 Q5)41g (75)
Performing shi ft work, n <9f,) lkls
No
33(6)
523 (94)
T:hequestionnaines
Overeommitment.
The distinct personal pattern of coping with job demands was theoretically extracted from
global type A behaviors [21,22], The overcommitment scale (29 items) was composed of fbur
subscales to measure relevant aspects of this coping pattern: `Cneed
for approval" (6 items, e,g.,"I
get especially frustrated when my work is not properly appreciated"), tLcompetitiveness
and
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282 A Tsurst]Mi et al
latent hostility" (6 items, e,g., '"I
don't let others do my work"), "disproportionate
irritability" (8items, e.g.,
`・I
get easily overw,helmed by time pressures at work"), and "inability
to withdraw
from work" (9 items, e.g,, '-Work
is usually still on my mind when I go to bed") [21]. The four
respective subscales were repeatedly found to load on one latent factor in second-order factor
analysis. The response options fbr overcommitment on a 4-point scale, ranging from "strongly
agree" to L`strongly
disagree," were based on intensity. The scQre was established by separating
the answers to each item-the werst two catcgories ofthe critical coping pattern (coded as 1)
versus the rest (coded as O)-and adding thcm together. The scores were then summed acress
the 29 items to preduce a possible range of scores frem O to 29 [23], Psychometric properties
of the Japanese version of the overcommitment scale w'ere eva]uated, including the theory-
drive factorial validity (confirmatory factor analysis) [24]. Briefly, in our sample, a measure
of goodness of fit (GFI; see Statistics section) indicatcd almost perfect fit (O.999) in the second-
order factor analysis tcsting the four subscales, whereas the respective measure was O.802 when
thc uni-dimcnsional factor was testcd. Thc Cronbach a coefficient ofthe ovcrcommitmcnt scale
was O.72. Although a shorter version of the overcommitment scale was developed later [25],we used the original version in the present study, because it was composed of entirely relevant
overcommitment dimensions and had enough variance for analytical purposes (path analysis).
ildbtivation.
Based on Item Response Theory [26], Sakazume et aL developed a scale to measure
employees' motivation at work. Thc scale was composed of four uni-dimensional subscales:
selfifu1fi11ment achievement motive, competitive achievement motive, intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation [27]. rlMio
achievement motive scales were derived fi'orn scales developed
by Horino and colleague [28,29], and were applied to working personnel. The sel"fulfillment
a¢ hievement motive refers to the motive to reach one's goal irrespective ofhow one is respected
by others (4 items, e.g., "Even though I am allowed to do only a predetermined set oftasks, I still
want to make the most efmy ability at work'"). The scores were summed across the four items
to produce a possible range of scores from 4 to 20 (a = 0,70). The competitive achievement
motive taps motivation derived from competing or a desire to be better than others (5 items, e.g.,"It
is good to know that I am considered more competent than some of my colleaguesT'). The
scores were then summed across the five items to produce a possible range of scores from 5 to
25 (cr == O.80). Intrinsic motivation refers to doing an activity for itseltL for the pleasure and
satisfaction derived f'rom participation. Deci and Ryan [3e] conceived intrinsic motivation from
the innate psychological needs ofcompetence and sel"determination. A 10-item scale was
developed to measure employees' intrinsic motivation (e,g,, "1
work to gain a sense of delight
and satisfaction from work"), The scores were then summed across the 10 items to produce a
possible range ofscores from 1O to 50 (a = O,89). Extrinsic motivation is relevant for a variety
ofbehaviors which are engaged in as a means to a goal but not for their own sake [31]. A six-
item scale was developed for extrinsic motivatien in working life (e,g,, "I
work to earn enough
income to improve my standard of living"), and the scores were summed across the six items
to produce a possiblc range of scores from 6 to 30 (or =: 0.72). The scores were thcn summcd
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Motivution and Ovcrcommitmcnt 283
across the 25 items to produce a possible range of scores frem 25 to 125. Investigation into
the psychometric properties of the scale showed the discriminant validity with respect to major
socio-demographic variables. For instance, levels of achievement motives both for self
fu1fi11ment and competition were higher among younger employees than older employees, and
the level of intrinsic motivation was highest among those at the highest oc ¢ upational position,
e.g., the head ofa department [27], In our sample, we confirmed that the second-order factorscorresponded to the construct ot` interest much better than the first-order factors did (GFI =
O,984
vs. O.671). The Cronbach a coefficient ofwork motivation scale was O.91.
Rsychologicatotttcome.
Psychological outcome was measured using the GHQ-28, which is one of the most commonly
used screening instruments to detect current and diagnosable psychiatric disorders [32], The
questionnaire refers to a respondent's experience over the past week. The GHQ-28 includes
items related to somatic symptoms, anxiety and insomnia, social dysfunction and severe
depression, It was coded in the conventional fashion, "GHQ
scoring," with scores potentiallyranging from O to 28. Again, in our sample, GFI was substantially improved (O.996) in the
second-order factor analysis testing the fbur subscales when compared to the uni-dimensional
factor analysis (O.661). The Cronbach cr coefficient ofthe GHQ-28 scale was O,89.
Statistics
Based on the evidence that unidimensionality was achieved by respective subscales for the
constructs of interest (i.e., overcemmitment, motivation at work and adverse psycho]ogica]outcome), we decided to build our measurement models based on the subscale scores of
each construct and carry out our main analyses, The mean and standard deviation (SD)were calculated for each psycho]ogical score. Pearson's correlation coefficients among the
psychological variables were then calculated. Befbre hypothesis testing, the appropriateness
of the measurement model was tested by the fu11 confirmatory factor analyses including the
three constructs of overcommitment, motivation and GHQ [33], Firstly, a one-factor model was
estimated proposing that all 12 subscales load on the same underlying dimension. Secondly,
two models were estimated positing the original three factors representing oyercommitment,
motivation and GHQ, Variants reflecting differing constructs were compared within the models
by constraining inter-factor correlations to O (i.e., orthogonal model) or allowing them to freety
correlate, As the models estimated stand in a nested sequence, the relative fit of the models
was tested using the chi-square difference test (AxZ). We then employed a path analysis to
test the hypothesized model relating overcommitment, metivation and GHQ-28 (Fig. 1). The
overall fit ofthe model to the data was assessed by multiple fit indices, including the chi-square
statistic, the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the normed fit index (NFI),the comparative fit index (CFI), the goodness-ogfit index (GFI), the adjusted goodness-o"fitindex (AGFI) and the Akaike infbrmation criterion (AIC). The eflicct ofmodel complexity was
compensated fbr by dividing the discrepancy due to approximation by the number of degrees of
freedom fbr testing the model, Taking the square root ofthe resulting ratio gaye the population
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284 A TstJTsuMl et al
RMSEA. An RMSEA value of about O.05 or less indicates a close fit of the model in relation
to the degrees of freedom, but the model cannot be employed if the RMSEA is greater than O.1
[34]. GFI andAGFI indicate the amount ofvariance and covariance explained by the model
[35]. GFI and AGFI are sensitive to variations in sample size. In large samples, models rarely
fit the data, even when the difference between the true model and the hypothesized model is
negligible [36]. NFI and CFI are fairly robust and independent of sampie size. NFI, CFI, GFI
and AGFI should be greater than O.90 to indicate an acceptable model fit. The AIC is another
measure ofthe goodness of fit ofan estimated statistical model and an operational way oftrading
offthe complexity of an estimated modet against how well the model fits the data. The preferred
model is the one with the lowest AJC value [37]. The maximum like]jhood method was applied
to estimate the parameters [38]. To confirm our hypothesis. we tested an alternative model.
We tested whether individuals' psychological state would influence both overcommitment and
motivation by drawing the paths from GHQ-28 to overcommitment and motivation. Statistical
analyses on reliability were undertaken with SPSS 14.0 for Windows, The path analysis was
canied out using the statistical package AMOS 6.
Results
The results in Table 2 show the summary measures and corretations among the variables.
As expected, overcommitment subscale scores were positively cerrelated with motivation
scores, except among the scales ofneed fbr approval, competitiveness and latent hostility,
selfifulfillment achievement motive and competitive achievement motive (r =t from O.32 to
O.44). Here the correlation levels were slightly lower than those for the overcommitment
subscate scores and those for the motivational scores. Expected correlations were found
in the associations between overcommitmentfmotivations and GHQ-28 subscales. The
overcommitment subscale scores were positively correlated with GHQ-28 subscale scores of
anxietylinsomnia and social dysfunction, except for one pair (competitivenessflatent hosti]ity and
social dysfunction), The score ofinability to withdraw fi'om work was positively associated with
somatic symptoms and severe depression (more critical components of the GHQ-28). On the
other hand, motivational scores generally had null associations with GHQ-28 subscale scores.
In particular, although the associations were weak, statistically significant negative corretations
were fbund between intrinsic motivation and three out of fbur GHQ-28 subscales.
A clear finding of the confirmatory factor analyses was that the one-factor model proposingthat all 12 subscales load on the same underlying dimension did not account for the data (x2(54) = 1095,I7, P < O.OOI ). The three-factor model with the factors fi'eely corretated provideda significantly better fit to the data than the three-factor model with constraining inter-factor
correlations to O (Ax2 (3) = 176.49, P < O,OOI), suggesting that some degree of association
between the original three factors representing overcommitment, motivation and GHQ was
important to consider.
Figurc 1 shows the standardized regression coeMcients fbr the hypothesized model. Motivation
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285
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Metivation and Overcommitment 287
was significantly and positively associated with overeommitment, and overcornmitment
was significantly and positively associated with the GHQ-28 score, whereas motivation was
significantly and negatively associated with the GHQ-28 score. The hypothesized modet fitted
the data relatively well. Although the chi-square value was significant (x2 (51) = 196.13, P <
O,OOI) and the RMSEA value was slightly large (O.072), the NFI (O.91), CFI (O.93), GFI (O.95)and AGFI (e.92) met the acceptable benchmark values of O.90 and above. The AIC was 250. 13.
The path hypothesizing whether individuals' psychological state in fl uenced both
overcommitment and motivation showed a worse model fit than that of our first hypothesis
and the model fit indjces other than RMSEA and GFI did not satisfy the criterion: xi (52> =
337.69, RMSEA =
O.099, NFI =
O.84, CFI ==
O.86, GFI -
O,91, AGFI =
O.87 and AIC -
389.66,
respectively.
Discussion
The findings ofthis study indicate that individual motivation in working life and
overcommitment are related to each other, but that the associations "Jith psychiatric indicators are
different. Overcommitment is positively correlated with GHQ-28 score, whereas the association
between work motivation and GHQ-28 score is negative, ]t is important to draw a distinction
between high motivation and overcommitment at work, because enhancing ene while reducing
the other may lead to employee -,ell-being as far as mental hcalth is concerned.
As in previous studies [7,8], our study indicates that overcommitment to work is asgociated
with an adverse psyehological outcome. Work commitment is praiseworthy. However.
commitment to work be¢ omes a problem, when an empleyee overdoes it and cannot separate
hisfher work from his!her private life. Identifying such a behavioral pattern is a step which can
lead to an ef}'ective individual stress-reduction approach in the werkplace. Evidence implies that
intervention aimed at stress reduction at the interpersonal level works by modifying the critical
coping pattern [15]. The most promising approaches te modifying such behavioral patterns are
cognitive-behavioral approaches [39], because their range of applicability is wide and current
evidence shows their effectiveness [40]. Modification ofoyercommitment might be most
bencficial in employees who work overtime [16], Although the negative association between motivation and poor psychological state is not
surprising, few studies have invcstigated the efTects ofmotivation in working life on cmployees'
psychological health. Socia] environments can enhance intrinsic motivation and mental hea]th
by fulfilling innate psychological needs, such as competence, autonomy and good interpersonal
relationships [19], Examples ofsocial enviromnents include feedback, communication and
rewards. Incorporating such factors in the workplace has the potential for positive motivation
and, in turn, for the enhanced performance and mental health of intrinsically motivated
employees [19]. Even the largest ofthese correlations (r =
O.44) acceunted fbr only 199i6 ofthe variance in one
overcommitment variabJe by variations in motivation. This finding jmplies the djscrimjnant
validity ofthe overcommitment concept with the related variables. In addition, an investigation
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into some other psychosocial factors which may account for a portion ofthe remaining variations
may provide c]ues for another stress-reduction approach, An individual coping pattern may
be reinforced by specific circumstances in professjonal life [41 ,42], The fact that there is littte
evidence shows the need fbr more research to explore the concept in relation to social context as
well as by observation throughout a worker's professional life.
Together with an investigation into the above-mentioned new study proposals, replication
of our research is needed due to several study limitations, The cross-sectional design did not
permit a causal interpretation between the studied variables. Although the sample size was
sufficiently large in our practical investigation, the response rate was moderate [43], therefbre
the results may not be representative. The observed associations may be inflated, because
response tendencies such as negative affectivity [44] were not taken into account. Despite
obvious limitations, however, this study provided usefu1 clues for occupational health specialist
practlces.
Acknowledgement
This study was based on the continuous research ofdevelopment and application ofthe
Japanese version of Effbrt-Reward Imbalance questionnaire, and partly supported by Grand-in-
Aid for Scientific Research (C), from the Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology (2001-2004; project number 16590476).
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仕事上 の モ チ ベ ー シ ョ ン ,オ ーバ ー コ ミ ッ トメ ン トと心理 的健康 : パ ス 解析 に よ る検討
堤 明純 1,長見 まき子
2,森本 兼曩 3
,川上 憲人 4
1 産業医科大 学 産業医実務研修セ ン タ ー
2関西福 祉科 学大学 臨床心 理学科
1 大阪大学大学院 医学系研究科 環境 医学
4東京 大学 大学 院 医学系研 究科 精 神保健学 分野
要 旨 : 過度 に 仕事 に 傾 注す る こ と を示 すオーバ ー
コ ミ ッ トメ ン トは,努 カ ー報酬 不均 衡職 業
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仕事 1:の モ チ ベ ーシ ョ ン は,就業者 の 生 産性 や良好 な メ ン タ ル ヘ ル ス と関連 があ る と
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動 変容 を図 る こ とが ,一
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が,就業 者 の メ ン タ ル ヘ ル ス 向 E にそれぞれ寄与す る.口∫能性が ある の で ,向者を弁別 し
て 対応 す る こ とが 望 まれ る.
キーワ ー ド 仕事上 の モ チ ベ ーシ ョ ン ,オ
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JUOEH (産業 医大 誌) 30 (3): 27g 一
292 (2008 )
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