Motivational Motivational Problem Problem Exercises Exercises Based on Based on

Simple ExperimentsSimple Experiments

Josef TJosef Trnarna Faculty of Education, Masaryk UniversityFaculty of Education, Masaryk University

Brno, Czech RepublicBrno, Czech Republic trna@ped.muni.cztrna@ped.muni.cz

1 Cognitive Motivation 1 Cognitive Motivation in Science Educationin Science Education

• Teachers are Teachers are limitedlimited in methods how to improve students’ in methods how to improve students’ attitude to science education.attitude to science education.

• There is need for There is need for innovationinnovation of educational of educational strategiesstrategies and development of new educational and development of new educational technologiestechnologies. .

• Cognitive motivationCognitive motivation of students, playing a crucial role in of students, playing a crucial role in attracting students to science, seems to be a attracting students to science, seems to be a key ideakey idea in in these processes. these processes.

• We can apply a set of We can apply a set of cognitive motivational teaching cognitive motivational teaching techniquestechniques, some of which appear to be very important:, some of which appear to be very important:

(1)(1) problem exercisesproblem exercises (2)(2) simple experimentssimple experiments with with everyday objectseveryday objects (3)(3) informationinformation fromfrom everyday lifeeveryday life..

Problem Problem ExercisesExercises

• Problem solvingProblem solving (Maslow 1954, Woods 1994) is an (Maslow 1954, Woods 1994) is an important need for every human. important need for every human.

• Psychological base of increasing cognitive needs is Psychological base of increasing cognitive needs is ““perceptional and conceptual conflictperceptional and conceptual conflict” (Berlyne 1977, ” (Berlyne 1977, Hrabal Hrabal & & Man & Pavelkova 1989). Man & Pavelkova 1989).

• This conflict becomes an incentive what causes a strong This conflict becomes an incentive what causes a strong motivation in science lessons and so students becomes motivation in science lessons and so students becomes activeactive which heads towards conflict which heads towards conflict eliminationelimination and and satisfactionsatisfaction of the need. of the need.

• An induction of that conflict has several variants (Berlyne An induction of that conflict has several variants (Berlyne 1977)1977): : surprise, paradox, doubt, uncertainty and surprise, paradox, doubt, uncertainty and difficultydifficulty..

• These variants are going to be used for the creation of a These variants are going to be used for the creation of a setset of of motivational problem exercisesmotivational problem exercises..

Simple ExperimentsSimple Experiments

• Simple experiments have many characteristics placing them at Simple experiments have many characteristics placing them at the top of cognitive motivational techniquesthe top of cognitive motivational techniques: : transparencytransparency of of presentation of science presentation of science phenomenon basephenomenon base. .

• This transparency is given especially by the three following This transparency is given especially by the three following factors:factors:

(1) (1) ReductionReduction an extra phenomena which may occur within an an extra phenomena which may occur within an experiment.experiment. (2) (2) QualitativenessQualitativeness of an experiment when students’ attention of an experiment when students’ attention

is not is not taken awaytaken away from phenomenon base to unnecessary measure.from phenomenon base to unnecessary measure. (3) (3) Easy realizationEasy realization by students who by students who perceiveperceive an experiment an experiment

with with every senseevery sense..• The significant group of simple experiments The significant group of simple experiments areare simple simple

experiments with everyday objectsexperiments with everyday objects ( (hands-on hands-on experimentsexperiments)). So the transparency of phenomenon base . So the transparency of phenomenon base observation is supported thanks to the fact that students know observation is supported thanks to the fact that students know these objects from their everyday life, so their these objects from their everyday life, so their attention is not attention is not taken away from the demonstrated experimenttaken away from the demonstrated experiment and they and they can can concentrate concentrate on the demonstrated phenomenon. on the demonstrated phenomenon.

Everyday Life Everyday Life

• The application of information from everyday life in science education The application of information from everyday life in science education is a source of is a source of strong cognitive motivationstrong cognitive motivation. .

• Important applications possible for using in science education are the Important applications possible for using in science education are the following:following:

(1) (1) Human organismHuman organism: Students are acquainted with : Students are acquainted with human body human body parametersparameters which can be expressed with the aid of quantities, units which can be expressed with the aid of quantities, units and laws. Also and laws. Also external conditionsexternal conditions are important for preservation of are important for preservation of vital functions of the human organism including vital functions of the human organism including health protectionhealth protection against negative extraneous influence.against negative extraneous influence.

(2) (2) Home, entertainment, sports etcHome, entertainment, sports etc:: Students can be motivated Students can be motivated by explanation of a base of commonly used by explanation of a base of commonly used domestic equipmentdomestic equipment such as heat and light such as heat and light sourcessources, means of , means of transporttransport, , audiovisual audiovisual techniquetechnique, chemical , chemical agentsagents, domestic , domestic plantsplants and and animalsanimals, , information on information on safesafe, , economicaleconomical and and ecological workingecological working at home at home andand at work, at work, entertainmententertainment, , sportssports etc. etc.

• According to According to cognitive constructivismcognitive constructivism, students’ , students’ preconceptionspreconceptions are an important basis for their education. From the view of are an important basis for their education. From the view of motivation, students’ preconceptions are a motivation, students’ preconceptions are a source of cognitive source of cognitive motivationmotivation. .

Result:Result:

Combined cognitive motivational Combined cognitive motivational

teaching technique teaching technique

is formedis formed byby

problem exercises problem exercises

based onbased on simple experiments simple experiments

with with everyday objects.everyday objects.

22 Surprise Surprise

• Students have knowledge of natural object or phenomenon Students have knowledge of natural object or phenomenon gained through their own experience and learning. This gained through their own experience and learning. This object or phenomenon is presented in surprising problem object or phenomenon is presented in surprising problem exercise so that it exercise so that it conflicts with expectation arising conflicts with expectation arising from studentsfrom students’ ’ existing knowledgeexisting knowledge. The contrast . The contrast between studentsbetween students’ ’ expectation and presented exercise is expectation and presented exercise is an incentive causing studentsan incentive causing students’’ cognitive motivation. cognitive motivation.

• Students then make Students then make cognitive activitycognitive activity, conditioned on , conditioned on motivation, for motivation, for elimination of this contrastelimination of this contrast by solving by solving the surprising problem with the aid of logical thinking, the surprising problem with the aid of logical thinking, calculation, measurement, experiment or their calculation, measurement, experiment or their combination. combination.

• The typical question of a motivated student is: The typical question of a motivated student is: „ „WHY IT IS NOT POSSIBLEWHY IT IS NOT POSSIBLE?” ?”

Paper ballPaper ball

We make a ball from a piece of toilet paper and put it into toilet We make a ball from a piece of toilet paper and put it into toilet paper tube. The ball of shaped paper has to have the same diameter paper tube. The ball of shaped paper has to have the same diameter as the tube but it must not fall out spontaneously. We hold the as the tube but it must not fall out spontaneously. We hold the vertical tube with paper ball in one hand and try to tap with the vertical tube with paper ball in one hand and try to tap with the other hand palm with splayed fingers on the top of the tube to get other hand palm with splayed fingers on the top of the tube to get the ball out of the tube. But the ball does not fall out and surprisingly the ball out of the tube. But the ball does not fall out and surprisingly crawls upwards inside the tube. crawls upwards inside the tube.

Explanation:Explanation: Surprising behaviour of the ball is caused by its Surprising behaviour of the ball is caused by its inertiainertia..

Balance on a surfaceBalance on a surface

We put a high block of polystyrene on the water surface in a vessel We put a high block of polystyrene on the water surface in a vessel with its big sidewall. The block in a stable position is lying on the with its big sidewall. The block in a stable position is lying on the surface. Then we sink a load (screw, nut etc.) into the centre of a surface. Then we sink a load (screw, nut etc.) into the centre of a small base of the second block, same as the first one. If we put the small base of the second block, same as the first one. If we put the second block with its big sidewall down on the water surface, it second block with its big sidewall down on the water surface, it surprisingly stands up on its small base.surprisingly stands up on its small base.

Explanation:Explanation: Surprising behaviour of the second block is caused by Surprising behaviour of the second block is caused by lowering of the centre of block masslowering of the centre of block mass thanks to the load. thanks to the load.

3 3 ParadoxParadox

• Paradox is an obvious Paradox is an obvious conflict with “common sense”conflict with “common sense”, , then with studentsthen with students’’ knowledge and experiences. knowledge and experiences. Psychological basis of paradoxical problem exercise is Psychological basis of paradoxical problem exercise is similar to the previous principle of surprise but the similar to the previous principle of surprise but the motivational effect is motivational effect is extremeextreme and influences and influences all students all students universallyuniversally. Paradoxical phenomena and experiments . Paradoxical phenomena and experiments played an important role in the history of science played an important role in the history of science discoveries. There are known hydrostatics and discoveries. There are known hydrostatics and hydrodynamics paradoxes from fluid mechanics and hydrodynamics paradoxes from fluid mechanics and paradox of twins from the relativity theory etc. paradox of twins from the relativity theory etc.

• Paradoxical problem exercises initiate conditioned Paradoxical problem exercises initiate conditioned cognitive motivational activitycognitive motivational activity guiding students to the guiding students to the removal of the paradoxical conflict from their mindremoval of the paradoxical conflict from their mind. .

• The typical statement of a motivated student is: The typical statement of a motivated student is: „„I DO NOT BELIEVE IT IS POSSIBLE!”I DO NOT BELIEVE IT IS POSSIBLE!”

Freezing mixtureFreezing mixture

WWe put crushed ice into a glass and fill it up with salt. Then we stir e put crushed ice into a glass and fill it up with salt. Then we stir the mixture and after a while we measure the temperature of the the mixture and after a while we measure the temperature of the liquid at the bottom of the glass. The temperature of the liquid is liquid at the bottom of the glass. The temperature of the liquid is deep under the freezing point of water. It reaches up to minus twenty deep under the freezing point of water. It reaches up to minus twenty degrees Celsius. Paradoxically, the water does not freeze at the degrees Celsius. Paradoxically, the water does not freeze at the temperature lower than freezing point of water. temperature lower than freezing point of water.

Explanation:Explanation: Very cool liquid is not water but Very cool liquid is not water but hypothermic solution hypothermic solution of salt in water.of salt in water.

Solidity of a paperSolidity of a paper

We place a strip of soft paper over an empty glass. A coin put on this We place a strip of soft paper over an empty glass. A coin put on this paper strip falls into the glass because the paper strip does not hold paper strip falls into the glass because the paper strip does not hold it. If we pleat the same paper strip, the coin does not fall in. The it. If we pleat the same paper strip, the coin does not fall in. The pleated paper strip holds even a column of coins.pleated paper strip holds even a column of coins.

Explanation:Explanation: There is needed a much There is needed a much greater deformational forcegreater deformational force to deform pleated paper with vertical carriage than flat paper.to deform pleated paper with vertical carriage than flat paper.

44 Doubt Doubt

• Doubt about natural laws validity appears if aDoubt about natural laws validity appears if a phenomenon phenomenon is presented with the aid of an experiment when natural is presented with the aid of an experiment when natural law law conditions are not fully observedconditions are not fully observed. Thus a . Thus a conflict conflict in the shape of doubt aboutin the shape of doubt about natural law validity natural law validity emerges. emerges.

• This doubt is an incentive resulted in significantly motivated This doubt is an incentive resulted in significantly motivated proving of natural law validity and searching for its proving of natural law validity and searching for its validity limitsvalidity limits. Knowledge of law as well as skill of its . Knowledge of law as well as skill of its application during problem solving is strengthened. application during problem solving is strengthened.

• The typical question isThe typical question is::

„„WHY IS THE LAW NOT VALID?”WHY IS THE LAW NOT VALID?”

Non-floating polystyreneNon-floating polystyrene

We fill a glass of water halfway. Then we place a small piece of We fill a glass of water halfway. Then we place a small piece of polystyrene floating on the surface. We cover the piece of polystyrene polystyrene floating on the surface. We cover the piece of polystyrene on the surface with a second smaller glass and press it vertically on on the surface with a second smaller glass and press it vertically on the bottom. The piece of polystyrene almost touches the bottom and the bottom. The piece of polystyrene almost touches the bottom and does not float on the original surface in the bigger glass. does not float on the original surface in the bigger glass.

Explanation:Explanation: This is not about invalidity of the law of solids floating This is not about invalidity of the law of solids floating since thesince the piece of piece of polystyrene floats on the new lower water polystyrene floats on the new lower water surfacesurface..

Boil of waterBoil of water

We fill a plastic syringe fully with hot water (not boiling) at a We fill a plastic syringe fully with hot water (not boiling) at a temperature lower than 100 degrees Celsius. After filling we deck the temperature lower than 100 degrees Celsius. After filling we deck the spike and swiftly pull the piston up. The water begins to boil again. spike and swiftly pull the piston up. The water begins to boil again. The experiment can be repeated several times.The experiment can be repeated several times.

Explanation:Explanation: Water Water boils at lowered pressureboils at lowered pressure at the temperature at the temperature lower than 100 degrees Celsius.lower than 100 degrees Celsius.

5 5 UncertaintyUncertainty

• A student is offered A student is offered several possible solutionsseveral possible solutions in this in this problem exercise. Thus there arises a problem exercise. Thus there arises a conflict in the conflict in the shape of uncertaintyshape of uncertainty by the student. by the student.

• Motivated studentMotivated student’’s behaviour follows and results in s behaviour follows and results in searching for the correct solutionsearching for the correct solution by choice of the by choice of the offered alternatives. An uncertainty problem exerciseoffered alternatives. An uncertainty problem exercise is is based on simple experiment with everyday objects based on simple experiment with everyday objects including alternatives in solution. including alternatives in solution.

• The typical question of a motivated student is: The typical question of a motivated student is:

„„WHAT IS CORRECT?”WHAT IS CORRECT?”

Melting iceMelting ice

We fill a glass fully with lukewarm water and put an ice cube inside so We fill a glass fully with lukewarm water and put an ice cube inside so that the excess water spills. A piece of ice extends from the surface. that the excess water spills. A piece of ice extends from the surface. Evaporation of water is negligible. Ice melts after a while. What Evaporation of water is negligible. Ice melts after a while. What situation comes after melting?situation comes after melting? (a) (a) water surface level does not change and water does not spillwater surface level does not change and water does not spill (b) (b) water surface level lowerswater surface level lowers (c) (c) a bit of water spillsa bit of water spills

Correct solution isCorrect solution is:: (a)(a) From Archimedes From Archimedes’’ principle and phenomenon principle and phenomenon conditions follows that conditions follows that volume of water created by melting of ice volume of water created by melting of ice is the same as that of water overflowedis the same as that of water overflowed during the experiment during the experiment with melting ice.with melting ice.

Paradoxical cylinderParadoxical cylinder

We glue a coin on the base of a polystyrene cylinder. The coin has the same We glue a coin on the base of a polystyrene cylinder. The coin has the same diameter as the cylinder. Height of the polystyrene cylinder will be adapted so diameter as the cylinder. Height of the polystyrene cylinder will be adapted so that only the coin extends from the surface of the water. We turn the cylinder that only the coin extends from the surface of the water. We turn the cylinder coin down and place it in the water again. How deep will the cylinder with the coin down and place it in the water again. How deep will the cylinder with the coin dip?coin dip?(a) (a) the height of an extending polystyrene is the same as the height of the cointhe height of an extending polystyrene is the same as the height of the coin(b) (b) polystyrene will not extend from the surface since the coin pulls it to the polystyrene will not extend from the surface since the coin pulls it to the bottombottom(c) (c) the higher part of polystyrene than the coin will extend from the surfacethe higher part of polystyrene than the coin will extend from the surface

Correct solution isCorrect solution is:: (a)(a) This is about Archimedes This is about Archimedes’’ principle application. Weight of principle application. Weight of the cylinder does not change during turning and therefore the cylinder does not change during turning and therefore buoyant force and buoyant force and volume of the sunken part of the cylinder will be the same.volume of the sunken part of the cylinder will be the same.

66 Difficulty Difficulty

• If we assign complicated or seemingly If we assign complicated or seemingly insolvable problem insolvable problem exerciseexercise, a student can be motivated to solve this exercise , a student can be motivated to solve this exercise and so satisfy cognitive needs and need for success. We and so satisfy cognitive needs and need for success. We have to be careful in the determination of an appropriate have to be careful in the determination of an appropriate level of difficulty in the problem exercise. level of difficulty in the problem exercise.

• Problem exercise must not be too difficult not to discourage Problem exercise must not be too difficult not to discourage students from students from solvingsolving and demotivate them. Many of these and demotivate them. Many of these problem exercises are based on problem exercises are based on riddles and tricksriddles and tricks. A . A difficulty problem exercise includes simple experiment with difficulty problem exercise includes simple experiment with everyday objects causing difficulty of solution.everyday objects causing difficulty of solution.

• The typical statement of a motivated student is: The typical statement of a motivated student is: „„I HAVE TO DISCOVER IT!”I HAVE TO DISCOVER IT!”

Glass and coinGlass and coin

A coin is lying on the bottom of a glass with a smooth surface, flaring A coin is lying on the bottom of a glass with a smooth surface, flaring upwards. The task is to take the coin out of the glass without upwards. The task is to take the coin out of the glass without touching the coin or overturning the glass.touching the coin or overturning the glass.

Solution:Solution: By whirl motion with increasing speed, we put the coin in By whirl motion with increasing speed, we put the coin in spiral motion upwards along the inside glass wall until the coin flies spiral motion upwards along the inside glass wall until the coin flies out of the glass by out of the glass by centrifugal forcecentrifugal force..

Tornado in a bottleTornado in a bottle

We warm two plastic caps up in flame and connect them together on We warm two plastic caps up in flame and connect them together on their upper parts. Then we bore a hole through the connected caps. We their upper parts. Then we bore a hole through the connected caps. We screw two plastic bottles together with the aid of the connected caps screw two plastic bottles together with the aid of the connected caps and one bottle fill almost completely with water. The connected bottles and one bottle fill almost completely with water. The connected bottles are put in vertical position with the full one up. Only a small amount of are put in vertical position with the full one up. Only a small amount of water passes through into the lower bottle, the rest remains in the water passes through into the lower bottle, the rest remains in the upper bottle thanks to underpressure. The task is to move the water upper bottle thanks to underpressure. The task is to move the water from the upper bottle into the lower one without opening or damaging from the upper bottle into the lower one without opening or damaging of the bottles.of the bottles.

Solution:Solution: We whirl water in the upper bottle by whirl motion of We whirl water in the upper bottle by whirl motion of connected bottles in vertical position. There connected bottles in vertical position. There arises a narrow air arises a narrow air tunnel in rotating watertunnel in rotating water in the axis of the bottle. The air is pumped in the axis of the bottle. The air is pumped through the tunnel over from the lower bottle into the space over the through the tunnel over from the lower bottle into the space over the water and the air pressure begins to become. The water begins to water and the air pressure begins to become. The water begins to overflow into the lower bottle. Whirlpool phenomenon is similar to a overflow into the lower bottle. Whirlpool phenomenon is similar to a tornado.tornado.

Thank you!Thank you!

Josef TJosef Trnarna

FFaculty of Education, Masaryk Universityaculty of Education, Masaryk University

Brno, Czech RepublicBrno, Czech Republic

trna@ped.muni.cztrna@ped.muni.cz