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MP07 Motivational Psychology
Section 1 – Exercise benefits
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2
Section 2 – Exercise factors
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3
Module Two: Goals and Motivations
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10
Section 1 – Goal setting
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10
Section 2 – Goals, motivations, and arousal
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12
References
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23
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Unit Introduction
Welcome to the unit MP07 Motivational Psychology. This unit is made
up of the following Unit of
Competency:
SISFFIT016 Provide motivation to positively influence exercise
behaviour
Before you begin please read through the following frequently asked
questions.
What is the full name of the course award I am working for?
Successful completion of this unit can count towards several
qualifications. Check your registration details for the
qualification you are working towards.
How much work is involved?
Whichever qualification you are working towards will have a number
of units of competency you
are required to complete.
We recommend that, to successfully meet the requirements of each
cluster of units for this
course, you plan to complete one cluster of units of study per
month. You will receive your
personalised study plan two weeks after your enrolment date. This
study plan is a structured plan
which allocates a manageable study timeframe, with the allocation
of additional months at the
end of your study period.
This will enable you to read through the materials, undertaking a
range of activities which focus
on this cluster of Units. You should then be ready for the final
assessments at the end of this
Cluster of units.
If I get stuck or need help, what is available?
The Technical Panel is available to support you during business
hours, from Monday to Friday
(excluding public holidays). You may book a phone coaching session
with a Technical Advisor by
emailing your questions to
[email protected]. One of the
Technical Advisors will
respond to you within two business days. In the meantime, whilst
you are waiting for a response,
we recommend that you continue working through your cluster of
units learning and activities.
Aim: What is this cluster of units about, and what will be expected
of me?
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills and knowledge
required to promote exercise
and incorporate behaviour change strategies into fitness
instruction, programming and provision
of fitness advice.
This unit applies to personal trainers who work in controlled and
uncontrolled environments.
These individuals typically work independently with some level of
autonomy. Work is performed
according to the relevant legislation and organisational policies
and procedures.
No occupational licensing, certification or specific legislative
requirements apply to this unit at the
time of publication.
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Learning objectives: What should I be able to do, when I have
successfully achieved this cluster of units?
We are working with you to support you in developing your
competence in the following areas:
SISFFIT016
(iii) Maintain and update knowledge of motivation and behaviour
change.
What kind of work will I have to undertake and complete?
This is an online learning course, which is different from learning
in the traditional classroom. You
can work at your own pace, refer to your own past experiences and
seek support, when needed.
Each time you read and complete a set of information, save that
work and return to it, if you wish
to revise or review, at any time. Work through one module at a
time. It will take time to adapt to
online learning, so be fair to yourself, and allow yourself time to
get used to this new and exciting
way of developing your skills and knowledge!
How many modules are in this course?
There are two modules to be completed within this course. They
are:
1. Exercise benefits and factors
2. Goals and motivations
How are the modules presented?
Each module will provide you with an introduction and overview of
information.
When do I get assessed?
You will submit your assessments at the end of this cluster of
units. You can of course ask for help
before or during your studies if you wish. Please feel free to read
through the assessments at any
time.
How will I be scored/assessed?
The Assessor is looking for a demonstration of your competence in
this cluster of units. There are
four assessment items for each cluster of units. Each of the four
assessment items must be
assessed as ‘Satisfactory’. If any assessment item is assessed as
‘Not Yet Satisfactory’, this means
that the item does not meet the cluster of units
standards/requirements. You will then be
required to review and resubmit the assessment item/s. The Assessor
will provide comments to
you for the purpose of assisting in revising and reviewing your
submission to meet cluster of units
standards and criteria. Professional AIPT assistance is also
available for you, on request.
The final assessment outcome of the cluster of units will recognise
you to be ‘Competent’ in each
of the individual units that make up this cluster of units. This
can only be confirmed when all four
assessment items are assessed as "Satisfactory". You will not be
deemed "Competent", until all
four assessment items are separately assessed as “Satisfactory".
This is the basis on which all
MP07 Motivational Psychology Learner Guide V2.0 (2020/04/03)
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vocational (work-based) training is assessed. Please note that
neither scores nor grades are
issued to candidates within the competency-based assessment
process.
Additional learning aids (subject to availability)
• eLibrary of templates and resources available for you to
use
• Video clips to enhance your e-learning (subject to
availability)
• Webinars can be organised (subject to availability and
numbers)
• Online chat forums are encouraged (subject to
availability).
What icons are used throughout the course?
We have included the following icons to identify the different work
you are going to undertake:
Icons Icon type Description
Prescribed Reading Courses with prescribed readings require you to
have access to a particular text for the duration of the course.
This icon represents readings from this text.
Suggested Reading These are readings which will add depth and
understanding to your course participation.
Definition These represent definitions of important terms relevant
to this course.
Reflection Reflections prompt you to think about certain subject
matters. You are being encouraged to draw on your own personal
experiences.
Tip Hints and tips to assist you in this subject area.
Video Videos to support the course content. Watch these short
videos to learn more about the topics covered.
Web Internet web link to support course content and provide further
reading or research opportunities
AIPT is committed to, and continuously reviews, the design and
development of their
contemporary eLearning tools and resources to support you, in your
studies. However, resources
will be subject to availability.
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Recommendation to make the best use of your time
We recommend that you attempt to complete at least one cluster of
units per month. A
minimum of 12 hours per month should be set aside in a quiet area
where there are minimum
interruptions for you. This time is YOUR investment in YOUR
learning and, in YOUR success.
Great! I think we are ready to get started. Please work through and
complete the following
checklist, to ensure you have the tools needed to get
started.
To be successful within this cluster of units, we need you to
demonstrate your competence. What
does that mean for you?
To be competent is to: Demonstrate your skills, knowledge and
attributes for completing a
task/job to national standards.
Tip:
Read through and identify any area/s in which you may wish to
undertake personal
research prior to commencing your studies.
Remember that AIPT has Technical Advisers who are available to work
with you after you have
commenced your studies. When contacting them (preferably by email),
list the key questions or
queries you have. By doing so, you will enable them to assist you
in the best possible way.
Telephone appointments are also available! Their email address is
[email protected].
So, let’s look at the ‘competencies’ that are to be demonstrated,
within this cluster of units.
Checklist for you to get started
Computer – full access to the Internet and Microsoft Office suite
(Word, Excel and PowerPoint, at the very least)
Writing materials (pens, paper, ruler, rubber) – these are useful
for note taking
Contact details for AIPT technical advisors – please refer to the
Support area of My eCampus (Subject Support)
Timeframes, to complete this cluster of units, written into
diary/calendar – please refer to your personalised Study Plan
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SISFFIT016 P
e rf
o rm
an ce
E vi
d e
n ce
• Use knowledge of exercise behaviour change strategies to improve
own instructional practice to improve exercise adherence of
clients:
- Collect information from each client regarding attitude towards
exercise:
Belief systems and values
Perceived barriers to exercise participation and adherence
- Implement behaviour change models
- Consider personal and situational factors
• Motivate clients during exercise programs using:
- Principles of goal setting
- Confidentiality of client information
- Contracting
- Prompts
- Reinforcement
- Progress charts
- Direction of effort
- Intensity of effort
- Persistence of behaviour
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K n
o w
le d
ge E
vi d
e n
• Personal and situational factors that may affect behaviour and/or
exercise adherence:
- Family, cultural and social situation
- Habits
- Lifestyle
- Personality
- SMART goals
- Goal achievement strategies
- Perceived versus actual barriers
- Initial low fitness level
- Self-consciousness in client
• Methods of collecting information about client’s attitude towards
exercise
• Scope of practice for a personal trainer.
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Standards established to assess you
As you will learn over the course of this cluster of units, to
assess any performance requires that a
minimal standard or standards (or benchmark) be achieved. This is
written into a Performance
Criterion.
A Performance Criterion will clearly state what is to be
demonstrated for assessment to be
successful. The performance criteria for this cluster of units are
set by the Australian
Qualifications Framework (AQF).
1. Consolidate understanding of behaviour change strategies.
1.1 Source and access information on motivation and behaviour
change relevant to fitness outcomes.
1.2 Use knowledge of motivation and behaviour change in day-to-day
professional practice.
1.3 Discuss/explain how understanding of motivation and behaviour
change contribute to client commitment and confidence.
1.4 Use a wide range of motivation and behaviour change relevant to
fitness outcomes.
2. Apply knowledge to own professional practice.
2.1 Assess ways in which knowledge of motivation and behaviour
change may be used, adapted or challenged in instruction and
provision of fitness advice.
2.2 Identify current and emerging knowledge of motivation and
behaviour change relevant to development of own professional
practice.
2.3 Modify approach to fitness programming activities and advice as
required.
3. Maintain and update knowledge of motivation and behaviour
change.
3.1 Identify and use opportunities to update and expand own
knowledge of motivation and behaviour change.
3.2 Monitor response to changes made to own professional practice
or instruction.
3.3 Continue to adjust own practice to optimise results.
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Learning Objectives
This unit describes the performance outcomes, skills, and knowledge
required to analyse client
behaviour and motivate clients to commence and adhere to a
long-term exercise plan.
This unit applies to those operating as exercise trainers in
fitness environments, such as fitness
centres or gyms, or autonomously in the fitness or health
industry.
During this unit, you will learn about:
• The benefits of regular and specific exercise
• Client barriers to exercise and adherence techniques
• Interpersonal factors and their effect on exercise
adherence
• The behavioural stages of change and their influence on client
adherence
• The benefits of correct communication
• The use of goal setting in adherence and motivation
• Motivation techniques to assist with clients’ adherence to
exercise
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SECTION 1 – EXERCISE BENEFITS
Statistics about sport and physical activity in Australia show that
just over half of Australians
perform sufficient exercise to gain health benefits. Exercising a
few times every week offers a
range of health benefits.
any number of health benefits, including:
• Improvement of strength and balance
• Reduction in stress levels
• Better quality of sleep
• Decrease in body fat
• Improved daily performance and concentration
Fitness professionals can help educate clients on the potential
benefits that they may experience
through completing regular physical activity. The role of the
fitness professional is to help clients
achieve as many benefits from their training program as possible as
well as achieving long-term
goals. Every goal will have a particular style or type of training
that will ensure that clients
achieve what they wanted to.
There are two types of exercise that trainers use when developing
programs:
Cardiovascular exercise
The most common type of exercise is cardiovascular exercise,
also
called aerobic exercise, which utilises oxygen and helps burn
fat.
This type of exercise has consistently been shown in numerous
studies to improve cardiovascular and respiratory health. As
a
result, this type of exercise conditions the lungs to be able to
use
more oxygen while increasing the heart’s efficiency by
decreasing
heart rate.
utilisation of oxygen. Aerobic physical activity improves the
heart,
lungs, and vascular system. It is recommended that the most
effective exercises for improving the cardiovascular system
should
employ large muscle groups in activities that exceed 20
minutes.
1
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Resistance exercise
Resistance training, also called weight training or strength
training, involves putting muscles
against a resistance such as a weight – for example, a dumbbell or
barbell – or other type of
resistance to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and/or size
of skeletal muscles. A well-
rounded program of physical activity includes strength training to
improve bone, joint function,
bone density, muscle, tendon, and ligament strength in addition to
aerobic exercise for improving
heart and lung fitness.
Strength training aims to improve the efficiency of the muscular
system by placing the muscles
under a load, i.e. weight. Doing this forces the muscle to
strengthen, thereby improving a
person’s overall strength or ability to lift weight.
The benefits of strength training include:
• Increase in muscular size
• Increase in ligament and tendon strength
• Aiding in the correction of postural challenges
• Decrease in the chance of osteoporosis
• Slowing the effects of muscular atrophy
• Improved rehabilitation of an injury
SECTION 2 – EXERCISE FACTORS
Definition
Exercise adherence refers to the strength of an individual’s
commitment to performing physical exercise and adhering to a
training program.
Barriers
People with strong exercise adherence continue physical activity
despite opportunities and
pressures to withdraw. However, many people cease programs within 6
to 8 weeks of starting
one.
•Increase in stroke volume
•Decrease in blood pressure
•Decrease in body fat
•Improvement of glucose metabolism
programming include:
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There are many different reasons why a person will not stay with a
fitness program or a fitness
professional. Some of these reasons may be injury, social
commitments, financial strain, loss of
focus, boredom, lack of results, and lack of support. Some of these
factors are summarised in the
following table.
Reason Explanation
Boredom
If a client seems to be losing focus on their training or appears
bored, it is vital that you find out the reasons why. If you do
not, it will only be a matter of time before the client stops
training altogether. To help reduce boredom, work with the client
to re-establish their goals. Find out what it is that they would
like to achieve through their training, and make the client believe
that it is possible. You may wish to introduce a new type of
training.
Energy Lack of energy is often cited as an excuse for not
exercising. Although there will be days when your clients do not
feel like exercising because they are too tired or lack energy, it
is important to try to complete the exercise program or to do your
workout at a lower intensity level. Explain to clients that
exercise will often revitalise them and provide them with more
energy.
Injury There is a possibility that a client who is training with
you may encounter an injury that could prevent them from
exercising. It is common that a person that suffers in this way
could feel that training is impossible, too hard, or not worth
continuing. Trainers should help clients realise that it could be
possible and worthwhile for them to continue with their training
whilst managing their injury.
Money At times, a client may go through a period of financial
hardship and cut out exercise as a luxury expense. When you
encounter this, look at ways to encourage your client to continue
with their training. Remind clients how important their health and
fitness is to them, and emphasise what the client has so far
achieved. Demonstrate ways to find the money for an exercise
program by, for example, cutting back on either takeaway food,
buying lunch, or buying alcohol.
Time Time management is an important part of everyone’s life, and
finding time to exercise is vital if an exercise program is to be
adhered to. The most commonly used excuse is that a client does not
have time to exercise. Explain to clients the importance of
scheduling their workout time and allowing sufficient time before
and after their workout for travel time, changing, and
showering.
Adherence techniques
Providing support to your clients to overcome adherence barriers
will assist with long-term goal
achievement. Following below are some techniques that you and/or
your client can use to assist
with this:
• Identify SMARTER goals
• Choose appropriate facilities
• Obtain social support
• Implement individual trackers for self-monitoring, e.g. exercise
logs, food diaries
• Monitor effects of exercise, e.g. benefits and side effects
• Ensure variety and enjoyment
• Establish a regular schedule
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Interpersonal factors
positive. The client-trainer relationship forms the
platform upon which the whole personal training
model is delivered. Poor communication and
interpersonal issues and the trainer’s agenda are
issues that might come together to form a non-
facilitative relationship.
Trainers are required to deal with a wide range of
people. It is imperative, therefore, that trainers be
able to adapt their training style to suit different clients. Two
common features of difference to
the trainer that may be encountered are the client’s culture and
age. The following are some tips
on what to be aware of when encountering these differences.
Individual barriers
physical activity because they are potential
mediators of people’s behavioural choices
regarding physical activity (Dishman, R.K.). There
is a range of personal factors that the personal
trainer needs to be aware of so that they can
increase participation in physical exercise. These
include people’s beliefs about the outcomes of
being physically active or inactive; the values they place on those
outcomes; satisfaction with
their current status and physical activity goals; self-efficacy,
i.e., confidence about being physically
active; and their ability to change their current level of physical
activity (Justine, M., 2013).
The following are some factors and influence on exercise
participation.
Factor Influence Factor Influence
Blue-collar occupation (e.g. trade based occupations)
Negative Injury history Unclear
Gender (male) Positive Pregnancy and early child rearing
Negative
High risk of heart disease Negative
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Different cultures have different opinions on what
is considered healthy. For example, in Western
cultures, it is considered that if a person is thin or
slim, they are likely to be healthy. In many other
cultures, the popular view may be completely
different to this.
training. It may be necessary for you to deliver a
more subdued session for such clients rather than
a military-style boot camp session. Such a session would also
include the type of music that you
play when training your client regularly; it may not be appropriate
to have loud and fast music
playing.
Age
People of different ages prefer different types of music. As a
personal trainer, you must know the
average age of the clients you train and the groups you instruct
and choose your music
accordingly. The reasons for this could relate to the speed of the
music as well as the type of
language used therein. For example, some age groups may struggle to
keep up with fast music;
conversely, you could have groups that find the pace a little slow
for their liking. Likewise, when
dealing with certain clients, you may have to vary the formality or
familiarity of your language.
In summary, when taking cultural, social, and age differences into
account, professional trainers
may need to:
Better Health Channel - Physical activity: overcoming the
barriers
•Change how they greet and communicate with clients
•Vary the type of language used
•Vary the type of clothing worn to suit the client’s culture
•Be aware of appropriate body language
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Behavioural stages of change
If clients want something to change within themselves, they have to
be prepared to change
something. This behavioural change is not easily accomplished in
one step; it often involves going
through different stages at one’s own pace.
The Five Stages of Change model is a useful
framework that describes the series of stages
we go through to change our lifestyle habits.
The critical assumption that underpins this
model is that behavioural changes do not
happen in one step but rather through a
series of distinct, predicable stages.
Understanding and realising the stage of
change you are in may be helpful for you to
succeed.
It is important that strategies be put into
place to prevent lapses or relapses. A lapse
is a temporary return to old behaviours and
habits whereas a relapse is a permanent return to old
behaviours.
Prevention strategies include:
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The following is an outline of the stages of behavioural
change
Stages of Change
Description
Pre-contemplation Involves a person having no intention of
beginning a fitness program or even considering what is required to
begin. They may wish for a healthier lifestyle or want to look and
feel better but have not seriously considered what is required to
achieve this.
Contemplation Involves a person seriously considering making
changes in order to begin a fitness program. At this stage, a
person may have identified what it is they would like to achieve
and begin considering what is required for them to do so. No
commitment has been given to beginning a fitness program.
Preparation Involves the person making some changes to allow them
to begin a fitness program. This could include finding out what
times the gym is open and seeing what services are available to
them that will fit into their lifestyle. At this stage, the best
way to encourage them to make this decision is to tell the person
that they are making the right choice in commencing a fitness
program with you. You may be able to assist the person by providing
information via brochures or websites, for example.
Action Involves the person taking action and commencing a fitness
program. The person has found a gym that fits into their lifestyle
and is working out regularly in order to achieve their goals. At
this stage, it is imperative that you be positive with your
comments to the person about their training. Remind them of their
goals, and make positive comments on their appearance or energy
levels when you start to notice such changes.
Maintenance Involves keeping the person focused on their training
and attempting to avoid any relapse into a lifestyle where they are
not exercising. You may wish to sit down regularly with the person
and discuss their goals with them. Over time, their goals may
change or will have to be revisited as they are achieved. You may
carry out regular testing and review the results with the person.
Allowing the person to see their progress towards their goals on a
regular basis will keep them motivated.
Video
Stages of Behaviour Change (09:21min)
Communication
self-awareness. Understanding your personal style
of communication will go a long way towards
helping you create good and lasting impressions
on others and good relationships with clients.
By becoming more aware of how others perceive
you, you can adapt more readily to their styles of
communication. As a fitness instructor, it is vital
that you be capable of communicating with your
clients by employing both verbal and non-verbal
techniques.
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Verbal
Definition
Verbal communication is the process of communication through words
and the tone with which that the message is delivered.
There are several important verbal components to consider when
communicating:
• Active listening is important for a fitness instructor. It is
imperative that you not only listen to what the client is saying
but also understand what is being said.
• Speaking clearly is vital for a fitness instructor. Whether you
are communicating to a group of clients or chatting one on one with
a person, the other party must be able to understand every word
that you say.
• Effective use of questioning. Fitness instructors must be able to
use questioning effectively.
• Be courteous. This means that you allow the client to finish
speaking before you speak.
• Showing respect to your client is important. This may be by
choosing the correct words and tone to use based on your client’s
age, sex, or other factors. Similarly, it may be by respecting
cultural differences that could exist between you both.
Non-verbal
Definition
Non-verbal communication is the process of communication via
sending and receiving wordless, mostly visual, messages. These
messages can be communicated through gestures and touch, body
language, posture, facial expression, and eye contact.
There are several important non-verbal components to consider when
communicating.
• Open body language is important when talking to a client. By
keeping yourself open, e.g. no crossed arms or legs, you will help
make your client feel more comfortable and more open to talking
with you.
• Facial expressions must match the verbal messages you are
delivering your client. As most facial expressions occur beyond
your conscious control, this is something that you must be very
aware of when communicating with clients.
• Eye contact is important when communicating with any person. This
will show that you are paying attention to them and are interested
in what is being said.
• Tone of speech is vital to showing a client that you are
interested in them.
• Volume of speech is important when communicating. Talking too
loudly could be seen as being aggressive whereas talking too
quietly could be distracting to your client as they are left trying
to hear you rather than listening to what you are saying.
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SECTION 1 – GOAL SETTING
Definition
A goal is a specific level of performance or proficiency that you
want to achieve. Goal setting enables behavioural change to be
broken down into small, manageable steps allowing achievement and
motivation.
When a client begins a training program, it is
imperative that you get them to set goals
that they would like to achieve. You should
do this by utilising your communication skills
in order to gain the trust of your client so that
they feel comfortable sharing their goals with
you. Remember that every person who
begins a training program has done so for a
reason. It is up to you to find out why.
Having a goal serves at least three purposes:
1.
•It will motivate the client to gain and develop new skills and
knowledge in order to improve their performance.
2. •It will keep the client focused on what it is they are doing
and why they are doing it.
3. •It allows the client to keep motivated by focusing on internal
(intrinsic) motivation.
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One of the challenges for fitness professionals and clients is
making the necessary lifestyle
changes in order to adhere to a training program. Making lifestyle
changes can be challenging,
and many people find that having a goal in mind gives them
something to work towards,
motivates them to stay on track, and provides a measure of how well
they are doing throughout
the training program.
• Increase motivation
• Prevent boredom
• Develop a performance ethos of always striving to do their
best
SMART Goals
There is a simple process to follow when setting goals
with a client: the SMART process. The SMART process
comprises of five simple steps that, when used, will
make goal setting not only easy but also fun.
Specific
A specific goal has a much greater chance of being
accomplished than a general goal. To set a specific
goal, make sure you include details of who, what, why,
where, when, and which (or how).
Measurable
toward the completion of each goal you set. This could
be in terms of distance, weight, time, height, etc.
Achievable
or other realistic measures – for it to be attainable and
achievable. If the example goal were to run 10km twice
daily every day for a week, this would not be very
realistic, for example. Ensuring that goals are within the client’s
limits and capabilities means that
the client will remain motivated to succeed in achieving
them.
Relevant
Is the goal important to your client and important to what they
ultimately want to achieve?
For example, if a short-term goal is not relevant to helping
achieve a final long-term goal, the
result may be lack of motivation and direction, and the client
might not be likely to succeed.
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Timely
A timeframe is a necessity with any goal as it gives
clients a deadline and motivation to keep moving
forward according to milestones. In addition to goals
being measurable via other means, they must always be
time based or time bound with a completion date.
Video
• SMART Goal Setting (13:33min)
Tip
Goal setting is like a road map. The big picture goal is the
destination, the short-term goals are the pit stops along the way,
and the action goals are what you do to get to the pit stops.
Most people have a destination in mind when they go for a drive,
and as an athlete, you need to know where you are headed.
Source: AIS: Goal Setting
Types of Goals
Clients’ goals may not only focus around physical outcomes. Rather,
they may be psychological,
physiological, or social goals.
Psychological goals
Psychological goals are those that strive to better a client’s
mental health or satisfy a mental
need.
Example goal: To decrease stress, improve general mood, or decrease
symptoms of depression
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Physiological goals
Physiological goals are physical and are usually the ones
that
first come to mind when goal setting in terms of a client’s
fitness
and health. These goals include aspects of muscular strength
and endurance, cardiovascular fitness, flexibility,
co-ordination,
power and speed, etc.
Social goals are most evident when sport or recreation
involves
a group of others. This could be a scenario such as indoor
group
fitness, boot camps, competitive sport, social sports teams,
or
simply having a running partner or gym buddy.
Sport-specific goals
Sport-specific goals are those that aim to improve sporting
performance or skills. These goals will greatly vary
depending
on the sport in which your client is involved and also the level
at
which they compete, perform, or play.
Example goal: Increase 1RM on the bench press
Run continuously for 45 minutes
Example goal: Work more effectively in a team environment
Meet new people and make new friends
Example goal: Increase weightlifting personal best
Improve golf swing technique
Decrease 200m freestyle time
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Better Health Channel: Physical activity – setting yourself
goals
Definition
Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains
goal-oriented behaviours. It is what causes us to take action. The
forces that lie beneath motivation can be biological, social,
emotional, or cognitive in nature. There are three components to
motivation to enable effective assessment of progress. These
include, the direction of effort, intensity of effort, and the
persistence of behaviour. The direction of effort is relating to
what the person is aiming to achieve. The intensity of effort is
how much effort the individual is exerting towards the desired
outcome. And lastly the persistence of behaviour is a description
of the amount of persistence towards the attainment of this
outcome.
Goal setting
•You and your client should develop two or three short-term goals
and one or two long- term goals when beginning a program.
•Use a goal-setting worksheet.
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Motivational techniques that fitness professionals may find useful
are described with examples as
follows.
Technique Explanation
Imagery This method involves the use of imagery to provide
inspiration and motivation to achieve a goal. For example, during a
cycle class, have the clients visualise themselves climbing a hill
and crossing the line first in order to have them increase and
maintain their pace.
Personal reward system
A great way of motivating clients is to get them to set specific
rewards once certain goals have been met. This could be something
internal or external. It should be pleasurable, thereby increasing
motivation to reach their goal. An example might be a new pair of
jeans a size smaller than their last or a relaxing massage.
Relaxation This technique is best used at the end of a session. It
allows the clients to relax in order to minimise the muscular
stress caused by anxiety during the session. It could be helpful to
have the clients focus on their breathing techniques or conduct
slow stretching during a recovery session.
Self-talk This method involves having the clients focus on the
positive aspects of the task or breaking the task down into smaller
stages. This is a useful technique to use in a group exercise class
to music.
Vicarious experience
This method involves making comparisons with someone who has
achieved success by doing the same task or following the same
program as the client.
Introduction to motivational psychology
Definition
• Motivation is a term that refers to a process that elicits,
controls, and sustains certain behaviours.
• Motivation is a group of phenomena that affect the nature of an
individual’s behaviour, the strength of that behaviour, and the
persistence of that behaviour.
• Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation driven by an interest
or enjoyment in the task itself, enjoyment that exists within the
individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation is based on taking pleasure in an activity rather than
working towards an external reward.
• Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in
order to attain an outcome, one that then contradicts intrinsic
motivation. An example may be a gym member who exercises to obtain
a beach body. The primary goal is to lose weight and reduce inches.
You find little to no pleasure in working out.
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Each of these different perspectives have been explained as
follows:
• Psychodynamic perspective – Freud’s perspective was that
motivation has a biological basis. He believed that there are two
central drivers that promote motivation, those drivers’ being sex
and aggression. The sex drive is inclusive of love, lust, and
intimacy whereas aggression includes blatantly aggressive or
sadistic impulses as well as desires to control other people and
the environment (Burton, 2015, p. 367). There is now however a move
away from Freud’s original view point of sex and aggression and
towards two new concepts for motivation, those being wishes and
fears. Freud further demonstrated the unconscious aspects of
motivation. Unconscious motivation has now been proven, with people
being able to self-report unconscious and conscious motives.
• Behaviourist perspective – This perspective explains that humans
are motivated to produce behaviours that are rewarded by the
environment and to avoid behaviours that are punished (Burton,
2015, p. 369). The drive-reduction theories that are based on the
concept of homeostasis, an innate ability the body has to maintain
a steady balance or equilibrium. For example, as a biological need
occurs, i.e. for water or food, the body needs to give rise to a
drive – or an internal state of tension. The organism is then
motivated to satisfy the need. The behaviour is then modified to
achieve this goal and subsequently the drive is reduced, once the
need has been satisfied the balance will be restored to normal. The
primary drives to stimulate this homeostatic process are:
• Cognitive – This perspective places an alternative view point on
motivation. The theory of expectancy-value has been proposed. This
theory combines motivation with the value that individuals place on
an outcome and the extent to which they believe that they can
achieve it. In addition, goal setting theories also sit under the
cognitive approach to motivation and often focus on goals, which is
defined as the desired outcome established through social learning.
The self-determination theory shows that people have innate needs
for competence, autonomy, and relatedness and, when these needs are
met, intrinsic motivation.
• Humanistic – This perspective provides an alternative approach to
motivation, which was advanced by Abraham Maslow (1962, 1970).
Humanistic psychologist emphasised that dignity, individual choice,
and self-worth all play a key role in human behaviour. The
humanistic approach used a hierarchy of needs and indicates that
low-level needs, such as basic survival, must be achieved before
higher-level needs can guide a person’s behaviour. At the highest
level of needs is self-actualisation, which are motives to express
oneself and grow or to actually achieve one’s potential (Burton,
2015, p. 373).
1.
What people want to do (the goal they want to achieve) and
2.
How strongly they want to do it (Burton, 2015, p. 367).
Hunger Thirst Sex
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Arousal Techniques
It is important for fitness instructors to realise that arousal can
affect levels of performance in
different ways. There are four types of theories that attempt to
explain how stress can affect
performance. In order to get the most out of your clients, you may
wish to consider some of
these when planning a group session. The four theories are
summarised in the following table.
Theory Explanation
Catastrophic model theory
Suggests that if a person’s anxiety levels remain low, their
performance will be optimum at their medium level of arousal. A
rise in anxiety levels would have a negative effect on
performance.
Drive theory States that the more aroused a person is, the better
their performance will be. When a need is satisfied, drive is
reduced and the person returns to a state of homeostasis and
relaxation.
Individual zones of optimal functioning theory
Takes into account that different people have different optimal
levels of arousal.
Inverted “U” Hypothesis A hypothesis applied to sport, stating that
performance improves as arousal levels increase to an optimum
point, beyond which it deteriorates. In practice, this means that a
little excitement and stress associated with competition or
performing in public can have a positive effect, but a situation
that is too stressful is detrimental.
There are a number of different techniques that can be used to
control or optimise arousal.
These are:
Anxiety management Anxiety is best managed through the guidance of
a professional such as a psychologist. Some techniques that may be
used include cognitive behaviour therapy, controlled breathing,
progressive muscles relaxation, and positive self-talk.
Progressive relaxation Progressive relaxation is the act of
consciously and progressively relaxing each part of the body. By
progressively relaxing the muscles in the body you can relieve the
muscular tension in the body and reduce feelings of stress and
anxiety.
Stress management Stress management is most effective when
undertaken with the guidance of a professional such as a
psychologist. Some techniques for managing stress are to identify
the sources of the stress, avoid stress inducing situations, time
management techniques, exercise, following a healthy
lifestyle.
Visualisation This method involves the person forming a mental
image of something. This will commonly involve the person
visualising themselves performing their desired behaviours to meet
their goal. Through this process the person may change their level
of arousal and overcome perceived barriers.
Self-talk This method involves having the client focus on the
positive aspects of the task and creating a positive internal
narrative to encourage oneself. It may be as simple as having
positive thoughts about one’s self or performance or it may involve
talking oneself through the process of performing a task.
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Strategies to promote exercise behaviour change for the fitness
professional
There are a range of strategies that Fitness Professionals can use
to promote behaviour change
and to increase client commitment and exercise adherence. The table
below describes commonly
used strategies.
Explanation
Contracting Contracting takes place between the fitness
professional and the client. The program and the training
expectations are defined and agreed upon by both parties. This
process increases accountability as the client’s role and
responsibilities has been clearly defined.
Prompts Prompts are general reminders that can be given to the
client to help them to stay on task. Prompts are usually used in
the initial stages of behaviour change with the view to fade the
prompts progressively.
Reinforcement A trainer can provide positive reinforcement to a
client to encourage a repeat of a desired behaviour. The
reinforcement could be as simple as praise or a thumbs up that
encourages the client. This reinforces this behaviour and
encourages the client to repeat this desired behaviour.
Perceived choice To promote behaviour change and exercise adherence
a client must feel in control of their own choices. When planning
an exercise program it is important to involve the client to ensure
that they have input into the process and perceive that they have
chosen or agreed to the program that was set out.
Feedback Feedback is a powerful tool that can increase exercise
adherence. When a client receives positive feedback on their
performance it can be used as reinforcement of their behaviour and
can help improve self-esteem and self-worth. Negative feedback can
also be given but must be carefully delivered so that it is not
demotivating or demoralising for the client. However, the client
may appreciate negative feedback when it is given constructively.
For example, you may correct a client’s technique for an exercise
that was not being performed correctly. The client may appreciate
this feedback as it will allow them to perform the exercise
correctly in the future which will assist them to attain their
goals.
Rewards A reward is something tangible that can be given in
recognition of someone’s performance or achievement. For example a
client may love boxing. As a reward for achieving a training
milestone you may offer to run a boxing training session with the
client on the next session in place of the usual session
program.
Self-monitoring Self-monitoring is the process of monitoring one’s
own performance and progress. Clients can self-monitor their
progress by keeping track of their training. This may be done
through the use of a training diary in which the client can keep
track of their progress towards their goals.
Social Support Behaviour change can be encouraged through social
support. A social support network is commonly made up of family and
friends. This network of people are there to provide support and
encouragement towards the attainment of a goals or towards
behaviour change.
Decision Balance sheet
A decision balance sheet is a pros and cons list of a choice of the
options available. By analysing the pros and cons list it is much
easier for an individual to make an informed decision on the best
option to take. This can aid in exercise adherence by the client
weighing out the options and being fully aware of the consequences
or benefits of each option.
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Explanation
Physical setting It is important not to underestimate the influence
that the physical setting has on one’s motivation for behaviour
change. It is very easy to engage in a home exercise program but
this setting is often not motivating for many clients. By attending
a preferred setting such as a gym that has motivating music, social
engagement opportunities and an uplifting atmosphere one’s
adherence is improved.
Exercise variety For motivation and exercise adherence to be
optimal variety is necessary. The provision of a variety of
exercises, classes, equipment or locations can aid in the long term
adherence to behaviour change without boredom.
Personalised program to minimise discomfort and promote
enjoyment
Programs that are personalised to a client are the most optimal to
the clients exercise adherence. If the program is written to suit
their physical needs, likes and dislikes then there will be a
decreased likelihood of a relapse.
Group training Training with others in a group can benefit exercise
adherence in several ways. Other participants and the instructor of
the group can form part of one’s social support network. It can
also be beneficial for some clients to have set time to attend the
gym for a class. Accountability is also increased when a client is
aware that their absence from a class may be noticed and thus are
more likely to stick to their schedule.
Health assessment and progress charts
Health assessments can yield quantitative data on a client’s
current health and fitness. This can be used to benchmark where a
client’s currently at and also used to gauge improvements through
reassessments in the future. The results from fitness assessments
can be recorded on progress charts which are a summary of
results.
Stress, anxiety, and theories of motivation linked to fitness
performance
Stress refers to the challenge a person has to adapt to
as posed by inner and outer demands. It is the most
common researched topic in health psychology due to
its impact on health outcomes. Overall stressful
experiences typically result in physiological and
emotional responses that produce cognitive and
behaviour changes to accommodate and cope with
the stress.
physiological and psychological aspects. Walter Canon describes the
fight or flight response to
danger that occurs in an organisms. This mechanism results in the
activation of the sympathetic
nervous system and a subsequent spike in adrenalin, thereby causing
an increase in blood
pressure, heart rate, and respiration. If the danger does not
disappear, then the organism
remains in this state of fight or flight. This subsequently results
in deterioration in health as the
body tries to keep up with the demands of this response. Canon’s
research identified a pattern
that he termed the general adaptation syndrome, which consists of
three phases. They are
explained in the following table.
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Alarm phase:
This phase is mediated by activation of the sympathetic nervous
system causing release of two hormones derived from the adrenal
glands, adrenaline and noradrenaline. These hormones allow the body
to survive during extreme circumstances by redirecting its
function. For example, oxygen consumption, glucose, respiratory
rate, and the flow of circulation are directed to the central
organs (heart, brain, and adrenals) whereas digestion and other
functions, which are considered less important, have reduced input
of blood supply and nervous system activity. The response of
cortisol is slower and longer acting and functions primarily to
provide additional glucose from fat and protein breakdown, it
increases the pain response, and reduces inflammatory responses.
This allows the body to handle a range of extreme circumstances,
including physical activity, infections, and emotional
crises.
Resistance phase:
Once the stress has gone, the alarm phase generally restores to
normal and the individual returns to a state of equilibrium.
However, if the stress is prolonged or severe, then the equilibrium
state will not be returned and exhaustion is the likely
outcome.
Exhaustion phase:
As the stress continues and homeostasis cannot be achieved, then
deleterious health outcomes generally occur. Prolonged stress can
lead to hypertension, diabetes, cancer, and endometriosis. It is
important to remember that, to a large extent, it is the
individual’s perception and response to stress that determines the
degree of impact it has on our health.
One thing that might not be stressful for one person may be very
stressful for someone else. Stress management techniques can be an
invaluable part of treatment, and with the many alterations in
hormonal function and a range of mind body exercise, they can also
be very beneficial in addressing long term stress.
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Anxiety
Anxiety, like sadness, is a normal response. The anxiety response
is thought to be a very primitive
response in mammals, and many of the symptoms are exaggerations of
underlying process’s that
prepare the animal for fight or flight (Burton, 2015, p. 628).
Anxiety disorders are recognised
clinically as the following:
• Generalised anxiety disorder – An ongoing state of excessive
anxiety lacking any clear reason or focus.
• Social anxiety disorder – Fear of being with and interacting with
other people.
• Panic disorder – Sudden attacks of overwhelming fear occur in
association with marked somatic symptoms, such as sweating,
tachycardia, chest pains, trembling and choking. Such attacks can
be induced even in normal individuals by the infusion of sodium
lactate, and the condition appears to have a genetic
component.
• Phobias – Strong fears of specific objects or situations, e.g.
snakes, open spaces, flying.
• Post-traumatic stress disorder – Anxiety triggered by recall of
past stressful experiences.
• Obsessive compulsive disorder – Compulsive ritualistic behaviour
driven by irrational anxiety, e.g. fear of contamination.
(Rang, H.F., 2012, p. 531).
The exact reason people develop anxiety disorders is not completely
understood, but the main
connecting factors are fear and worry, the neurobiology of which
has had much research. The
main controller of fear in the brain is the amygdala, a small
almond-shaped region on the base of
the brain. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, which plays
an important role in emotional
control. It has connections to the thalamus, hypothalamus,
prefrontal cortex, and other regions
of the brain that are involved in complex behaviours, known as the
executive functions, such as
social control and personality.
In general anxiety disorders, patients show an increase in cerebral
metabolic activity, which is
thought to lead to increased neural activity and thus to an anxious
feeling. Along with the
amygdala’s connections with the locus coeruleus, emotions of fear
and an autonomic response
are generated, e.g. heart rate increase and rapid breathing. In a
stress response, the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) is also activated though
interactions with the
hypothalamus caused by the release of neurohormones, like cortisol,
adrenaline and
noradrenaline.
•Increased blood pressure
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generated through different functional centres of the brain
connecting in feedback loops known
as the cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical circuits. These circuits
are instrumental in impulsivity and
compulsivity behaviours. The caudate is involved in learning and
memory whereas the orbital
frontal cortex controls decision-making. It is through the actions
of these circuits that the fear
response is processed.
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Burton, Westen, and Kowalski. (2015). Psychology Australian and New
Zealand Edition. 3rd Ed,
Wiley.
Dishman, R.K., Heath, G.W., and Lee, I.M. (2013). Physical Activity
Epidemiology. 2nd Ed, Human
Kinetcis.
Justine, M., Azizan, A., Hassan, V., Selleh, Z., and Manaf, H.
(2013). Barriers to participation in
physical activity and exercise among middle-aged and elderly
individuals. Singapore Med J 54
(10): 50=81-586.