(Written in 1534 by St. Thomas More to his daughter, Margaret, from the Tower of London).

Introduction.A Man For All Seasons by Robert Bolt is a play about St. Thomas More who was beheaded for treason in 1535. He had refused to swear oaths of allegiance to King Henry VIII after the King had split from the Pope in Rome following Henry's declaration of the nullity of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. The play is a moving drama about the role and following of conscience, in the face of enormous opposition. Its dramatic force invites the audience to consider the centrality of conscience in making difficult decisions. Death was the price this martyr paid for following his conscience. According to More in the play we 'are sent to Paradise for doing according to ... conscience.' This article asks you to consider in detail the signifi-cance of conscience when making moral choices.

It is impossible to appreciate fully the methods used in moral deci-sion-making without thinking about what conscience is and how it might operate; its overriding authority as a moral guide is important both for those who profess a belief in God and for those who do not.

What Philosophers and Theologians have said about ConsciencePhilosophers and theologians throughout history have attempted to clarify the concept of conscience. Perhaps the most famous was St.Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274) who argued that it 'was the mind of man making moral judgments' and described it as containing two essential parts - synderesis and conscientia.

Synderesis entails the repeated use of what he termed 'right' rea-son (recta ratio) by which a person acquires knowledge of primary moral principles and which acknowledges as a first principle of con-duct, that right is to be done and evil avoided. Conscientia is the ac-tual ethical judgment or decision a person makes which leads to a particular course of action based upon those principles. Conscience, therefore, for Aquinas, is both able to distinguish right from wrong and to make decisions and judgements when a person is confronted with difficult moral situations. Aquinas offers a distinctively rational-istic account of conscience centred around the workings of the mind and the use of reason.

Other Christian writers have explored the nature and operation of conscience. The eighteenth-century Anglican priest and philosopher Joseph Butler (1692-1752), wrote that the most crucial thing which distinguished women and men from the animal world was the pos-session of the faculty of reflection or conscience. He stated in one of his Sermons that,

'There is a principle of reflection in men by which they distinguish between approval and disapproval of their own actions ... this prin-ciple in man ... is conscience.' Joseph Butler

Like Aquinas, he believed conscience could determine and judge the rightness or wrongness of different actions and thoughts. Con-science for Butler, also held a powerful position within human deci-sion-making because it 'magisterially exerts itself' spontaneously, 'without being consulted,' he wrote.

Therefore, there is something authoritative and automatic for this philosopher about the way conscience operates and comes to the fore when moral decisions have to be made. He ascribed to con-science the final say in moral decision-making, and while it allowed proper expression to all aspects of human nature (for example, ba-sic human desires), conscience, he said, governed and ordered such aspects and was the final moral authority.

'Had it strength, as it has right; had it power as it has manifest au-thority, it would absolutely govern the world,' Joseph Butler

Therefore, conscience for Butler stood for something in us which is at the very essence of our humanity since he acknowledged its vital place in human experience.

Another important point of Butler's was the identification of con-science with God. He believed conscience was a person's God-given guide to right conduct and its demands must therefore always be followed.

The nineteenth century theologian Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801-1890) also made some important comments about con-science. For example, in his letter to the Duke of Norfolk in 1885, he wrote that when a person follows conscience s/he is simultaneously, in some mysterious way, following a divine law. Conscience is 'a messenger' of God and it is God speaking to us when we feel this in-tuitive moral knowledge and make decisions in relation to its beck-onings. He argued that for Christians, conscience is more than sim-

ply 'a law of the mind,' since it springs from adivine origin and source.

The fourth century theologian St. Augustine of Hippo (334-430) agreed and similarly believed that conscience was to be identified with the voiceof God speaking to us. When we listen to its promptings, we are re-ally hearing the word of God whispering to us about what is right and what is wrong. It is God who illuminates the soul by which a person is charged with the desire to act in accordance with God's perfection and so be united with Him. St. Augustine urged all Chris-tians therefore, to be concerned about conscience and to consider it most seriously.

'Return to your conscience, question it... Turn inward, brethren, and in everything you do, see God as your witness,' St Augustine.

Butler's, Newman's and St. Augustine's accounts of conscience are much less rationalist than Aquinas's and rely on a more intuitionist approach, whereby people are able to sense or intuit what is right and wrong, because God reveals this to them personally.

Modern Understandings of Conscience.The Roman Catholic Church at its Second Vatican Council (1962-65) discussed the issue of conscience and agreed that there was a law inside each person which speaks to the individual heart. The em-phasis given here was on an understanding of conscience as a per-sonal and inner sense of right and wrong, deep in the core or 'sanc-tuary' of the person, but which operated like any law, and which held the person to obedience. One Council document, 'The Pastoral Constitution of the Church In the Modern World' stated that this law of the heart is in fact '... a law written by God. Toobey it is the very dignity of man; according to it he will be judged.'

Modern scholars have attempted to define what conscience is, sometimes in opposition to earlier emphases. Vincent MacNamara, for example, argues that it is misleading to describe conscience as `a voice' since it makes it sound like a special faculty or a piece of equipment which human beings possess, a separate thing inside the individual. This contemporary moral theologian claims it is much better to see conscience in terms of an attitude or an aware-ness that people have that there is a moral path to be followed through life and that true human living does not revolve around

profit and pleasure. MacNamara argues that the recognition individ-uals have that goodness and truth are important to all human be-ings is another way of describing conscience; he puts it like this:

'It is not so much that I have a conscience - a special piece of equip-ment - as that I am a conscience. That is how I am, that is how I find myself. That is a basic truth about life.'

This way of describing conscience is more rooted in ideas about the kind of people we are and how we 'see' the world.

This idea is associated with the work of Richard Gula, a contempo-rary American moral theologian. He is keen to stress the idea that conscience should not be understood in terms of laws to be fol-lowed (even if, as we have already said, these are inner personal laws), but rather in terms of how people understand the world. He argues that vision and choice are two key concepts which pertain to conscience. By this he means that how we understand and 'see' the world determines our moral choices and the operation of our con-science. The various communities which form our way of `seeing' the world also determine the way our conscience works.

Therefore, conscience is a way of 'seeing' and then responding through the choices we make, to the world in which we live.

Conscience as a Moral GuideCrucial questions we need to address when considering conscience are: how important is it as a moral guide and can it be relied upon? This brings us into discussion of two important areas. First, what au-thority or status should be given to individual conscience in moral decision-making and second, how is a person's conscience formed, so that it might be a dependable basis for making moral choices? I shall now deal with conscience as a moral guide.

Within the Christian tradition, conscience is given overriding and paramount status in moral decision-making. Conscience must al-ways be followed; a person is obliged to act in accordance with the dictates of conscience. St. Paul taught that conscience was located at the very core of the person and that it was within the centre of the soul where inner convictions were held and moral choices made. For example, in the letter of St. Paul to the Romans con-science is specifically referred to when writing about the Gentiles:

'They can demonstrate the effects of the law engraved on their hearts, to which their own conscience bears witness. '(Romans 2:15).

Acting according to conscience therefore, is the same thing as act-ing according to one's inner convictions; it involves an act of in-tegrity. St. Jerome (347-420) also gave importance to the operation of conscience, describing it as as an inner capacity in human beings to make judgements, as well as being a power of the soul. Con-science was a spark which always continued to flicker even when sin had occurred.

Aquinas also gave considerable weight to the role of conscience. He believed that not following the dictates of conscience was always wrong, because by not following it a person was ignoring what s/he believed to be true. He believed conscience was a deep sense of right and wrong which derived ultimately from God. Following one's conscience was like following the law of God and even when con-science was mistaken Aquinas believed that a person had a duty to follow it. He wrote:

'... when a reason which is in error proposes something as a com-mand of God, then to dismiss the dictate of reason is just the same as dismissing the command of God.' Thomas Aquinas

The Second Vatican Council also emphasised the need to follow the dictates of conscience. The Declaration on Religious Freedom states the following:

'In all his activity a man is bound to follow his conscience faithfully, in order that he may come to God, for whom he was created. It fol-lows that he is not to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his conscience.' Vatican II

Other world faiths have considered the role and importance of con-science. For example, in the Islamic religion, the term taqwa be-sides representing the moral basis of all human action, also refers to a notion of conscience which is embedded in all human beings and which is the means whereby knowledge is gained of moral re-sponsibilities to God and the wider society. In the Buddhist religion, stress is placed on the need for each individual to understand and act on the moral teachings of the Buddha only in the light of per-sonal experience and evaluation. Each taught moral rule must be made sense of within the heart of each individual, if it is to be effec-tive.

Conscience and mistakesHowever, following one's conscience is no guarantee that one is al-ways doing the right thing. It is sometimes possible to be mistaken about what is the right thing to do.

This brings us to the second question about the reliability of con-science. For example, many people believe a particular course of action to be right at one time in their lives and then change their minds about that action at a later stage. Aquinas is again helpful in addressing this problem. He argued that it is the duty of everyone to inform one's conscience and dispel ignorance. A person can only be blamed for deciding to do the wrong thing if her/his ignorance derives from culpable ignorance - in other words, if the individual did not do enough to get rid of any ignorance concerning the matterbefore making a decision. Aquinas gave this example to illustrate his point about real and apparent goods:

"If mistaken reason bids a man sleep with another man's wife, to do this will be evil if based on ignorance of a divine law he ought to know; but if the misjudgment is occasioned by thinking that the woman is really his own wife and she wants him andhe wants her, then his will is free from fault.'  Thomas Aquinas

Therefore, acting according to conscience for Aquinas, is not a guar-antee that a person is doing what is right; it ensures only that s/he will be morally blameless. But because it is more important that a person should be morally blameless than s/he should do what is ac-tually the right thing to do, conscience maintains its ultimate au-thority for the individual and must be followed at all times.

The Formation of ConscienceThis point made by Aquinas leads us naturally to the question of the formation of conscience. The contemporary Anglican scholar Ronald Preston, openly echoing Aquinas' position writes,

`... we have a duty to educate our conscience. If we make mistakes because we have not troubled to put our consciences to the school of Christ we are blameworthy. ... We do not face the burden of deci-sion naked and bereft.'  Ronald Preston

In other words, there are many external guides and pointers which help the individual conscience to make the right decision. To ac-quire an informed conscience is the responsibility of every person.

Preston's quotation also raises the important point about the rela-tionship between individual conscience and external authority. Many scholars believe that conscience can only be formed in dia-logue with other sources of moral wisdom. For Christians the Church is usually the most influential authority affecting decisions of con-science in moral decision-making. All Christian denominations have made statements on key moral issues facing the world (as have many of the other major world religions), and one of the most im-portant debates happening at the moment is about the relationship between individual decisions of conscience and authoritative state-ments made by religions on moral matters. Forexample, there are cases when individual Christians disagree with their own denomination's teaching about specific moral isssues. I am not suggesting here, of course, that there are no other heavily influential external authorities which affect moral decision-making. Many young people are acutely persuaded by their parents, peers or role-models and the Church might not be all that significant a factor when it comes to making moral choices.

Richard Gula makes an important point about this when he writes,

'As humans we consult our own experience as well as the experi-ence of family, friends, colleagues, and experts in the field which pertains to the area of judgement at hand. We analyse and test the stories, images, language, rituals, and actions by which the various communities in which we participate live the moral life. As Chris-tians we turn to the testimony of scripture, the religious convictions of our creeds, the lives of moral virtuosos, and the informed judg-ment of theologians past and present who helpedinterpret the traditions of Christian life.' Richard Gula

I think this quotation is helpful because it signals to both the secular and religious sources of moral support and influence people may rely on when making moral judgments. There is no easy answer which external authority might influence an individual's decision of conscience more than another.

Nevertheless, one of the most significant aspects of the authorita-tive place given to conscience in making moral choices is that ulti-mately a decision must be an individual's own decision. No matter how influential external agencies are, following one's conscience al-ways involves a personal evaluation. This is what separates the role of conscience in decision-making from other methods. Following the dictates of conscience demands following what springs from the unique perception and grasp of the situation as perceived by the in-

dividual. No-one can really be said to be following conscience if s/he does not possess the courage to work things out and decide for her/himself. The operation of conscience always entails the secret workings of theindividual heart as it prompts the individual to do this rather than that, to go that way rather than another, to say one thing rather than say another. Following one's conscience means making a per-sonal decision, in response to the stirrings of the heart, to the moral complexities the world confronts us with. It is an act of courage, in-tegrity and responsibility. Note St. Thomas More's words in Robert Bolt's play A Man For All Seasons, when he speaks about conscience and refuses to agree to King Henry VIII's divorce:

'When a man takes an oath, Meg, he's holding his own self in his own hands. Like water. (He cups his hands). And if he opens his fin-gers then - he needn't hope to find himself again. Some men aren't capable of this, but I'd be loath to think your father one of them.' A Man For All Seasons

Problems and Issues when Considering Con-scienceWe have stated that for Christians conscience is often regarded as the voice of God. However, this raises some serious dilemmas. For example, if we were always certain that what our conscience told us to do in any moral situation was in fact God's command, it could be argued that we would never err or make mistakes, since why would God tell us things which are false or misleading. But clearly people do make errors of moral judgement which they regret later. In an-swer to this, some might reply that God does speak to us, but that we have not built up a sufficiently sensitive conscience to hear God's voice clearly - this is our fault, not God's; for example, if we prayed enough, we might hear strongly the voice of God and know the right thing todo. However, the matter of equating conscience with the voice of God raises as many problems as it does answers.

For example, the issue of defining conscience as being God's voice speaking to us also implies that we know for certain what God com-mands of us. In difficult moral situations, no Christian is as sure as that and sometimes many Christians feel doubt and uncertainty when faced with difficult moral choices. Besides, even Christian de-nominations disagree on moral matters - deciding what is the right

thing to do is not always as clear-cut as `the voice of God' definition suggests.

Another important point is that many people who do not believe in God or follow a spiritual path readily claim that conscience is an im-poratnt matter to them. Such claims do not rely upon any notion of a divine being who, in some sense, regulates the moral order of the universe. For atheists, agnostics and humanists, conscience is a constitutive part of being human and there is no need to postulate the idea of a supernatural element being involved when moral deci-sions have to be made.

Conscience appears to be a universal phenomenon which every-body accepts as an important dimension of human moral living.

Most people also seem to agree that both reason and the emotions are involved in the workings of conscience and that it is a most nat-ural part of our human make-up, whether we are religious or not. When reason or the heart or both decide what ought to be done, we often feel emotionally drawn towards it, or even emotionally di-vided, if we partly shrink from doing it. Following one's conscience, therefore, often implies that the whole being, body, mind and heart, is involved, in some way, when making the decision. We can often feel 'pangs of conscience' after doing what we consider tobe the wrong thing or feelings of approval if we feel we have done the right thing. The modern moral theologian Enda McDonagh puts it like this,

'Conscience enables us to judge good and evil, reproaches us when we have done wrong, gives us peace when we have done well.'  Enda McDonagh

In this sense, conscience although a deep part of us, appears to ex-ist simultaneously as a separate entity, often standing over and against us as a judge or a supporter or even an umpire. For exam-ple, Milton in Paradise Lost wrote, 'And I will place within them as a guide, my umpire conscience.'

ConclusionConscience, then, plays a crucial part when we come to make moral decisions. As noted throughout this article, many theologians and philosophers have grappled with trying to define it and how it oper-ates. Christianity (and other world faiths) point to its central posi-tion as an authoritative guide as well as to the need to educate the

conscience in a responsible way. Thomas More was not alone in at-taching supreme importance to conscience as an innate power of moral knowledge. The topic, too, raises important questions about individual claims to know what is right in relation to external author-itative teachings. Following one's conscience, as we have seen, can call for individual acts of courage in the face of unnerving opposi-tion. In the present climate, when there is so much talk from politi-cians, educationalists and religious leaders about clarifying the dif-ference between right and wrong, the role of conscience must surely remain at the core of the debate, as centrally as some people believe it remains at the core of the human person.