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Q.1 Describe the four important functions performed by production/Operation Mananger

INTRODUCTION

Production/operations management is the process, which combines and transforms variousResources used in the production/operations subsystem of the organization into value addedProduct/services in a controlled manner as per the policies of the organization. Therefore, it isThat part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformation of a range of inputs intoThe required (products/services) having the requisite quality level.

The set of interrelated management activities, which are involved in manufacturing certainProducts, is called as production management. If the same concept is extended to servicesManagement, then the corresponding set of management activities is called as operationsManagement.

Means of production refer to the concept which combines the means of labor and the subject of labor. Means of labor simply means all the things which require labor to transform it. Subject of labor means the material to work on. Production, therefore, are the resources and equipment needed to come up with goods or service

CONCEPT OF PRODUCTION

Production function is that part of an organization, which is concerned with the transformationOf a range of inputs into the required outputs (products) having the requisite quality level. Production is defined as “the step-by-step conversion of one form of material into another form through chemical or mechanical process to create or enhance the utility of the product to the user.” Thus production is a value addition process. At each stage of processing, there will be value addition.

Edwood Buffa defines production as ‘a process by which goods and services are created’.Some examples of production are: manufacturing custom-made products like, boilers with aSpecific capacity, constructing flats, some structural fabrication works for selected customers,etc., and manufacturing standardized products like, car, bus, motor cycle, radio, television, etc.Fig. 1.1 Schematic production system

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IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Production and operations management concern with the conversion of inputs into outputs, usingPhysical resources, so as to provide the desired utilities to the customer while meeting the otherOrganizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adoptability. It distinguishes itself fromOther functions such as personnel, marketing, finance, etc., by its primary concern for ‘conversionBy using physical resources.’ Following are the activities which are listed under production and Operations management functions:

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1. Location of facilities2. Plant layouts and material handling3. Product design4. Production Planning and Controls

1. LOCATION OF FACILITIES

Location of facilities for operations is a long-term capacity decision which involves a long termCommitment about the geographically static factors that affect a business organization It is anImportant strategic level decision-making for an organization it deals with the questions such as‘Where our main operations should be based?’The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in building plant andMachinery. An improper location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in plantAnd machinery equipments. Hence, location of plant should be based on the company’s expansion

Plan and policy, diversification plan for the products, changing sources of raw materials and many other factors. The purpose of the location study is to find the optimal location that will results in the greatest advantage to the organization.

2. PLANT LAYOUT AND MATERIAL HANDLING

Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of facilities. It is the configuration of departments,Work centers and equipment in the conversion process. The overall objective of the plant layoutIs to design a physical arrangement that meets the required output quality and quantity mostEconomically.

According to James Moore, “Plant layout is a plan of an optimum arrangement ofFacilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handlingEquipments and all other supporting services along with the design of best structureTo contain all these facilities”.

‘Material Handling’ refers to the ‘moving of materials from the store room to the machineAnd from one machine to the next during the process of manufacture’. It is also defined as the‘Art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any form’. It is a specializedActivity for a modern manufacturing concern, with 50 to 75% of the cost of production. This costCan be reduced by proper section, operation and maintenance of material handling devices.Material handling devices increases the output, improves quality, speeds up the deliveries andDecreases the cost of production. Hence, material handling is a prime consideration in the

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Designing new plant and several existing plants.

3. PRODUCT DESIGN

Product design deals with conversion of ideas into reality. Every business organization has toDesign, develop and introduce new products as a survival and growth strategy. Developing theNew products and launching them in the market is the biggest challenge faced by the organizations.

The entire process of need identification to physical manufactures of product involves threeFunctions: marketing, product development, manufacturing. Product development translates theNeeds of customers given by marketing into technical specifications and designing the variousFeatures into the product to these specifications. Manufacturing has the responsibility of selecting

The processes by which the product can be manufactured. Product design and developmentProvides link between marketing, customer needs and expectations and the activities required toManufacture the product.

4. PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL

Production planning and control can be defined as the process of planning the production in advance, Setting the exact route of each item, fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item, to give Production orders to shops and to follow up the progress of products according to orders. The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First Plan Your Work and then Work on Your Plan’. Main functions of production planning and control includes Planning, routing, scheduling, dispatching and follow-up.

I. Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do It. Planning bridges the gap from where we are, to where we want to go. It makes it possible for things to occur which would not otherwise happen.

II. Routing may be defined as the selection of path which each part of the product will follow which is transformed from raw material to finished products? Routing determines the most Advantageous path to be followed from department to department and machine to machine till Raw material gets its final shape.

III. Scheduling determines the programmed for the operations. Scheduling may be defined as’ The fixation of time and date for each operation’ as well as it determines the sequence of Operations to be followed.

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Q.2 Define job design. Discuss the impact of job enlargement & job enrichment for designing the job.

Introduction

The nature of work and its organization has interested managers, economists and social scientists for as long as people have been employed by others to engage in productive activityManagers have largely been interested in maximizing output from available resources.

Job design can be define as “the process of putting together various elements to form a job, bearing in mind organizational and individual worker requirements, as well as considerations of health, safety, and ergonomics. The scientific management approach of Frederick Winslow Taylor viewed job design as purely mechanistic, but the later human relations movement rediscovered the importance of workers' relationship to their work and stressed the importance of job satisfaction” F.W. Taylor

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Trends in Job Design

1. Quality control as part of the worker's job2. Cross-training workers to perform multi -skilled jobs3. Employee involvement and team approaches to designing and organizing work4. Extensive use of temporary workers5. Organizational commitment to providing meaningful and rewarding jobs for all

employees

Development new approaches to job design

During and immediately after the Second World War American writers, particularly, were questioning the relationship between job and organization design and productivity.

It was being recognized that difficulties arise in the selection of personnel if only those able to tolerate and work well in simple, highly repetitive jobs are to be recruited.

Job Enlargement

As early as 1950 in the USA job rotation and job enlargement were being both advocated and tested as means for overcoming boredom at work with all its associated problems.

In an early case example IBM introduced changes to machine operators' jobs to include machine setting and inspection. In addition they introduced other wide-ranging changes in both the production system and the role of foremen and supervisors.

It is less than clear just how successful changes of this type have been in practice. Undoubtedly management in certain circumstances can benefit from the increased flexibility of the labor.

However, workers often expect higher payment to compensate for learning these other jobs and for agreeing to changes in working practices. The new jobs are often only a marginal improvement in terms of the degree of repetition, the skill demands and the level of responsibility; as a result workers have not always responded positively to such change. Job enlargement schemes may not be feasible, e.g. in motor vehicle assembly, without a major change in the production facilities.

The concepts of both job rotation and enlargement do not have their basis in any psychological theory. However, the next generation of attempts to redesign jobs emerging from the USA developed from the researches of Frederick Herzberg. During the 1950's and 1960's Herzberg developed his 'two factor' theory of motivation.

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Job Enrichment

In this theory he separated 'motivators' from 'hygiene' factors. The hygiene factors included salary, company policies and administration as well as supervision. They were seen as potential sources of dissatisfaction but not of positive motivation.

Another set of factors including achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, growth and the work itself were postulated as the 'real' motivators.

From this theory Herzberg developed a set of principles for the enrichment of jobs as follows:

removing some controls while retaining accountability; increasing personal accountability for work;

assigning each worker a complete unit of work with a clear start and end point;

granting additional authority and freedom to workers;

making periodic reports directly available to workers rather than to supervisors only;

the introduction of new and more difficult tasks into the job;

Encouraging the development of expertise by assigning individuals to specialized tasks.

Herzberg's Checklist

Herzberg's other major contribution to the development of ideas in the area of job design was his checklist for implementation. This is a prescription for those seeking success in the enrichment of jobs:

select those jobs where technical changes are possible without major expense; job satisfaction is low;

performance improvement is likely with increases in motivation;

hygiene is expensive;

examine the jobs selected with the conviction that changes can be introduced;

'green light' or 'brainstorm' a list of possible changes;

screen the list (red lighting) for hygiene suggestions and retain only ideas classed as motivators;

remove the generalities from the list retaining only specific motivators;

avoid employee involvement in the design process;

set up a controlled experiment to measure the effects of the changes;

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Anticipate an early decline in performance as workers get used to their new jobs.

Job enrichment, then, aims to create greater opportunities for individual achievement and recognition by expanding the task to increase not only variety but also responsibility and accountability. This can also include greater worker autonomy, increased task identity and greater direct contact with workers performing servicing tasks

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Q.3 what is the distinctive feature of job production as compared to mass and batch production systems

PRODUCTION SYSTEM

The production system of an organization is that part, which produces products of an organization.It is that activity whereby resources, flowing within a defined system, are combined and transformedIn a controlled manner to add value in accordance with the policies communicated by management.A simplified production system is shown above

The production system has the following characteristics:1. Production is an organized activity, so every production system has an objective.2. The system transforms the various inputs to useful outputs.3. It does not operate in isolation from the other organization system.4. There exists a feedback about the activities, which is essential to control and improveSystem performance

Classification of Production SystemProduction systems can be classified as Job Shop, Batch, Mass and Continuous ProductionSystems.

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JOB PRODUCTION

Job shop production are characterised by manufacturing of one or few quantity of productsDesigned and produced as per the specification of customers within prefixed time and cost. TheDistinguishing feature of this is low volume and high variety of products.A job shop comprises of general purpose machines arranged into different departments.Each job demands unique technological requirements, demands processing on machines in aCertain sequence.

CharacteristicsThe Job- production system is followed when there is:1. High variety of products and low volume.2. Use of general purpose machines and facilities.3. Highly skilled operators who can take up each job as a challenge because of uniqueness.4. Large inventory of materials, tools, parts.5. Detailed planning is essential for sequencing the requirements of each product, capacitiesFor each work centre and order priorities.

AdvantagesFollowing are the advantages of job shop production:1. Because of general purpose machines and facilities variety of products can be produced.2. Operators will become more skilled and competent, as each job gives them learning Opportunities.3. Full potential of operators can be utilized.4. Opportunity exists for creative methods and innovative ideas.

LimitationsFollowing are the limitations of job shop production:1. Higher cost due to frequent set up changes.2. Higher level of inventory at all levels and hence higher inventory cost.3. Production planning is complicated.4. Larger space requirements.

BATCH PRODUCTION

Batch production is defined by American Production and Inventory Control Society (APICS) “asA form of manufacturing in which the job passes through the functional departments in lotsOr batches and each lot may have a different routing.” It is characterized by the manufactureOf limited number of products produced at regular intervals and stocked awaiting sales.

CharacteristicsBatch production system is used under the following circumstances:1. When there is shorter production runs.2. When plant and machinery are flexible.3. When plant and machinery set up is used for the production of item in a batch and Change of set up is required for processing the next batch.4. When manufacturing lead time and cost are lower as compared to job order production.

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AdvantagesFollowing are the advantages of batch production:1. Better utilization of plant and machinery.2. Promotes functional specialization.3. Cost per unit is lower as compared to job order production.4. Lower investment in plant and machinery.5. Flexibility to accommodate and process number of products.6. Job satisfaction exists for operators.LimitationsFollowing are the limitations of batch production:1. Material handling is complex because of irregular and longer flows.2. Production planning and control is complex.3. Work in process inventory is higher compared to continuous production.4. Higher set up costs due to frequent changes in set up

MASS PRODUCTION

Manufacture of discrete parts or assemblies using a continuous process are called mass production.This production system is justified by very large volume of production. The machines are arrangedIn a line or product layout. Product and process standardization exists and all outputs follow theSame path.

CharacteristicsMass production is used under the following circumstances:1. Standardization of product and process sequence.2. Dedicated special purpose machines having higher production capacities and output rates.3. Large volume of products.4. Shorter cycle time of production.5. Lower in process inventory.6. Perfectly balanced production lines.7. Flow of materials, components and parts is continuous and without any back tracking.8. Production planning and control is easy.9. Material handling can be completely automatic.

AdvantagesFollowing are the advantages of mass production:1. Higher rate of production with reduced cycle time.2. Higher capacity utilization due to line balancing.3. Less skilled operators are required.4. Low process inventory.5. Manufacturing cost per unit is low.

LimitationsFollowing are the limitations of mass production:1. Breakdown of one machine will stop an entire production line.2. Line layout needs major change with the changes in the product design.3. High investment in production facilities.4. The cycle time is determined by the slowest operation

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Q.4 Write an essay on how to organize value engineering function in a tractor manufacturing firm

Value Engineering is a systematic method to improve the "Value" of goods and services by using an examination of function. Value, as defined, is the ratio of Function to Cost. Value can therefore be increased by either improving the Function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of Value Engineering that basic functions be preserved and not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing Value improvements.

Value Engineering is a   body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a system’s outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (Function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers.

Value Engineering uses rational logic (a unique "how" - "why" questioning technique) and the analysis of Function to identify relationships that increase Value. It is considered a quantitative method similar to the Scientific Method, which focuses on Hypothesis - Conclusion to test relationships, and Operations Research, which uses model building to identify predictive relationships.

VALUE ANALYSIS -- The Job Plan

Value Engineering is often done by systematically following a multi-stage Job Plan. IT IS   an 8-step procedure, called the Value Analysis Job Plan. Others have varied the Job Plan to fit their constraints.  One modern version has the following eight steps: PREPARATION INFORMATION ANALYSIS CREATION EVALUATION DEVELOPMENT PRESENTATION FOLLOW-UP

Four basic steps in the VALUE ANALYSIS Job Plan are:

Information gathering - This asks what the requirements are for the object. Function analysis, an important technique in value engineering, is usually done in this initial stage. It tries to determine what functions or performance characteristics are important. It asks questions like; what does the object do? What must it do? What should it do? What could it do? What must it not do? Alternative generation (Creation) - In this stage value engineers ask; what are the various alternative ways of meeting requirements? What else will perform the desired function? Evaluation - In this stage all the alternatives are assessed by evaluating how well they meet the required functions and how great will the cost savings be.

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Presentation - In the final stage, the best alternative will be chosen and presented to the client for final decision. VE follows a structured thought process to evaluate options.

Gather information1. What is being done now?      Who is doing it?      What could it do?      What must not to do?

Measure2. How will the alternatives be measured?      What are the alternate ways of meeting requirements?  What else can perform the desired function?

Analyze3. What must be done? What does it Cost?

Generate4. What else will do the job?

Evaluate5. Which Ideas are the best?6. Develop and Expand Ideas What are the impacts? What is the cost? What is the performance?7. Present Ideas Sell Alternatives

VALUE ENGINEERING

Value engineering is an approach to productivity improvement that attempts to increase the value obtained by a customer of a product by offering the same level of functionality at a lower cost.Value engineering is sometimes used to apply to this process of cost reduction prior to manufacture, while "value analysis" applies the process to products currently being manufactured.

Both attempt to eliminate costs that do not contribute to the value and performance of the product (or service, but the approach is more common in manufacturing). Value engineering, thus, critically examines the contribution made to product value by each feature of a design. It then looks to deliver the same contribution at lower cost. Different types of value are recognized by the approach .Use value relates to the attributes of a product which enable it to perform its function. Cost value is the total cost of producing the product. Esteem value is the additional premium price which a product can attract because of its intrinsic attractiveness to purchasers.

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Exchange value is the sum of the attributes which enable the product to be exchanged or sold. Although the relative magnitude of these different types of value will vary between products, and perhaps over the life of a product, VE attempts to identify the contribution of each feature to each type of value through systematic analysis and structured creativity enhancing techniques. Value engineering programs are best delivered by multi-skilled teams consisting of designers, purchasing specialists, operations personnel, and financial analysts.

Pareto analysis is often used to priorities those parts of the total design that are most worthy of attention. These are then subject to rigorous scrutiny. The team analyses the function and cost of those elements and tries to find any similar components that could do the same job at lower cost. Common results are a reduction in the number of components, the use of cheaper materials, or a simplification of the process

VALUE  ENGINEERING  CAN  BE  APPLIED  TO  A  TRACTOR  MANUFACTURINGFIRM  IN  THE  FOLLOWING  AREAS

1. TRACTOR DESIGN-make the design simple- Easy to use-reduce COMPLICATED / expensive parts.

2. TRACTORS RAW MATERIAL / PARTS PROCUREMENT-establish  the  demand  planning  system [ reduce the  fluctuations  in  production]-establish  the  inventories of  raw  materials [ reduce the  cost of  stock  holding]-establish  the  economic  order quantity

3. TRACTORS  PRODUCTION  PLANNING-establish   an  effective  / efficient  production  planning  system [ cost  savings]

4.TRACTORS  PRODUCTION-establish  a  lean  production  [ cost  effective]

5. TRACTORS   TOTAL QUALITY ASSURANCE.-set up  quality  assurance system  to  reduce  quality problems/ rejections][ cost  savings ]

6.TRACTORS  FINISHED  GOOD   INVENTORY-match  the  finished  stock  inventory  to  market   demand /  sales  requirements][  cost  saving  in  stock holding ]

7.TRACTORS   CUSTOMER  SERVICE-provide effective  customer  order processing/order service/timely  dispatch  to  customers.[Adds value to customers / reduces distribution cost]

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8.TRACTORS  AFTER  SALES  SERVICE-offer   warranty/ after  sales  service  to  customers [ adds   value to  the  product  and  increases   sales  ]

TRACTORS  MANUFACTURER   CAN   ADD  VALUE/ REDUCE  COSTBY  APPLYING   THE  VALUE  ANALYSIS -JOB  PLAN   TO  EACHOF  THE  ABOVE LISTED  8  STAGES  OF  TRACTORS  MANUFACTURING.

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Q.5 Explain how the system concept can be used in explaining the term waste, waste management and wastivity

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human activity, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, the environment or aesthetics. Waste management is also carried out to recover resources from it. Waste management can involve solid, liquid, gaseous or radioactive substances, with different methods and fields of expertise for each.

Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial, producers. Management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibility of the generator.

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Characteristic of waste management

1. Waste is a non-wanted, not avoided output with no Purpose.In this instance, waste is process-specific and can be avoided or minimized by changingThe process Performance. Most industrial processes that are aiming at a necessary andDesirable output leave behind undesired by-products that are called waste. Here, wasteManagement would refer to how to design, retrofit and operate the process, with the aimOf minimizing the overall wasting of material and energy. This problem also calls forExtending the designer’s responsibility to the .non-useful. By-product’s fate. A viableSolution could be looking for waste-trade possibilities: the waste of one process may be aValuable raw material for another.

2. Waste is a product that has fulfilled its single intended Purpose.The best examples for this category are packaging. Waste management in this situationWould mean the assumption of the responsibility of the product’s fate after it has fulfilledIt’s Purpose at the design phase. The domain procedural knowledge includes theFollowing: If the most probable fate is to end up in landfill, opt for lightweight, lowVolume or collapsible shape, flexible walls. If heading to material recovery, use materialsThat are the most economical to recycle. If incineration is planned, omit ingredients thatMay lead to toxic emissions, etc.

3. Waste is a product with unsatisfactory Performance.Most products have a certain life span. After that time they cease to be useful. WasteManagement refers to a product’s design stage and is associated with how to create goodsWith optimum lifetime, the use of ecological design, and how to design for assembly andDisassembly. Even if the whole product ceased to be useful, some parts of it can still beUtilized, etc. Material recycling and energy recovery activities also fall into this category.

4. Waste is a thing that its owner failed to use it for its PurposeThis problem raises ethical issues, which have been touched upon before. While there is aPossibility of controlling consumers by legislation, or by the use of motivation, the bestWay of influencing people is by raising awareness. Increasing their knowledge throughEducation, consumers become more conscious of their actions and learn theirResponsibilities, and possibilities, in environmental protection. No regulation can be asEffective as a well-informed, environmentally-conscious, ethical public.

Concept of Wastivity

An ideal or perfect system will be one that consumes just the right amount of resources, leaving no idle, unutilized (non recoverable) or lost resource, or any undesirable output. The concept of "wastivity" which is yet in the rudimentary stages may prove to be a good measure of performance, both at macro and micro levels, and will be helpful in the sound planning and monitoring of various systems at different levels of hierarchy.

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"Wastivity of any system is defined as the ratio of the waste to the input"?

Depending upon the level of waste under consideration the wastivity may be categorized as gross wastivity and net wastivity. The wastivity for each type of input indirectly assesses the productivity of each type of input. Both productivity and wastivity are complementary to each other, which bears in it the inherent cause-effect phenomenon. The cause, i.e. wastivity is checked, the effect, i.e. productivity, will automatically be improved.

The Functional Elements of Waste Management

The problems associated with the management of waste in today's society are complex and diverse in nature. For an effective and orderly management of wastes the fundamental aspects and relationships must be identified and clearly understood. The efficient WM comprises the guide identification of waste generated/caused, economic reduction, efficient collection and handling, optimal sense and recycling, and effective disposal of waste leaving no environmental problems. WM can thus be functionally classified into five basic elements, viz., generation, reduction collection, recycling and disposal. However, Waste Management (WM) should be viewed in totality considering the inter-relationship of basic functional elements/ systems as shown in Figure 4. One of the objectives of WM is to optimize these basic functional systems to provide the most efficient and economic solution, commensurate with the constraints imposed.

By considering each element separately it is possible to:

(i) Identify the fundamental aspects and relationships involved in each element (ii) Develop, wherever possible, quantifiable relationships for the purpose of making engineering comparisons, analysis and evaluation.

Socio-economic Benefits of Waste Management Programmes 1. Cheaper products due to increased productivity. Reduced scarcity of materials by way of

material conservations.2. Economic gains by salvaging waste materials.3. Introduction of newer products by recycling/reusing wastes.4. Relief from energy crisis.5. More hygienic, safe and pollution free environment. 6. Lesser public nuisance due to reduction in diseases. 7. Neat, clean and comfortable living conditions and higher standard of living.8. Reduced uncertainty, better prediction and control of natural calamities by nature

conservation.

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Conclusion

The need and importance of WM in the socio-economic system has been emphasized and the social implications of effective WM are highlighted. It is concluded that in order to create awareness in this regard the engineering curricula should incorporate some topics on systems approach to WM and its socio-economic implications. It is hoped that, if the professionals come out of the narrow conventional approach to WM and adopt a broader systems approach to WM, it will help in the development of a better socio-economic

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